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The ÝAlids
For Kaspar and Samuel
 The ÝAlids

The First Family of Islam, 750–1200

Teresa Bernheimer
© Teresa Bernheimer, 2013

Edinburgh University Press Ltd

22 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9LF
www.euppublishing.com

Typeset in Times Beyrut Roman by

3btype.com, and
printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 0 7486 3847 5 (hardback)

ISBN 978 0 7486 3848 2 (webready PDF)
ISBN 978 0 7486 8295 9 (epub)

The right of Teresa Bernheimer to be identified as author of this work

has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
Contents

Acknowledgements vii

1. Introduction 1
2. Genealogy, Money and the Drawing of Boundaries 13
3. Shifting Hierarchies and Emphasising Kinship: ÝAlid Marriage Patterns 32
4. The NiqÁba, the Headship of the ÝAlid Family 51
5. The ÝAlids as Local Nobility 71
6. Conclusion 87

Bibliography 91
Index 113
Acknowledgements

This book is a revised version of my DPhil dissertation, submitted to the Oriental

Institute in Oxford in October 2006. I reiterate my thanks to all those who supported
me then, in particular Chase Robinson, my supervisor throughout my graduate studies.
During my doctoral research and the revisions for this book, I profited much from a
number of visits to Princeton University and from the suggestions and comments by
Hossein Modarressi, Patricia Crone and Michael Cook. I benefited hugely from the
questions and discussions during the intensive course on ‘Sayyids and Sharifs: The
Kinsfolk of the Prophet in Muslim Societies’ taught by Kazuo Morimoto at Princeton in
March 2010. To Kazuo Morimoto I express my particular gratitude for so generously
sharing his knowledge on all aspects of T.Álibid genealogy and the kinsfolk of the Prophet,
and for giving me the opportunity to present my work in Tokyo in 2008 and 2009.
I am indebted to a number of colleagues for their kind advice and patience with
my ÝAlid questions: Asad Ahmed, Michael Bates, Karen Bauer, Tamima Bayhom-
Daou, Evrim Binbas, Mark Cohen, Amikam Elad, Arnold Franklin, Geert Jan van
Gelder, Robert Gleave, Sebastian Günther, Najam Haider, Gerald Hawting, Hugh
Kennedy, Etan Kohlberg, Arzina Lalani, Wilferd Madelung, Raffaele Mauriello,
Christopher Melchert, Roy Mottahedeh, Stephennie Mulder, Judith Pfeiffer, Marina
Pyrovolaki, Yossi Rapoport, Biancamaria Scaria Amoretti, Petra Sijpesteijn and Luke
Treadwell. John Parker commented on final chapters of the book, and Arezou Azad,
Marina Pyrovolaki and Bella Tendler-Krieger found references for me when I was
not near a good library.
Many thanks also to my colleagues at SOAS, University of London, especially
Ben Fortna, Nelida Fuccaro, Konrad Hirschler and George Lane, who have made
the entry into a ‘real’ academic career so enjoyable.
Many thanks to Nicola Ramsey and Eddie Clark at EUP for their support and
patience; to Damien Bove for the maps; and to Laura Booth for copy-editing. I am
particularly grateful to Hanna Siurua for her help with the index and invaluable sugges-
tions and corrections at the editing stage. Any remaining errors are, of course, my own.
An earlier version of Chapter 5 was published in Studia Islamica 2005, and some
of the material on marriage patterns appeared in an article entitled ‘Genealogy,
Marriage, and the Drawing of Boundaries among the ÝAlids (Eighth–twelfth
Centuries)’, in Kazuo Morimoto (ed.), Sayyids and Sharifs in Muslim Societies: The
Living Link to the Prophet (London/New York, 2012), pp. 75–91.
I thank my parents and sisters for their support in all matters. Especially and most
of all I thank Kaspar for all his help, and his unfailing optimism and encouragement.
This book is for you and Samuel.
1
Introduction

The respect and veneration accorded to the family of the Prophet Muḥammad are
unparalleled in Islamic society. Political or religious affiliations notwithstanding, the
Prophet’s family – most importantly his descendants through his daughter FÁt.ima
and his cousin ÝAlÐ b. AbÐ ÓÁlib, collectively known as the ÝAlids – were held in high
esteem even by those who rejected their claims to the leadership of the Muslim
community. Within the hierarchy of Islamic society, the ÝAlids were ‘a blood
aristocracy without peer’.1
Although they clearly occupied a privileged place among Muslims from the
earliest period of Islam, the social prominence of the Prophet’s kin was by no means
a foregone conclusion. In political as well as religious terms, those who became the
heirs and successors to the Prophet in the majority of Muslim communities were
generally not his descendants: Political authority came to be exercised by the caliphs
while religious leadership went to the scholars. Yet, despite their virtual exclusion
from the leadership of the Muslim communities, both politically and religiously, the
ÝAlids nevertheless became the one indisputable nobility of Islam.
This book provides the first social history of the ÝAlids in the crucial five centuries
from the ÝAbbÁsid Revolution to the SaljÙqs (second/eighth to sixth/twelfth
centuries). This period saw the formulation of many aspects still associated with the
special position of sayyid s and sharÐfs in Muslim societies, from their exemption
from some of the rules that governed ordinary Muslims to the development of
‘ÝAlidism’. In contrast to Shiʿism, defined as the political and religious claims made
by some members of the Prophet’s family or by others on their behalf, ÝAlidism is
characterised by a distinctly cross-sectarian reverence and support for the Prophet’s
family. As even a staunch Sunni like Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328) notes: ‘There is no
doubt that MuÎammad’s family (Ál MuÎammad ) has a right on the Muslim society
(umma) that no other people share and that they are entitled to an added love and
affection to which no other branches of Quraysh are entitled.’2
Because of the richness of the source material, this study focuses especially on

11 Richard Bulliet, The Patricians of Nishapur: A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History (Cambridge,
MA, 1972), p. 234.
12 Ibn Taymiyya, MinhÁj al-sunna al-nabawiyya, cited in Kazuo Morimoto, ‘Introduction’, in Kazuo
Morimoto (ed.), Sayyids and Sharifs in Muslim Societies: The Living Links to the Prophet (London/New
York, 2012), p. 2.
2 The ÝAlids

the eastern part of the Islamic world,3 although the Prophet’s family certainly attained
a position of similar distinction in other places as well.4 Their role and status varied
considerably not only over time but also at any given time and from place to place.
They could even seem contradictory: As some ÝAlids came to be revered as ShiÝite
imÁms, others became scholars in a Sunni school of law. Some supported the
ÝAbbÁsids while others were persecuted by them. Some were fabulously wealthy;
others were very poor. The ÝAlids were therefore by no means a homogeneous group.
The one important phenomenon that united them despite their differences was their
increasing sense of themselves as a distinct social force – as the First Family of Islam.
To trace and explain its development is the aim of this book.

Definitions
The fourth-/tenth-century genealogist AbÙ NaÒr al-BukhÁrÐ explains the kinship
relations between the Prophet’s descendants and the Arabs more generally in the
following way:
It should be noted that every FÁt. imÐ in the world is also an ÝAlawÐ; but not every
ÝAlawÐ is a FÁt.imÐ. Every ÝAlawÐ is a ÓÁlibÐ; but not every ÓÁlibÐ is an ÝAlawÐ. Every
ÓÁlibÐ is a HÁshimÐ, but not every HÁshimÐ is a ÓÁlibÐ. Every HÁshimÐ is a QurashÐ,
but not every QurashÐ is a HÁshimÐ. Every QurashÐ is an Arab, yet not every Arab a
QurashÐ.5

Throughout this book, I use the term ‘the ÝAlids’ – the English version of the
nisba ‘al-ÝAlawÐ’ – to mean the Prophet’s family, and in particular his descendants
through FÁÔima, the Íasanids and the Íusaynids. As al-BukhÁrÐ points out, this is
technically imprecise: ÝAlÐ had sons from wives other than FÁÔima, who are also
called ÝAlids. However, to use the term ‘FÁÔimÐ’ (or the anglicised ‘FÁÔimid’) in this
book would have been not only inconsistent with the bulk of previous scholarship but
also confusing: ‘FÁÔimid’ commonly refers not to the Prophet’s descendants but to the
dynasty that ruled in the Maghreb and later in Egypt from 297/909 until 567/1171.
Moreover, it would have excluded many relations of the Prophet who are not
strictly speaking his descendants but who are nonetheless included in the
phenomenon described in this book. The Íasanids and the Íusaynids were clearly
central to the emergence of the Prophet’s family as the First Family of Islam; theirs
was the ‘most noble lineage’, since al-Íasan and al-Íusayn, as children of ÝAlÐ and
FÁṭima, were related to the Prophet on both their mother’s side and their father’s – a
point repeatedly made in the sources.6 But other agnates of the Prophet, such as the

13 That is, the areas of today’s Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
14 For ‘sharÐfism’ as a mark of distinction and as a basis for authority in North African society, especially after
the fifth/eleventh century, see David Powers, Law, Society and Culture in the Maghrib, 1300–1500
(Cambridge, 2002), pp. 13–14 and 167–205.
15 AbÙ NaÒr al-BukhÁrÐ, Sirr al-silsila al-ÝAlawiyya, ed. MuÎammad S.Ádiq BaÎr al-ÝUlÙm (Najaf, 1962), p. 1.
16 Al-ThaÝÁlibÐ (d. 429/1038), LaÔÁÞif al-maÝÁrif, ed. P. de Jong (Leiden, 1867); English translation C. E.
Bosworth, The Book of Curious and Entertaining Information (Edinburgh, 1968), p. 79.
 Introduction 3

Figure 1.1 Family tree of the Prophet MuÎammad

other ÝAlids (descendants of ÝAlÐ’s other sons MuÎammad b. al-Íanafiyya, ÝUmar

and ÝAbbÁs), the ÓÁlibids (descendants of ÝAlÐ’s father, AbÙ ÓÁlib, through ÝAlÐ as well
as his other sons JaÝfar and ÝAqÐl) and even the HÁshimites (the clan that included the
ÓÁlibids and the ÝAbbÁsids) were part of the story as well. They came to be addressed
as sayyid s and sharÐf s, were recorded in the family registers and were part of the
pool of eligible marriage partners for the Prophet’s descendants.7
Our terminology is also consistent with the sources themselves, which are
frequently ambiguous, speaking of ÝAlids when they mean Íasanids and Íusaynids,
or when other ÓÁlibids are included. Of course, there were many attempts to define
the Prophet’s family (ahl al-bayt ) precisely, to determine exactly which kinship
groups could call themselves sayyid s and sharÐf s, and to establish who was entitled
to share in the varying privileges of membership. To give just one example: The
Egyptian scholar al-SuyÙÔÐ (d. 911/1505) defines the Prophet’s family widely as the
descendants of HÁshim and al-MuÔÔalib (thus including the ÝAbbÁsids) and discusses

17 Roy Mottahedeh has drawn attention to an important family of JaÝfarid sharÐfs in fourth-/tenth- and fifth-
/eleventh-century QazwÐn; see Roy Mottahedeh, ‘Administration in BÙyid QazwÐn’, in D. S. Richards
(ed.), Islamic Civilisation 950–1150 (Oxford, 1983), pp. 33–45. See also Ibn Funduq al-BayhaqÐ, TÁrÐkh-
i Bayhaq, ed. AÎmad BahmanyÁr (Tehran, 1938), p. 63 for a discussion of JaÝfarids as sayyids (actually
called ZaynabÐs because of their descent from Zaynab bt. ÝAlÐ).
4 The ÝAlids

in some detail the status of the ZaynabÐs, descendants of Zaynab, a daughter of

FÁÔima and ÝAlÐ. He concludes that even the ZaynabÐs, who played a prominent role
in Egypt in his time, are indeed sharÐfs, as members of the wider family of the
Prophet, and should be allowed to share in some of the endowments dedicated to its
support.8 Thus, definitions were by no means rigid, but shifting and dependent on the
particular context; even matrilineal descent could at times qualify for membership.
The ambiguity extends to the terms ‘sayyid ’ (pl. sÁda, sÁdÁt) and ‘sharÐf ’ (pl.
ashrÁf, shuraf Á Þ), the honorific titles by which many members of the Prophet’s family
came to be known. While these honorifics are often said to be specific – someone of
Íasanid descent is a sharÐf, and someone claiming a Íusaynid lineage is a sayyid 9
– for our period and geographical area (the eastern Islamic world) these distinctions
do not apply. Although ‘sayyid ’ is more common than ‘sharÐf ’ for Íasanids as well
as Íusaynids, both terms were used to address members of the Prophet’s family,
sometimes at the same time.10

Historical overview
The ÝAbbÁsid Revolution was a watershed in the history of the ÝAlid family. The
ÝAbbÁsids came to power in 133/750 through a revolution that had called for the
return of the caliphate to the family of the Prophet. The revolutionary slogan ‘the
chosen one from the family of MuÎammad’ (al-riÃÁ min Ál MuÎammad ) had been
broadly defined so as to be all of the BanÙ HÁshim, the wider clan of the Prophet that
included both the ÝAbbÁsids and the ÓÁlibids;11 once the ÝAbbÁsids were chosen,
however, many supporters of the revolution claimed to have expected the office of
the caliph to be filled by the other branch of the family, and a closer relative of the
Prophet – such as an ÝAlid. When it became clear that the ÝAbbÁsids had settled into
the caliphate, the ÝAlids as well as their various ShiÝite supporters began to sharpen
their identities, respectively as the true family and the true heirs of the Prophet.12
The first and the perhaps most serious challenge to ÝAbbÁsid authority came just
a few years after the revolution, early in the reign of the second ÝAbbÁsid caliph
18 JalÁl al-DÐn Al-SuyÙÔÐ, ‘al-ÝAjÁja al-zarnabiyya fÐ al-sulÁla al-Zaynabiyya’, in al-SuyÙÔÐ, al-ÍÁwÐ li-l-fatÁwÐ,
2 vols (Cairo, 1352/1933), vol. I I, pp. 31–4.
19 For more details, see C. van Arendonk and W. A. Graham, ‘SharÐf ’, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn
(henceforth E I2). How early the title ‘sayyid ’ came to be used for the Prophet’s family and whether it can
be linked to the emergence of the ÝAlids as a social force deserves more study; I am grateful to Najam
Haider for pointing this out.
10 Thus ‘al-sayyid al-sharÐf…’ or ‘al-sharÐf al-sayyid …’; see, for instance, AbÙ al-Íasan al-ÝUmarÐ al-
NassÁba (d. 450/1058), al-MajdÐ fÐ ansÁb al-ÓÁlibiyyÐn, ed. AÎmad al-MahdÁwÐ al-DÁmghÁnÐ (Qum, 1409),
p. 207.
11 P. Crone, ‘On the Meaning of the ÝAbbÁsid call to al-riÃÁ ’, in C. E. Bosworth (ed.), The Islamic World:
Essays in Honor of Bernard Lewis (Princeton, 1989), pp. 95–111, and P. Crone, God’s Rule: Government
and Islam (New York, 2004), pp. 72–3; on HÁshimite ShiÝism, see W. Madelung, ‘The HÁshimiyyÁt of al-
Kumayt and HÁshimÐ ShiÝism’, Studia Islamica 70 (1989), pp. 5–26.
12 For the development of ShiÝism in this period see now Najam Haider, The Origins of the ShÐÝa: Identity,
Ritual, and Sacred Space in Eighth-Century KÙfa (Cambridge, 2011).
 Introduction 5

Figure 1.2 The Middle East in the early ÝAbbÁsid period

al-ManÒÙr (r. 754–75). MuÎammad b. ÝAbdallÁh b. al-Íasan b. al-Íasan b. ÝAlÐ,

known as al-Nafs al-Zakiyya (the Pure Soul), rose up in Medina in 145/762–3, while
his brother IbrÁhÐm revolted in Basra shortly after.13 Despite a long period of
preparation – according to the sources, the movement had already begun in the late
Umayyad period, when MuÎammad’s father ÝAbdallÁh had played an important role
in preparing his son MuÎammad for the caliphate, calling him al-MahdÐ and securing
the oath of allegiance for him from a group of ÝAlids in Medina – the revolts were
quickly crushed. IbrÁhÐm was slightly more successful, managing briefly to establish
control over Basra, where he minted coins dated 145 AH (762–3 CE).14
The brothers’ revolt was significant in that it set for the first time one branch of
the Prophet’s family against another. As the fourth-/tenth-century historian al-
MasÝÙdÐ put it: ‘It caused a split between the descendants of al-ÝAbbÁs b. ÝAbd al-
Muṭṭalib and the family of AbÙ ÓÁlib; prior to this, their cause was one (wa-kÁna
qabla dhÁlika amruhum wÁÎid )’.15 In the decades that followed there were still some
ÝAlids who supported the ÝAbbÁsids, such as al-Íasan b. Zayd b. al-Íasan b. ÝAlÐ,

13 For a detailed discussion of the history and historiography of Nafs al-Zakiyya’s revolt, see Amikam Elad,
The Rebellion of MuÎammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya in 145/762: A Study of the Relations Between the Early
ÝAbbÁsÐs and the ÓÁlibÐ Factions (Leiden, forthcoming).
14 The QurÞÁnic verse written on IbrÁhÐm’s coins is sÙra XVI I:83, ‘Truth is come and falsehood is vanished.
Verily, falsehood is a vanishing thing’; see Nicholas Lowick, ‘Une Monnaie ÝAlide d’al-BaÒrah datée
de 145 H. (762–3 après J.-C.)’, Revue Numismatique, 6th ser., 21 (1979), pp. 218–24; SamÐr Shamma,
‘ArbaÝa darÁhim lihÁ TaÞrÐkh’, Yarmouk Numismatics, Yarmouk University Publication 4 (1992),
pp. 13–25.
15 Al-MasÝÙdÐ, MurÙj al-dhahab, ed. C. Pellat (Beirut, 1966–79), vol. IV, p. 22. Similarly, the MuÝtazilite
ÝAbd al-JabbÁr (d. 415/1025): ‘At that time [of the Revolution], the HÁshimites were united, without
disagreements or splits. The descendants of al-ÝAbbÁs, ÝAlÐ, and ÝAqÐl and JaÝfar, and all the other
HÁshimites, were in agreement. They only came to disagree when sovereignty passed to the ÝAbbÁsids, in
the days of AbÙ JaÝfar al-ManÒÙr, when well known events took place between him and his Ḥasanid
kinsmen’; quoted in Crone, God’s Rule, p. 89.
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mind the early impressions that had been made upon it by the
description of the golden age, which I here found realized?
The Lehigh about this place forms numerous short turns between
the mountains, and affords frequent falls, as well as below the falls
deep pools, which render this stream a most valuable one for mills of
any kind. Not many years before this date, my host was chosen by
the agent of the Lehigh Coal Company, as their mill-wright, and
manager for cutting down the fine trees which covered the
mountains around. He was young, robust, active, industrious, and
persevering. He marched to the spot where his abode now is, with
some workmen, and by dint of hard labour first cleared the road
mentioned above, and reached the river at the centre of a bend,
where he fixed on erecting various mills. The pass here is so narrow
that it looks as if formed by the bursting asunder of the mountain,
both sides ascending abruptly, so that the place where the
settlement was made is in many parts difficult of access, and the
road then newly cut was only sufficient to permit men and horses to
come to the spot where Jediah and his men were at work. So great,
in fact, were the difficulties of access, that, as he told me, pointing
to a spot about 150 feet above us, they for many months slipped
from it their barrelled provisions, assisted by ropes, to their camp
below. But no sooner was the first saw-mill erected, than the
axemen began their devastations. Trees one after another were, and
are yet, constantly heard falling, during the days; and in calm nights,
the greedy mills told the sad tale, that in a century the noble forests
around should exist no more. Many mills were erected, many dams
raised, in defiance of the impetuous Lehigh. One full third of the
trees have already been culled, turned into boards, and floated as
far as Philadelphia.
In such an undertaking, the cutting of the trees is not all. They have
afterwards to be hauled to the edge of the mountains bordering the
river, launched into the stream, and led to the mills over many
shallows and difficult places. Whilst I was in the Great Pine Swamp, I
frequently visited one of the principal places for the launching of
logs. To see them tumbling from such a height, touching here and
there the rough angle of a projecting rock, bouncing from it with the
elasticity of a foot-ball, and at last falling with awful crash into the
river, forms a sight interesting in the highest degree, but impossible
for me to describe. Shall I tell you that I have seen masses of these
logs heaped above each other to the number of five thousand? I
may so tell you, for such I have seen. My friend Irish assured me
that at some seasons, these piles consisted of a much greater
number, the river becoming in those places completely choked up.
When freshets (or floods) take place, then is the time chosen for
forwarding the logs to the different mills. This is called a Frolic.
Jediah Irish, who is generally the leader, proceeds to the upper leap
with his men, each provided with a strong wooden handspike, and a
short-handled axe. They all take to the water, be it summer or
winter, like so many Newfoundland spaniels. The logs are gradually
detached, and, after a time, are seen floating down the dancing
stream, here striking against a rock and whirling many times round,
there suddenly checked in dozens by a shallow, over which they
have to be forced with the handspikes. Now they arrive at the edge
of a dam, and are again pushed over. Certain numbers are left in
each dam, and when the party has arrived at the last, which lies just
where my friend Irish's camp was first formed, the drenched leader
and his men, about sixty in number, make their way home, find
there a healthful repast, and spend the evening and a portion of the
night in dancing and frolicking, in their own simple manner, in the
most perfect amity, seldom troubling themselves with the idea of the
labour prepared for them on the morrow.
That morrow now come, one sounds a horn from the door of the
store-house, at the call of which each returns to his work. The
sawyers, the millers, the rafters and raftsmen are all immediately
busy. The mills are all going, and the logs, which a few months
before were the supporters of broad and leafy tops, are now in the
act of being split asunder. The boards are then launched into the
stream, and rafts are formed of them for market.
During the summer and autumnal months, the Lehigh, a small river
of itself, soon becomes extremely shallow, and to float the rafts
would prove impossible, had not art managed to provide a supply of
water for this express purpose. At the breast of the lower dam is a
curiously constructed lock, which is opened at the approach of the
rafts. They pass through this lock with the rapidity of lightning,
propelled by the water that had been accumulated in the dam, and
which is of itself generally sufficient to float them to Mauch Chunk,
after which, entering regular canals, they find no other impediments,
but are conveyed to their ultimate destination.
Before population had greatly advanced in this part of Pennsylvania,
game of all descriptions found within that range was extremely
abundant. The Elk itself did not disdain to browse on the shoulders
of the mountains, near the Lehigh. Bears and the Common Deer
must have been plentiful, as, at the moment when I write, many of
both kinds are seen and killed by the resident hunters. The Wild
Turkey, the Pheasant and the Grouse, are also tolerably abundant;
and as to trout in the streams—Ah, reader, if you are an angler, do
go there, and try for yourself. For my part, I can only say, that I
have been made weary with pulling up from the rivulets the
sparkling fish, allured by the struggles of the common grasshopper.
A comical affair happened with the bears, which I shall relate to you,
good reader. A party of my friend Irish's raftsmen, returning from
Mauch Chunk, one afternoon, through sundry short cuts over the
mountains, at the season when the huckle-berries are ripe and
plentiful, were suddenly apprised of the proximity of some of these
animals, by their snuffing the air. No sooner was this perceived than,
to the astonishment of the party, not fewer than eight bears, I was
told, made their appearance. Each man, being provided with his
short-handled axe, faced about, and willingly came to the scratch;
but the assailed soon proved the assailants, and with claw and tooth
drove off the men in a twinkling. Down they all rushed from the
mountain; the noise spread quickly; rifles were soon procured and
shouldered; but when the spot was reached, no bears were to be
found; night forced the hunters back to their homes, and a laugh
concluded the affair.
I spent six weeks in the Great Pine Forest—Swamp it cannot be
called—where I made many a drawing. Wishing to leave
Pennsylvania, and to follow the migratory flocks of our birds to the
south, I bade adieu to the excellent wife and rosy children of my
friend, and to his kind nephew. Jediah Irish, shouldering his heavy
rifle, accompanied me, and trudging directly across the mountains,
we arrived at Mauch Chunk in good time for dinner. Shall I ever have
the pleasure of seeing that good, that generous man again?
At Mauch Chunk, where we both spent the night, Mr White, the civil
engineer, visited me, and looked at the drawings which I had made
in the Great Pine Forest. The news he gave me of my sons, then in
Kentucky, made me still more anxious to move in their direction,
and, long before day-break, I shook hands with the goodman of the
forest, and found myself moving towards the capital of Pennsylvania,
having as my sole companion a sharp frosty breeze. Left to my
thoughts, I felt amazed that such a place as the Great Pine Forest
should be so little known to the Philadelphians, scarcely any of
whom could direct me towards it. How much is it to be regretted,
thought I, that the many young gentlemen who are there so much
at a loss how to employ their leisure days, should not visit these wild
retreats, valuable as they are to the student of nature. How
differently would they feel, if, instead of spending weeks in
smoothing a useless bow, and walking out in full dress, intent on
displaying the make of their legs, to some rendezvous where they
may enjoy their wines, they were to occupy themselves in
contemplating the rich profusion which nature has poured around
them, or even in procuring some desiderated specimen for their
Peale's Museum, once so valuable and so finely arranged? But alas!
no: they are none of them aware of the richness of the Great Pine
Swamp, nor are they likely to share the hospitality to be found there.
Night came on, as I was thinking of such things, and I was turned
out of the coach in the streets of the fair city, just as the clock struck
ten. I cannot say that my bones were much rested, but not a
moment was to be lost. So I desired a porter to take up my little
luggage, and leading him towards the nearest wharf, I found myself
soon after gliding across the Delaware, towards my former lodgings
in the Jerseys. The lights were shining from the parallel streets as I
crossed them, all was tranquil and serene, until there came the
increasing sound of the Baltimore steamer, which, for some reason
unknown to me, was that evening later than usual in its arrival. My
luggage was landed, and carried home by means of a bribe. The
people had all retired to rest, but my voice was instantly recognised,
and an entrance was afforded to me.
 THE BIRD OF WASHINGTON.

Falco Washingtonii.
PLATE XI. Male.

It was in the month of February 1814, that I obtained the first sight
of this noble bird, and never shall I forget the delight which it gave
me. Not even Herschel, when he discovered the planet which bears
his name, could have experienced more rapturous feelings. We were
on a trading voyage, ascending the Upper Mississippi. The keen
wintry blasts whistled around us, and the cold from which I suffered
had, in a great degree, extinguished the deep interest which, at
other seasons, this magnificent river has been wont to awake in me.
I lay stretched beside our patroon. The safety of the cargo was
forgotten, and the only thing that called my attention was the
multitude of ducks, of different species, accompanied by vast flocks
of swans, which from time to time passed us. My patroon, a
Canadian, had been engaged many years in the fur trade. He was a
man of much intelligence, and, perceiving that these birds had
engaged my curiosity, seemed anxious to find some new object to
divert me. An eagle flew over us. "How fortunate!" he exclaimed;
"this is what I could have wished. Look, sir! the Great Eagle, and the
only one I have seen since I left the lakes." I was instantly on my
feet, and having observed it attentively, concluded, as I lost it in the
distance, that it was a species quite new to me. My patroon assured
me that such birds were indeed rare; that they sometimes followed
the hunters, to feed on the entrails of animals which they had killed,
when the lakes were frozen over, but that when the lakes were
open, they would dive in the daytime after fish, and snatch them up
in the manner of the Fishing Hawk; and that they roosted generally
on the shelves of the rocks, where they built their nests, of which he
had discovered several by the quantity of white dung scattered
below.
Convinced that the bird was unknown to naturalists, I felt
particularly anxious to learn its habits, and to discover in what
particulars it differed from the rest of its genus. My next meeting
with this bird was a few years afterwards, whilst engaged in
collecting crayfish on one of those flats which border and divide
Green River, in Kentucky, near its junction with the Ohio. The river is
there bordered by a range of high cliffs, which, for some distance,
follow its windings. I observed on the rocks, which, at that place, are
nearly perpendicular, a quantity of white ordure, which I attributed
to owls that might have resorted thither. I mentioned the
circumstance to my companions, when one of them, who lived
within a mile and a half of the place, told me it was from the nest of
the Brown Eagle, meaning the White-headed Eagle (Falco
leucocephalus) in its immature state. I assured him this could not
be, and remarked that neither the old nor the young birds of that
species ever build in such places, but always in trees. Although he
could not answer my objection, he stoutly maintained that a brown
eagle of some kind, above the usual size, had built there; and added
that he had espied the nest some days before, and had seen one of
the old birds dive and catch a fish. This he thought strange, having,
till then, always observed that both Brown Eagles and Bald Eagles
procured this kind of food by robbing the fish-hawks. He said that if
I felt particularly anxious to know what nest it was, I might soon
satisfy myself, as the old birds would come and feed their young
with fish, for he had seen them do so before.
In high expectation, I seated myself about a hundred yards from the
foot of the rock. Never did time pass more slowly. I could not help
betraying the most impatient curiosity, for my hopes whispered it
was a Sea Eagle's nest. Two long hours had elapsed before the old
bird made his appearance, which was announced to us by the loud
hissings of the two young ones, which crawled to the extremity of
the hole to receive a fine fish. I had a perfect view of this noble bird
as he held himself to the edging rock, hanging like the Barn, Bank,
or Social Swallow, his tail spread, and his wings partly so. I trembled
lest a word should escape from my companions. The slightest
murmur had been treason from them. They entered into my
feelings; and, although little interested, gazed with me. In a few
minutes the other parent joined her mate, and from the difference in
size (the female of rapacious birds being much larger), we knew this
to be the mother bird. She also had brought a fish; but, more
cautious than her mate, she glanced her quick and piercing eye
around, and instantly perceived that her abode had been discovered.
She dropped her prey, with a loud shriek communicated the alarm to
the male, and, hovering with him over our heads, kept up a growling
cry, to intimidate us from our suspected design. This watchful
solicitude I have ever found peculiar to the female:—must I be
understood to speak only of birds?
The young having concealed themselves, we went and picked up the
fish which the mother had let fall. It was a white perch, weighing
about 5½ lb. The upper part of the head was broken in, and the
back torn by the talons of the eagle. We had plainly seen her
bearing it in the manner of the Fish-Hawk.
This day's sport being at an end, as we journeyed homewards, we
agreed to return the next morning, with the view of obtaining both
the old and young birds; but rainy and tempestuous weather setting
in, it became necessary to defer the expedition till the third day
following, when, with guns and men all in readiness, we reached the
rock. Some posted themselves at the foot, others upon it, but in
vain. We passed the entire day, without either seeing or hearing an
eagle, the sagacious birds, no doubt, having anticipated an invasion,
and removed their young to new quarters.
I come at last to the day which I had so often and so ardently
desired. Two years had gone by since the discovery of the nest, in
fruitless excursions; but my wishes were no longer to remain
ungratified. In returning from the little village of Henderson, to the
house of Doctor Rankin, about a mile distant, I saw an eagle rise
from a small enclosure not a hundred yards before me, where the
Doctor had a few days before slaughtered some hogs, and alight
upon a low tree branching over the road. I prepared my double-
barrelled piece, which I constantly carry, and went slowly and
cautiously towards him. Quite fearlessly he awaited my approach,
looking upon me with undaunted eye. I fired and he fell. Before I
reached him he was dead. With what delight did I survey the
magnificent bird! Had the finest salmon ever pleased him as he did
me?—Never. I ran and presented him to my friend, with a pride
which they alone can feel, who, like me, have devoted themselves
from their earliest childhood to such pursuits, and who have derived
from them their first pleasures. To others I must seem to "prattle out
of fashion." The Doctor, who was an experienced hunter, examined
the bird with much satisfaction, and frankly acknowledged he had
never before seen or heard of it.
The name which I have chosen for this new species of Eagle, "The
Bird of Washington," may, by some, be considered as preposterous
and unfit; but as it is indisputably the noblest bird of its genus that
has yet been discovered in the United States, I trust I shall be
allowed to honour it with the name of one yet nobler, who was the
saviour of his country, and whose name will ever be dear to it. To
those who may be curious to know my reasons, I can only say, that,
as the new world gave me birth and liberty, the great man who
ensured its independence is next to my heart. He had a nobility of
mind, and a generosity of soul, such as are seldom possessed. He
was brave, so is the eagle; like it, too, he was the terror of his foes;
and his fame, extending from pole to pole, resembles the majestic
soarings of the mightiest of the feathered tribe. If America has
reason to be proud of her Washington, so has she to be proud of her
Great Eagle.
In the month of January following, I saw a pair of these eagles flying
over the Falls of the Ohio, one in pursuit of the other. The next day I
saw them again. The female had relaxed her severity, had laid aside
her coyness, and to a favourite tree they continually resorted. I
pursued them unsuccessfully for several days, when they forsook the
place.
The flight of this bird is very different from that of the White-headed
Eagle. The former encircles a greater space, whilst sailing keeps
nearer to the land and the surface of the water, and when about to
dive for fish falls in a spiral manner, as if with the intention of
checking any retreating movement which its prey might attempt,
darting upon it only when a few yards distant. The Fish-hawk often
does the same. When rising with a fish, the Bird of Washington flies,
to a considerable distance, forming, in its line of course, a very acute
angle with the surface line of the water. My last opportunity of
seeing this bird, was on the 15th of November 1821, a few miles
above the mouth of the Ohio, when two passed over our boat,
moving down the river with a gentle motion. In a letter from a kind
relative, Mr W. Bakewell, dated, "Falls of the Ohio, July 1819," and
containing particulars relative to the Swallow-tailed Hawk (Falco
furcatus), that gentleman says:—"Yesterday, for the first time, I had
an opportunity of viewing one of those magnificent birds, which you
call the Sea Eagle, as it passed low over me, whilst fishing. I shall be
really glad when I can again have the pleasure of seeing your
drawing of it."
Whilst in Philadelphia, about twelve months ago, I had the
gratification of seeing a fine specimen of this Eagle at Mr Brano's
museum. It was a male in fine plumage, and beautifully preserved. I
wished to purchase it with a view to carry it to Europe, but the price
put upon it was above my means.
My excellent friend Richard Harlan, M. D. of that city, speaking of this
bird in a letter dated "Philadelphia, August 19, 1830," says, "That
fine specimen of Washington Eagle, which you noticed in Brano's
museum, is at present in my possession. I have deposited it in the
Academy, where it will most likely remain." I saw the specimen
alluded to, which, in as far as I could observe, agreed in size and
markings exactly with my drawing, to which, however, I could not at
the time refer, as it was, with the whole of my collection, deposited
in the British Museum, under the care of my ever kind and esteemed
friend J. G. Children, Esq. of that Institution.
The glands containing the oil used for the purpose of anointing the
surface of the plumage were, in the specimen represented in the
plate, extremely large. Their contents had the appearance of hog's
lard, which had been melted and become rancid. This bird makes
more copious use of that substance than the White-headed Eagle, or
any of the tribe to which it belongs, excepting the Fish-hawk, the
whole plumage looking, upon close examination, as if it had received
a general coating of a thin clear dilution of gum-arabic, and
presenting less of the downy gloss exhibited in the upper part of the
White-headed Eagle's plumage. The male bird weighs 14½ lb.
avoirdupois, and measures 3 feet 7 inches in length, and 10 feet 2
inches in extent.

Falco Washingtonii.

Adult Male. Plate XI.

Bill shortish, very deep, compressed; upper mandible with the dorsal
outline forming the third of a circle, rounded above, sloping and
flattish on the sides, nearly straight with a slight obtuse process, on
the acute, overlapping edges, the tip deflected, trigonal, acute, at its
lower part perpendicular to the gap line; lower mandible convex in
its dorsal outline, with inflected acute edges, which are deflected at
the end. A naked cere, in the fore part of which are the oblong,
oblique, nearly dorsal, open nostrils, which have a process from the
anterior margin. Head rather large, flat above. Neck robust, of
ordinary length. Body ovate. Feet rather short, with the leg long, the
tarsus short, rounded, anteriorly covered with transversely narrow
scutella, posteriorly with large, laterally with small tuberculous
scales; toes robust, free, scutellate above, papillar and scabrous
beneath, with large tubercles; claws curved, rounded, marginate
beneath, very acute.
Plumage compact, imbricated, glossy; feathers of the head, neck
and breast narrow and pointed; of the back, breast and belly, ovate,
distinct, acute; the wing-coverts narrow, acute, compact. Space
between the beak and eye barish, being sparsely covered with
feathers consisting of a shaft, downy at the base, prolonged into a
hair. Eyebrow bare, and greatly projecting. Wings long, second quill
longest, first considerably shorter. Tail of ordinary length, rounded,
extending considerably beyond the tips of the wings, of twelve broad
acute feathers. Tarsus feathered one-third down.
Bill bluish-black, the edges pale, the soft margin towards the
commissure, and the base of the under mandible yellow. Cere
yellowish-brown. Lore light greenish-blue. Iris chestnut-brown. Feet
deep yellow; claws bluish-black. Upper part of the head, hind neck,
back, scapulars, rump, tail-coverts, and posterior tibial feathers
blackish-brown, glossed with a coppery tint. Throat, fore-neck,
breast and belly light brownish-yellow, each feather marked along
the centre with blackish-brown. Wing-coverts light greyish-brown,
those next the body becoming darker and approaching the colour of
the back. Primary quills dark brown, deeper on their inner webs;
secondaries lighter, and on their outer webs of nearly the same light
tint as their coverts. Tail uniform dark brown. Anterior tibial feathers
greyish-brown.
Length 3 feet 7 inches, extent of wings 10 feet 2 inches. Bill 3¼
inches along the back; along the gap, which commences directly
under the eye, to the tip of the lower mandible 3⅓, and 1¾ deep.
Length of wing when folded 32 inches; length of tail 15 inches;
tarsus 4½, middle 4¾, hind claw 2½.
The two stomachs large and baggy. Their contents in the individual
described were fish, fishes' scales, and entrails of various kinds.
Intestines large, but thin and transparent.
Passing over the affinity of this bird to the young of the White-
headed Eagle (Falco leucocephalus), which Wilson has described and
figured under the name of Sea Eagle (Falco Ossifragus, Linn.), I shall
institute a comparison between it and the true Sea Eagle or
Cinereous Eagle (Falco Albicilla), which bears so strong a
resemblance to the Bird of Washington, that by a superficial
observer they might be confounded, at least were he to view them
separately.
The White-tailed or Cinereous Eagle (Falco Albicilla of Linnæus), has,
when full grown, the bill and iris yellow, the general colour of the
upper parts pale greyish-brown, passing into wood-brown, the belly
and thighs chocolate-brown, some of the upper tail-coverts, and the
whole of the tail, white. In this state, it is sufficiently different from
our bird, at least in colouring, but the young has a different
appearance. In the bird just fully fledged, the bill is deep brown,
tinged with blue, its base and the cere greenish-yellow; the iris dark
brown; the feet gamboge-yellow; the head deep brown, the bases of
all the feathers of the body white; on the hind neck the whole
feathers white, excepting the ends which are deep brown; the upper
and middle back light brown, the tips umber; the lower back white,
with umber tips; the tail greyish at its origin, deep brown, with an
irregular brownish-white patch along the inner webs, the fore-neck
and upper breast brownish-white, spotted with umber, the tips being
of the latter colour; the belly pale brown, spotted with umber; the
thighs brown; the under tail-coverts whitish, tipped with deep
brown. In this state, and until nearly full grown, it has been
described as a distinct species, under the name of Sea Eagle or
Osprey (Falco Ossifragus, Linn.).
The principal changes which take place in regard to colour as the
bird advances, are these: the bill first becomes bluish-black, and
ultimately yellow, the cere becomes brighter, the iris assumes more
of yellow, the white at the base of the plumage gradually
disappears, the tail becomes lighter, the general colour of the
plumage at first darker, but ultimately paler. At the age of two years,
the only period when the bird much resembles ours, it is as follows:
—and here I shall make the description correspond in its
arrangement with that of the Bird of Washington, that the two may
be more satisfactorily compared.
The bill corresponds with that of our bird, only that it is not so deep,
and proportionally more elongated. The other circumstances
mentioned in the first paragraph of the description of the Bird of
Washington are the same in the Sea Eagle.
Plumage compact, imbricated, glossy; feathers of the head, neck
and breast, narrow and pointed; of the back, breast and belly, ovate,
distinct, acute; the wing-coverts ovate and pointed. Space between
the beak and eye barish, being sparsely covered with bristly
feathers. Eyebrow projecting and bare on the edge. Wings long,
fourth and fifth quills longest, the first considerably shorter. Tail of
ordinary length, rounded, of the same length as the closed wing,
and consisting of twelve broad acute feathers. Tarsus feathered one-
third down.
Bill bluish-black, brownish at the tip of the upper mandible, and
along the greater part of the under; yellowish at the edges of the
lower. Cere greenish-yellow. Lore of the same colour. Iris darkish
brown. Head and hind neck dark brown, the latter still marked with
white. Fore neck and breast brownish white, longitudinally marked
with deep brown. Upper parts in general pale brown, spotted with
deeper, some of the scapulars glossed with purple. Lower back
white, the tips umber. Tail-coverts brownish-grey. Base, outer webs
and tips of tail-feathers deep brown; inner webs and part of outer
near the tip brownish-white. Belly pale brown spotted with umber.
Primaries brownish-black, secondaries greyish-brown.
Length 3 feet, extent of wings 6 feet 9 inches; bill 3½ inches along
the back, 1⅕ deep.
All circumstances duly considered, the Bird of Washington stands
forth as the champion of America, sui speciei, and henceforth not to
be confounded with any of its rivals or relatives. If ornithologists are
proud of describing new species, I may be allowed to express some
degree of pleasure in giving to the world the knowledge of so
majestic a bird.
 THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.

Icterus Baltimore. Daud.

PLATE XII. Male in different states of Plumage, and Nest.

No traveller who is at all gifted with the faculty of observation, can

ascend that extraordinary river, the Mississippi, in the first days of
autumn, without feeling enchanted by the varied vegetation which
adorns its alluvial shores:—The tall Cotton-tree descending to the
very margin of the stream, the arrow-shaped Ash mixing its
branches with those of the Pecan and Black Walnut, immense Oaks
and numerous species of Hickory, covering with their foliage the
densely tangled Canes, from amongst which, at every step, Vines of
various kinds shoot up, winding round the stems and interlacing
their twigs and tendrils, stretching from one branch to another, until
they have reached and overspread the whole, like a verdant canopy,
forming one solid mass of richest vegetation, in the fore ground of
the picture; whilst, wherever the hills are in view, the great
Magnolias, the Hollies, and the noble Pines, are seen gently waving
their lofty heads to the breeze.
The current becomes rapid, and ere long several of the windings of
the great stream have been met and passed, and with these new
scenes present themselves to the view. The forest at this place, as if
in doleful mourning at the sight of the havock made on its margin by
the impetuous and regardless waters, has thrown over her a ragged
veil, produced by the long dangling masses that spread from branch
to branch over the cypress trees. The dejected Indian's camp lies in
your sight. He casts a melancholy glance over the scene, and
remembers that he is no longer the peaceful and sole possessor of
the land. Islands, one after another, come in sight, and at every
winding of the stream you see boats propelled by steam ascending
the river, and others, without such aid, silently gliding with the
current.
Much might the traveller find to occupy his mind, and lead him into
speculations regarding the past, the present, and the future, were
he not attracted by the clear mellow notes, that issue from the
woods, and gratified by the sight of the brilliant Oriole now before
you. In solitudes like these, the traveller might feel pleased with any
sound, even the howl of the wolf, or the still more dismal bellow of
the alligator. Then how delightful must it be to hear the melody
resulting from thousands of musical voices that come from some
neighbouring tree, and which insensibly leads the mind, with
whatever it may previously have been occupied, first to the
contemplation of the wonders of nature, and then to that of the
Great Creator himself.
Now we have ascended the mighty river, have left it, and entered
the still more enchanting Ohio, and yet never for a day have we
been without the company of the Oriole. Here, amongst the
pendulous branches of the lofty Tulip-trees, it moves gracefully up
and down, seeking in the expanding leaves and opening blossoms
the caterpillar and the green beetle, which generally contribute to its
food. Well, reader, it was one of these pendulous twigs which I took
when I made the drawing before you. But instead of having cut it on
the banks of the Ohio, I found it in the State of Louisiana, to which
we shall return.
The Baltimore Oriole arrives from the south, perhaps from Mexico, or
perhaps from a more distant region, and enters Louisiana as soon as
spring commences there. It approaches the planter's house, and
searches amongst the surrounding trees for a suitable place in which
to settle for the season. It prefers, I believe, the trees that grow on
the sides of a gentle declivity. The choice of a twig being made, the
male Oriole becomes extremely conspicuous. He flies to the ground,
searches for the longest and driest filaments of the moss, which in
that State is known by the name of Spanish Beard, and whenever he
finds one fit for his purpose, ascends to the favourite spot where the
nest is to be, uttering all the while a continued chirrup, which seems
to imply that he knows no fear, but on the contrary fancies himself
the acknowledged king of the woods. This sort of chirruping
becomes louder, and is emitted in an angry tone, whenever an
enemy approaches, or the bird is accidentally surprised, the sight of
a cat or a dog being always likely to produce it. No sooner does he
reach the branches, than with bill and claws, aided by an astonishing
sagacity, he fastens one end of the moss to a twig, with as much art
as a sailor might do, and takes up the other end, which he secures
also, but to another twig a few inches off, leaving the thread floating
in the air like a swing, the curve of which is perhaps seven or eight
inches from the twigs. The female comes to his assistance with
another filament of moss, or perhaps some cotton thread, or other
fibrous substance, inspects the work which her mate has done, and
immediately commences her operations, placing each thread in a
contrary direction to those arranged by her lordly mate, and making
the whole cross and recross, so as to form an irregular network.
Their love increases daily as they see the graceful fabric approaching
perfection, until their conjugal affection and faith become as
complete as in any species of birds with which I am acquainted.
The nest has now been woven from the bottom to the top, and so
secured that no tempest can carry it off without breaking the branch
to which it is suspended. Remark what follows. This nest contains no
warming substance, such as wool, cotton, or cloth, but is almost
entirely composed of the Spanish moss, interwoven in such a
manner that the air can easily pass through it. The parents no doubt
are aware of the intense heat which will exist ere long in this part of
the world, and moreover take especial care to place their nest on the
north-east side of the trees. On the contrary, had they gone as far as
Pennsylvania or New York, they would have formed it of the warmest
and softest materials, and have placed it in a position which would
have left it exposed to the sun's rays, the changes in the weather
during the early period of incubation being sometimes so great
there, that the bird looks on these precautions as necessary to
ensure the life of its brood against intense cold, should it come,
while it knows that the heat in these northern latitudes will not be so
great as to incommode them. I have observed these sensible
differences in the formation and position of the nests of the
Baltimore Oriole, a great many times, as no doubt have other
persons. The female lays from four to six eggs, and in Louisiana
frequently rears two broods in a season. The period of incubation is
fourteen days. The eggs are about an inch in length, rather broadly
ovate, pale brown, dotted, spotted, and tortuously lined with dark
brown.
The movements of these birds as they run among the branches of
trees differ materially from those of almost all others. They cling
frequently by the feet in order to reach an insect at such a distance
from them as to require the full extension of their neck, body, and
legs, without letting go their hold. They sometimes glide, as it were,
along a small twig, and at other times move sidewise for a few
steps. Their motions are elegant and stately. Their song consists of
three or four, or at most eight or ten, loud, full, and mellow notes,
extremely agreeable to the ear.
A day or two before the young are quite able to leave the nest, they
often cling to the outside, and creep in and out of it like young
Woodpeckers. After leaving the nest, they follow the parents for
nearly a fortnight, and are fed by them. As soon as the mulberries
and figs become ripe, they resort to these fruits, and are equally
fond of sweet cherries, strawberries, and others. During spring, their
principal food is insects, which they seldom pursue on the wing, but
which they search for with great activity, among the leaves and
branches. I have seen the young of the first brood out early in May,
and of the second in July. As soon as they are fully able to take care
of themselves, they generally part from each other, and leave the
country, as their parents had come, that is, singly.
During migration, the flight of the Baltimore Oriole is performed high
above all the trees, and mostly during day, as I have usually
observed them alighting, always singly, about the setting of the sun,
uttering a note or two, and darting into the lower branches to feed,
and afterwards to rest. To assure myself of this mode of travelling by
day, I marked the place where a beautiful male had perched one
evening, and on going to the spot next morning, long before dawn, I
had the pleasure of hearing his first notes as light appeared, and
saw him search a while for food, and afterwards mount in the air,
making his way to warmer climes. Their flight is straight and
continuous.
This beautiful bird is easily kept in cages, and may be fed on dried
figs, raisins, hard-boiled eggs, and insects. When shot they will often
clench the twig so firmly as to remain hanging fast to it until
dislodged by another shot or a blow against the twig.
The plumage of the male bird is not mature until the third spring,
and I have therefore in my drawing represented the males of the
first, second, and third years. The female will form the subject of
another plate. The male of the first year was taken for a female by
my engraver, during my absence, and marked as such, although
some of the plates were corrected the moment I saw the mistake.
The Baltimore Oriole, although found throughout the Union, is so
partial to particular sections or districts, that of two places not
twenty miles distant from each other, while none are to be seen in
the one, a dozen pairs or more may be in the neighbourhood of the
other. They are fondest of hilly grounds, refreshed by streams.

Icterus Baltimore, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of the United States, p. 51.
Oriolus Baltimore, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 162.—Gmel. Syst. vol. i. p. 389.—Lath. Ind.
Ornith. vol. i. p. 180.
Baltimore Oriole, Oriolus Baltimore, Wilson, Amer. Ornith. vol. i. p. 23. Pl. i. fig. 3.
Male; and vol. vi. p. 83. Pl. 53. fig. 4. Female.
Baltimore Bird, Lath. Synops. vol. ii. p. 432.
Adult Male, three years old, in spring. Plate XII. Fig. 1.
Bill conical, slender, longish, compressed, a little curved, very acute,
with inflected acute margins; upper mandible obtuse above, lower
broadly obtuse beneath. Nostrils oval, covered by a membrane,
basal. Head and neck of ordinary size. Body rather slender. Feet of
ordinary length; tarsus a little longer than the middle toe; inner toe
little shorter than the outer; claws arched, compressed, acute, that
of the hind toe twice the size of the others.
Plumage blended, glossy. Wings longish, somewhat rounded, the
first quill being almost as long as the second and third, which are
the longest. Tail longish, rounded, and slightly forked, the feathers
rather narrow, and acuminate.
Bill and feet light blue. Iris orange. Head, throat, back part of the
neck, fore part of the back, quills and larger secondaries, black, as
are the two middle tail-feathers, and the base of all the rest. The
whole under parts, the lesser wing-coverts, and the posterior part of
the back, bright orange, deeply tinged with vermilion on the breast
and neck. The tips of the two middle tail-feathers, and the terminal
ends of the others, of a duller orange. Quills, excepting the first,
margined with white.
Length 7¾ inches, extent of wings 12; bill ⅚ along the ridge, 11⁄12
along the gap; tarsus ¼, toe 1.

Male, two years old, in spring. Plate XII. Fig. 2.

The distribution of the colours is the same as in the adult male, but
the yellow is less vivid, the upper mandible is brownish-black above,
and the iris is light-brown.

Young Male, one year old, in spring. Plate XII. Fig. 1.

The bill is dark brown above, pale blue beneath. Iris brown. Feet
light blue. The general colour is dull brownish-yellow, tinged with
olive on the head and back. The wings are blackish-brown, the quills
and large coverts margined and tipped with white. The lesser
coverts are olivaceous, the tail destitute of black, and the under
parts paler than in the adult, without any approach to the vivid
orange tints displayed on it.
Length 7½ inches.

The Tulip-Tree.

Liriodendron tulipifera, Willd. Sp. Plant. vol. ii. p. 1254. Pursh, Flora Americ. p. 332.
Mich. Abr. Forest. de l'Amer. Sept. t. iii. p. 202, Pl. v.—Polyandria Polygynia, Linn.
Magnoliæ, Juss.

This tree is one of the most beautiful of those indigenous to the

United States, and attains a height of seventy, eighty, or even a
hundred feet. The flowers are yellow and bright red, mixed with
green, and upwards of three inches in diameter. The leaves are
ovate at the base, truncato-bilobate at the end, with one or two
lobes on each side, all the lobes acuminate. It is generally
distributed, but prefers rich soils. Its bark is smooth on the
branches, cracked and fissured on the stems. The wood is yellow,
hard, but easily wrought, and is employed for numerous purposes,
particularly in the construction of houses, and for charcoal. The
Indians often form their canoes of it, for which purpose it is well
adapted, the trunk being of great length and diameter, and the wood
light. In different parts of the United States, it receives the names of
Poplar, White Wood, and Cane Wood.
 THE SNOW BIRD.

Fringilla hyemalis. Linn.

PLATE XIII. Male and Female.

This is one of our winter visitants from the north, which, along with
many others, makes its appearance in Louisiana about the beginning
of November, to remain a few months, and again, when spring
returns, fly off, to seek in higher latitudes a place in which to nestle
and rear its young. So gentle and tame does it become on the least
approach of hard weather, that it forms, as it were, a companion to
every child. Indeed, there is not an individual in the Union who does
not know the little Snow Bird, which, in America, is cherished as the
Robin is in Europe. I have seen it fed by persons from the "Old
Country," and have always been pleased by such a sight. During fine
weather, however, it becomes more timorous, and keeps aloof,
resorting to the briar patches and the edges of the fences; but even
then it is easily approached, and will suffer a person on horseback to
pass within a few feet of the place where it may be searching for
food on the road, or the rails of the fences on which it is perched.
Although the Snow Birds live in little families, consisting of twenty,
thirty, or more individuals, they seem always inclined to keep up a
certain degree of etiquette among themselves, and will not suffer
one of their kind, or indeed any other bird, to come into immediate
contact with them. To prevent intrusions of this kind, when a
stranger comes too near, their little bills are instantly opened, their
wings are extended, their eyes are seen to sparkle, and they emit a
repelling sound peculiar to themselves on such occasions.
They are aware of the advantages to be derived by them from larger
birds scratching the earth, and in some degree keep company with
Partridges, Wild Turkeys, and even Squirrels, for the purpose of
picking up such food as these animals may deem beneath their
notice. This habit is more easily observed in those which frequent
the farm-yards, where the domestic fowls prove regular purveyors to
them. The report of a gun, or the unexpected barking of a dog,
cause the little flock to rise and perch either on the fences or an
adjoining tree, where, however, they remain only for a few minutes,
after which they return to their avocations. They are particularly
fond of grass-seeds, to procure which they often leap up from the
ground, and dexterously seize the bending panicles.
It is a true hopping bird, and performs its little leaps without the
least appearance of moving either feet or legs, in which
circumstance it resembles the Sparrows. Another of its habits, also
indicative of affinity to these birds, is it resorting at night, during
cold weather, to stacks of corn or hay, in which it forms a hole that
affords a snug retreat during the continuance of such weather, or its
recurrence through the winter. In fine weather, however, it prefers
the evergreen foliage of the holly, the cedar or low pines, among
which to roost. Its flight is easy, and as spring approaches, and its
passions become excited by the increased temperature, the males
chase each other on wing, when their tails being fully expanded, the
white and black colours displayed in them present a quite
remarkable contrast.
The migration of these birds is performed by night, as they are seen
in a district one day, and have disappeared the next. Early in March,
the Snow Bird is scarcely to be seen in Louisiana, but may be
followed, as the season advances, retreating towards the mountains
of the middle districts, where many remain during the summer and
breed. Although I have never had the good fortune to find any of
their nests, yet I have seen them rear their young in such places,
and particularly in the neighbourhood of the Great Pine Forest,
where many persons told me they had often seen their nests.
During the period when the huckleberries are ripe, they feed
partially upon them, being found chiefly on the poorest mountain
lands, in which that shrub grows most abundantly. I have seen the
Snow Birds far up the Arkansas, and in the province of Maine, as
well as on our Upper Lakes. I have been told of their congregating
so as to form large flocks of a thousand individuals, but have never
seen so many together. Their flesh is extremely delicate and juicy,
and on this account small strings of them are frequently seen in the
New Orleans market, during the short period of their sojourn in that
district. Towards the spring, the males have a tolerably agreeable
song.
The twig on which you see them is one of the Tupelo, a tree of great
magnitude, growing in the low grounds of the state of Louisiana,
and on one of which I happened to shoot the pair represented in the
plate.

Fringilla hyemalis, Linn. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. p. 183.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of
Birds of the United States, p. 109.
Emberiza hyemalis, Linn. Syst. Nat. Ed. 12. p. 308.
Snow Bird, Fringilla nivalis, Wilson, American Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 129. Pl. 16. fig.
6.

Adult Male. Plate XIII. Fig. 1.

Bill short, rather small, conical, very acute; upper mandible a little
broader than the lower, very slightly declinate at the tip, rounded on
the sides, as is the lower, which has the edges inflected and acute;
the gap line straight, not extending to beneath the eye. Nostrils
basal, roundish, concealed by the feathers. Head rather large. Neck
short. Body full. Legs of moderate length, slender; tarsus longer
than the middle toe, covered anteriorly with a few longish scutella;
toes scutellate above, free, the lateral ones nearly equal; claws very
slender, greatly compressed, acute and slightly arched, that of the
hind toe little larger.
Plumage soft and blended. Wings shortish, curved, rounded, the
third and fourth quills longest, the second nearly as long, the first
little shorter. Tail long, forked, the lateral feathers curved outwards a
little towards the tip.
Bill white, tinged with red, dark coloured at the tip. Iris blackish-
brown. Feet and claws flesh-coloured. Head, neck, fore part of the
breast, back, wings and upper part of the sides, blackish-grey,
deeper on the head. Quills margined with whitish; tail of the same
dark colour as the wings, excepting the two outer feathers on each
side, which are white, as are the lower breast and abdomen.
Length 6¼ inches, extent of wings 9; beak ⅓ along the ridge, ½
along the gap; tarsus ¾, middle toe ½.

Adult Female. Plate XIII. Fig. 2.

The female differs from the male in being of a lighter grey, tinged on
the back with brown. Length 5½ inches.

The Large Tupelo.

Nyssa tomentosa, Wild. Sp. Pl. vol. iv. p. 1113. Pursh, Flora Americ. p. 177.
—— Grandidentata, Michaux, Arbr. Forest. de l'Amer. Sept. t. ii. p. 252. Pl. 19.
Polygamia Diœcia, Linn. Elœagni, Juss.

This species, which occurs in the Southern States only, growing in

low and marshy grounds, attains a height of from seventy to eighty
feet, with a diameter of eighteen or twenty inches some feet above
the ground, although at the very base it is sometimes five or six
feet. The leaves are five or six inches in length, elliptical, acuminate,
distantly toothed, when young very downy, but finally smooth. The
fruit is oblong, and of a dark purple colour. The wood is remarkably
light and soft.
 THE PRAIRIE WARBLER.

Sylvia discolor. Vieill.

PLATE XIV. Male and Female.

This little bird has no song, at least I never heard any from it,
excepting a delicate soft whirr, ejaculated whilst it stands erect on
the top of some rank weed or low bush. Its nest, which forms by far
the most interesting part of its history, is uncommonly small and
delicate. Its eggs I have uniformly found to be four in number, and
of a white colour, with a few brownish spots near the larger end. The
nest is sometimes attached to three or four blades of tall grass, or
hangs between two small sprigs of a slender twig. At first sight, it
seems to be formed like that of the Humming Bird, the external
parts being composed of delicate grey lichens and other substances,
and skins of black caterpillars, and the interior finished with the
finest fibres of dried vines. Two broods are reared each season.
In Louisiana I found this bird amongst our cotton fields, where it
easily procures the small insects and flies of which its food is entirely
composed. It is also found in the prairies along the skirts of the
woodlands. I have shot several within a few miles of Philadelphia, in
the Jerseys, in a large opening where the woods had been cut down,
and were beginning to spring up again. Its flight is light and short, it
making an effort to rise to the height of eight or ten yards, and
immediately sinking down to the grass or bushes. Whilst on the
ground, where it remains a good deal, it searches amongst the
leaves slowly and carefully, differing in this respect from all the true
warblers with which I am acquainted. They go singly, and far apart,
scarcely more than three or four being ever seen on an extent of
twenty or thirty acres. It is one of the first birds that arrives in spring
in Louisiana, and one of the first to depart, being rarely found after
the first week of September. I never saw it farther east than on the
ridges of the Broad Mountain, about twelve miles from Mauch
Chunk; but I have seen it on the Arkansas River, and high up on the
Mississippi, as well as along the southern borders of Lake Erie. The
young are apt to leave the nest if discovered when unable to fly, and
follow their parents through the grass to be fed.
The plant on which a pair of Prairie Warblers are represented, is
commonly called Buffalo Grass, and is found all along the edges of
our extensive prairies, in the barrens of Kentucky, and in Louisiana,
excepting in the swamps, it being more inclined to grow in dry soil
and stiff grounds.

Sylvia discolor, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 83.
Prairie Warbler, Sylvia minuta, Wils. Americ. Ornith. vol. iii. p. 87. Pl. 25. fig. 4.
Male.

Adult Male. Plate XIV. Fig. 1.

Bill of ordinary, length, slender, nearly straight, acute, as deep as
broad at the base, slightly declinate at the tip. Nostrils oval, basal,
lateral, half closed by a membrane. Head rather small, elongated.
Neck and body slender. Feet of ordinary length, slender; tarsus
longer than the middle toe, covered anteriorly by a few scutella, the
upper long; toes scutellate above, the inner free, the hind toe of
moderate size; claws slender, compressed, acute, arched.
Plumage soft, blended, tufty. A few short bristles at the base of the
upper mandible. Wings of ordinary length, the second quill longest.
Tail longish, rounded.
Bill brown, paler at the margin. Iris dark hazel. Feet and claws dark
brown. The upper parts are light olive, the back spotted with
brownish-red. The under parts, a line over the eye, and the cheeks,
dull ochrey yellow, the sides of the neck and breast spotted with
brownish-black. Lore, and a curved streak under the eye, black.
Quills and tail-feathers deep brown, the former margined with pale
yellow; larger coverts margined and tipped with the same, the
second row almost entirely yellow, the three outer tail-feathers with
a broad oblique band of white.
Length 5 inches, extent of wings 7; beak along the ridge ⅓, along
the gap ½; tarsus ⅔, middle toe ½.

Adult Female. Plate XIV. Fig. 2.

The female is nearly of the same size, and is coloured in the same
manner, but wants the black markings about the eye, and has only
two of the lateral tail-feathers white in the middle. The spots on the
sides of the neck and breast are also much paler.
Length 4¾.
 THE BLUE YELLOW-BACKED WARBLER.

Sylvia americana, Lath.

PLATE XV. Male and Female.

This pretty species enters Louisiana from the south as early as

spring appears, at the period when most insects are found closer to
the ground, and more about water-courses, than shortly after, when
a warmer sun has invited every leaf and blossom to hail the
approach of that season when they all become as brilliant as nature
intended them to be. The little fellow under your eye is then seen
flitting over damp places, such as the edges of ponds, lakes, and
rivers, chasing its prey with as much activity and liveliness as any
other of the delicate and interesting tribe to which it belongs. It
alights on every plant in its way, runs up and down it, picks here and
there a small winged insect, and should one, aware of its approach,
fly off, pursues it and snatches it in an instant.
I have placed a pair of these Warblers on a handsome species of
Iris. This plant grows in the water, and in the neighbourhood of New
Orleans, a few miles below that city, where I found it abundantly,
and in bloom, in the beginning of April. Several flowers are produced
upon the same stem. I have not met with it anywhere else, and the
name of Louisiana Flag is the one commonly given it.
As soon as the foliage of the forests begins to expand, the Blue
Yellow-backed Warbler flies to the tops of the trees, and there
remains during the season, gleaning amongst the leaves and
branches, in the same active manner as it employed when nearer
the ground, not leaving off its quick and short pursuit of small
insects on the wing. When on the branches, it frequently raises its
body (which is scarcely larger when stripped of its feathers than the
first joint of a man's finger) upwards to the full length of its legs and
toes, and is thus enabled to seize insects otherwise beyond its
reach.
Its flight is that of a true Sylvia. It ascends for a while in a very
zigzag manner, and returns suddenly to nearly the same place, as if
afraid to encounter the dangers of a prolonged excursion. I do not
think it ever flies to the ground. It hops sidewise as well as straight
forward, hangs like a Titmouse, and searches the cups of even the
smallest flowers for its favourite insects.
I am inclined to think that it raises two broods in a season, having
seen and shot the young on the trees, in Louisiana, early in May, and
again in the beginning of July. The nest is small, formed of lichens,
beautifully arranged on the outside, and lined with the cottony
substances found on the edges of different mosses. It is placed in
the fork of a small twig, and so far towards the extremity of the
branches as to have forced me to cut them ten or fifteen feet from
it, to procure one. On drawing in the branch carefully to secure the
nest, the male and female always flew toward me, exhibiting all the
rage and animosity befitting the occasion. The eggs are pure white,
with a few reddish dots at the larger end, and were in two instances
four in number. It was several years before I discovered one of these
nests, so small are they, and so difficult to be seen from the ground.
This species is found throughout the United States, and may be
considered as one of the most beautiful of the birds of those
countries. It has no song, but merely a soft, greatly prolonged
twitter, repeated at short intervals. It returns southward, out of the
Union, in the beginning of October.

Sylvia americana, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 520.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds
of the United States, p. 33.
Yellow-backed Warbler, Lath. Synops. vol. iv. p. 440.
Blue Yellow-back Warbler, Sylvia pusilla, Wils. Americ. Ornith. vol. iv. p. 17. Pl. 28.
fig. 3. Male.

Adult Male. Plate XV. Fig. 1.

Bill longish, depressed at the base, nearly straight, tapering to a
point. Nostrils basal, oval, half concealed by the feathers. Feet of
ordinary length, slender; tarsus compressed, covered anteriorly with
a few long scutella, acute behind, longer than the middle toe; toes
scutellate above, free; claws arched, slender, compressed, acute.
Plumage blended, glossy. Wings longish, little curved, the first quill
longest. Tail slightly forked, of ordinary length, the twelve feathers
rather narrow and obtuse. A few longish bristles at the base of the
upper mandible.
Bill brownish-black above, yellow beneath. Iris dark brown. Feet and
claws dusky. Front and lore black. Head and back part of the neck
bright rich blue, including the eye, above and beneath which is a
slight streak of white. Back yellowish-green; rump pale blue. Quills
blackish, margined externally with bright blue, of which colour are
the wing-coverts, the tips of the first two rows of which are white,
forming two bands of that colour on the wings. Tail-feathers
blackish, the outer webs blue, a white spot on the inner webs of the
three outer, towards the end. Throat whitish, spotted with yellow; a
lunulated blackish spot on the lower neck in front; breast yellow,
spotted with orange; the rest of the under parts yellowish, fading
into white on the abdomen and under tail coverts.
Length 4⅙ inches, extent of wings 6½; bill along the ridge ⅓, along
the gap ½; tarsus ¾.

Adult Female. Plate XV. Fig. 2.

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