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 Pseudo-Differential Operators
Theory and Applications
15

Boris Plamenevskii
Oleg Sarafanov

Solvable Algebras
of Pseudodifferential
Operators
Pseudo-Differential Operators
Volume 15

Associate Editors
Guozhen Lu, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
Alberto Parmeggiani, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Luigi G. Rodino, Università di Torino, Torino, Italy
Bert-Wolfgang Schulze, Universität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Johannes Sjöstrand, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France
Sundaram Thangavelu, Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore, Bangalore, India
Maciej Zworski, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

Managing Editor
M. W. Wong, York University, Toronto, Canada

Pseudo-Differential Operators: Theory and Applications is a series of moderately priced

graduate-level textbooks and monographs appealing to students and experts alike. Pseudo-
differential operators are understood in a very broad sense and include such topics as
harmonic analysis, PDE, geometry, mathematical physics, microlocal analysis, time-
frequency analysis, imaging and computations. Modern trends and novel applications
in mathematics, natural sciences, medicine, scientific computing, and engineering are
highlighted.
Boris Plamenevskii • Oleg Sarafanov

Solvable Algebras of
Pseudodifferential Operators
Boris Plamenevskii Oleg Sarafanov
Department of Higher Mathematics Department of Higher Mathematics
and Mathematical Physics and Mathematical Physics
St. Petersburg State University St. Petersburg State University
St. Petersburg, Russia St. Petersburg, Russia

ISSN 2297-0355 ISSN 2297-0363 (electronic)

Pseudo-Differential Operators
ISBN 978-3-031-28397-0 ISBN 978-3-031-28398-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28398-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
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This book is published under the imprint Birkhäuser, www.birkhauser-science.com by the registered company
Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Pseudodifferential Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 The Kernel of a Pseudodifferential Operator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.4 Smoothing Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.5 Properly Supported Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.6 Pseudodifferential Operators in Generalized Function Spaces . . . . . 17
1.1.7 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.8 Asymptotic Expansions in the Classes S μ () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.9 The Symbol of Proper Pseudodifferential Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.10 Symbolic Calculus of Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.1.11 Change of Variables in Pseudodifferential Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
μ
1.1.12 Classes b (Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.1.13 The Boundedness of DO in L2 (Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.1.14 DO in Sobolev Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.1.15 Elliptic Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2 Meromorphic Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.2.1 Integral Transforms on a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.2.2 Canonical Meromorphic Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.2.3 The Kernel of a Canonical Pseudodifferential Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.2.4 Operations on Canonical Meromorphic Pseudodifferential
Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.2.5 General Meromorphic Pseudodifferential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.2.6 Change of Variables in Meromorphic Pseudodifferential
Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.3 C ∗ -algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.3.1 C ∗ -algebras and Their Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.3.2 Representations of C ∗ -algebras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.3.3 Spectrum of C ∗ -algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

v
vi Contents

1.3.4 Criteria for an Element of an Algebra to Be Invertible or to

Be Fredholm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.3.5 Continuous Field of C ∗ -algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.3.6 A Sufficient Triviality Condition for the Fields of
Elementary Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.3.7 Solvable Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.3.8 Maximal Radical Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.3.9 The Localization Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2 C ∗ -algebras of Pseudodifferential Operators on Smooth Manifolds

.

with Discontinuities in Symbols Along a Submanifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2.1 Algebras Generated by Pseudodifferential Operators with Smooth
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2 Algebras of Pseudodifferential Operators with Isolated Singularities
in Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.2.1 Algebras A and S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.2.2 Proof of the Inclusion C0 (R) ⊗ KL2 (S n−1 ) ⊂ S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.3 Auxiliary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.2.4 The Spectrum of Algebra S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2.5 The Spectrum of Algebra A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.3 Algebras of Pseudodifferential Operators with Discontinuities in
Symbols Along a Submanifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.3.1 The Statement of Basic Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.3.2 Algebras L(θ): Irreducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.3.3 Localization in the Algebra L(θ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3.4 The Spectrum of Algebra L(θ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.3.5 The Spectrum of the Algebra of Pseudodifferential
Operators with Symbols Discontinuous Along a Submanifold . . . . 116

3 Algebra of Pseudodifferential Operators with Piecewise Smooth

Symbols on a Smooth Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.1 Algebra A and Its Irreducible Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.1.1 Stratification of Manifold M. Algebra A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.1.2 The Irreducible Representations of the Algebra A
(Formulation of a Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.1.3 Proof of Theorem 3.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.2 The Spectral Topology of Algebra A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.2.1 Description of the Jacobson Topology (Formulation of the
Theorem). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.2.2 Proof of Theorem 3.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Contents vii

3.3 Solving Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

3.3.1 Construction of a Solving Series. Formulation of the Theorem. . . . 158
3.3.2 Proof of Theorem 3.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

4 Pseudodifferential Operators on Manifolds with Smooth Closed Edges . . . . . 167

4.1 Pseudodifferential Operators in Rm n ........................................... 168
4.1.1 Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.1.2 Pseudodifferential Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.1.3 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.1.4 Composition of do: Adjoint Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.1.5 Conditions for do to Belong to Classes 0−∞ and  −∞ . . . . . . . . . 180
4.1.6 Elliptic do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.2 Operators on Manifolds with Wedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.2.1 Admissible Diffeomorphisms of Subsets of Rm n .................... 185
4.2.2 Change of Variables in do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.2.3 Pseudodifferential Operators on a Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.2.4 W-manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.2.5 do on w-manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.3 Pseudodifferential Operators in Weighted Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.3.1 Boundedness of Proper do of Non-positive Order in the
Spaces L2,τ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.3.2 Pseudodifferential Operators in the Spaces Hτs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.3.3 Pseudodifferential Operators on Spaces with Weighted
Norms on w-Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

5 .C ∗ -Algebra of Pseudodifferential Operators on Manifold with Edges . . . . . . . 209

5.1 Classes  μ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2 C ∗ -Algebra Generated by Proper do. Local Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.3 Algebras L(θ, Rn ) and L(0, Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.3.1 A Special Representation of Generators of L(0, Rn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.3.2 Coincidence of Algebras L(θ, Rn ) and L0 (θ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.4 Localization in L(θ, K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.5 Localization in L(0, K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.6 Invariant Description of Local Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.7 The Spectrum of C ∗ -Algebra of Pseudodifferential Operators on
Manifold with Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Bibliographical Sketch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Introduction

Pseudodifferential operators (.DO) are widely used in the theory of partial differential
equations, mathematical physics, functional analysis, and topology. Several monographs
[9, 15, 18, 39, 42, 43] are devoted to such operators in the smooth situation (i.e., on smooth
manifolds and with smooth symbols). For a long time, “one-dimensional” singular integral
operators with discontinuous coefficients on composite contours have been playing an
important role in studying the boundary value problems on plain domains with non-smooth
boundary. These operators have been discussed from different points of view in [10,12,20],
etc. At present, there are also several monographs (for example, [17, 21, 35, 36]) dealing
with the .DO on manifolds of dimension .n ≥ 2 with singularities. This monograph has a
few intersections with [21]; it has no essential intersections with other books. To read this
monograph, it is desirable to have some familiarity with the smooth theory of .DO and
with .C ∗ -algebras. However, in the first introductory chapter, some necessary preliminaries
are given.
Now let us explain the subject of the book. In what follows, algebra and morphism mean
∗
.C -algebra and .∗-morphism, .BH denotes the algebra of all bounded operators in a Hilbert

space H , and .KH is the ideal of all compact operators in H . The spectrum .A  of algebra .A
is the set of all (equivalence classes of) irreducible representations of this algebra endowed
with a natural topology (the so-called Jacobson topology). Let .M be a smooth compact
manifold without boundary and let .A be the algebra generated in .L2 (M) by scalar .DO
with smooth symbols. We assume that the principal symbols of such .DO are defined
on the bundle of non-zero cotangent vectors, are homogeneous functions of degree zero
on every fiber, and belong to the class .C ∞ (S ∗ (M)), where .S ∗ (M) is the cospherical
bundle. As is known, the algebra .A contains the ideal .KL2 (M) and the quotient algebra
.A/KL2 (M) is commutative. The spectrum .(A/KL2 (M))
∧ (i.e., the space of maximal
∗
ideals) can be identified with the bundle .S (M). If .P ∈ A and . is the principal symbol
of the operator P , then the map

.(A/KL2 (M))∧ π → P (π ) := π[P ]

is implemented as the function .π → (π ) ∈ C; here, .[P ] is the equivalence class of

the operator P in the algebra .A/KL2 (M). The operator P is Fredholm if and only if
ix
x Introduction

.π[P ] = 0 for all .π ∈ (A/KL2 (M))∧ . (An operator .A ∈ BH is called Fredholm if its
range .R(A) is closed and the spaces .kerA and .cokerA are finite-dimensional.)
If the manifold .M or the symbols of .DO have singularities, then the quotient algebra
.A/KL2 (M) is non-commutative. Among its irreducible representations, there are infinite-

dimensional ones (as .dim M > 1). For .A ∈ A, the map

(A/KL2 (M))∧
. π → A(π ) := π[A]

is an analogue of the principal symbol. In contrast to the commutative case, not only can
scalars serve as .π[A] but also non-trivial operators in infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces.
The “principal symbol” still gives a criterion for an operator to be Fredholm: .A ∈ A is
Fredholm if and only if any operator .A(π ) = π[A] is invertible as .π ∈ (A/KL2 (M))∧ .
Thus, to apply this criterion, one must list all (equivalence classes of) irreducible
representations of the quotient algebra .A/KL2 (M) and to find implementations of these
representations. One of this book’s purposes is to describe the spectra of algebras generated
by .DO with discontinuous symbols (coefficients) on piecewise smooth manifolds.
For the algebra generated by .DO with smooth symbols on a smooth manifold, the
following relations hold:

{0} ⊂ KL2 (M) ⊂ A,

. A/KL2 (M) C(S ∗ (M)).

In the general situation, one can try to simplify the study of the (non-commutative) quotient
algebra .A/KL2 (M) by taking the additional quotient modulo some ideal .J ⊃ KL2 (M).
The resulting loss of information is not large if the algebra .J /KL2 (M) is comparatively
simple.

Definition An algebra .L is called solvable if there is a composition series .{0} = I−1 ⊂

I0 ⊂ · · · ⊂ IN = L of ideals .Ij , such that the successive quotients .Ij /Ij −1 consist
of continuous operator-functions with compact values; more precisely, if there is an
isomorphism

Ij /Ij −1
. C0 (Xj ) ⊗ KHj , j = 0, . . . , N < ∞,

where .Hj is a Hilbert space, .Xj is a locally compact Hausdorff space, and .C0 (Xj ) is the
algebra of continuous functions on .Xj tending to zero at infinity. A composition series
possessing such property is called solving, and the number N is called the length of the
solving composition series.

Thus, in the smooth situation, the series .{0} ⊂ KL2 (M) ⊂ A is solving, and its length
is 1. Let, for example, the algebra .A be generated by .DO with smooth symbols on a
smooth manifold and by operators of multiplication by functions a continuous everywhere
except at a fixed point .x0 . At that point, the coefficients may have discontinuities “of the
Introduction xi

first kind” (there exists .lim a(x) as .x → x0 that depends on the direction in which x
approaches .x0 ). The ideal .com A spanned by the commutators of the elements in .A is
larger than .KL2 (M). The algebra .A is solvable, and the (shortest) solving series is

{0} ⊂ KL2 (M) ⊂ com A ⊂ A,

.

while

. com A/KL2 (M) C0 (R) ⊗ KL2 (S m−1 ),

A/com A C(S ∗ (C)),

where .C is obtained by gluing the boundary (i.e., a sphere) to the manifold .M \ x0 .

A solving composition series allows us to determine the collection of symbols
.σ1 (A), . . . , .σN (A) for an operator A in a solvable algebra .L. The symbol .σj (A) is an

operator-valued function on the space .Xj . The invertibility of .σj (A), . . . , σN (A) at each
point is necessary and sufficient for the invertibility of A up to a summand in the ideal
.Ij −1 . Composition series can be useful for studying the groups .K∗ (L) of the operator

K-theory related to the algebra .L. In this book, we present solving series for considered
algebras; other questions mentioned in this paragraph are not discussed.
In the first part of the book, we study the algebras generated by pseudodifferential oper-
ators on a smooth manifold with continuous symbols and by operators of multiplication
by discontinuous coefficients. Thus, the initial objects, i.e. the generators of the algebras,
do not require special definitions in this situation.
The second part is devoted to operators on manifolds with (smooth non-intersecting)
“edges” of arbitrary dimensions (conical points are edges of dimension 0). On such
manifolds, we must begin with the definition of pseudodifferential operators. Here, we
introduce .DO of arbitrary order and study their properties in detail, then we describe the
spectrum of .C ∗ -algebras generated by the operators of zero order. In [29, 30], this theory
is developed for a wider class of “stratified” piecewise smooth manifolds (informally,
manifolds with intersecting edges). The results of these papers are not included in the
book.
Let us briefly describe the content of the chapters.
Chapter 1 is divided into three sections. Section 1.1 contains a standard introduction
into the smooth theory of “classical” .DO. In Sect. 1.2, the necessary facts about special
meromorphic .DO are listed. Here, we restrict ourselves by formulations, the proofs can
be found in the monograph [21]. The meromorphic .DO are used everywhere in the book;
they participate in the implementation of irreducible representations of the considered
algebras. Section 1.3 contains some facts about .C ∗ -algebras given without proofs (with
references to the monograph [3]) and several results presented earlier only in papers; these
results are accompanied by detailed proofs.
xii Introduction

In Chap. 2, we consider the algebra .A generated in the space .L2 (M) on a smooth
compact n-dimensional manifold .M by the operators of two classes. One of the classes
comprises zero order pseudodifferential operators with smooth symbols. The other class
consists of the operators of multiplication by functions (“coefficients”) that may have
discontinuities along a given submanifold .N . All the equivalence classes of irreducible
representations of .A are listed. If .0 < dim L < n − 1, then the algebra .A has, in addition
to the one-dimensional representations, two series of infinite-dimensional irreducible
representations; if .dim L = n − 1, then the representations in one of these series become
two-dimensional. The topology on the spectrum .A  is described, and the shortest solving
series is constructed; it coincides with the series of maximal radicals. This chapter is the
core of the book: although, in the next chapters, we consider more complicated algebras,
which can possess many distinct series of infinite-dimensional irreducible representations,
but any such series is in a sense analogous to one of the two mentioned series of
representations of the algebra .A.
In Chap. 3, the study of algebras of .DO with discontinuous symbols on a smooth
manifold is continued. As in Chap. 2, the algebra .A is spanned by .DO with smooth
symbols and by operators of multiplication on “coefficients” which now may have
discontinuities along a given set of submanifolds (with boundary) of different dimensions;
the submanifolds are allowed to have non-empty intersections. All equivalence classes of
irreducible representations are listed, the topology on the spectrum is described, and a
solving composition series is constructed. Chapter 3 is not used in Chaps. 4 and 5.
We start to study .DO on manifolds with smooth closed edges in Chap. 4. Here, we
have to start with the definition of pseudodifferential operators. A class of manifolds is
described, on which .DO of arbitrary order are introduced and general properties of
these operators are discussed. Shortly, this chapter generalizes the theory from Sect. 1.1
for manifolds with edges.
In Chap. 5, the spectrum of .C ∗ -algebras generated by zero order .DO is studied. Thus,
in Chaps. 4 and 5, the results of Chap. 2 are generalized for manifolds with smooth closed
edges.
In the body of the book, we restrict ourselves to the technical references. The detailed
references are collected in the Bibliographical sketch at the end of the book.
Preliminaries
1

This chapter presents preliminary information that is of use in the book. Section 1.1
contains an elementary introduction (with proofs) to the theory of .DO  s with smooth
symbols. This section is addressed to the reader having no knowledge of pseudodifferential
operators.
Section 1.2 is devoted to a special class of “meromorphic .DO  s” depending on
complex parameter. Such operators are involved in the implementation of .C ∗ -algebra
irreducible representations in the remaining chapters (except Chap. 4). Here, we restrict
ourselves to statements. The proofs can be found in [21].
In Sect. 1.3, a summary of some facts in the general theory of .C ∗ -algebras has been
given; the summary is accompanied by references to the monograph [3]. Moreover,
Sects. 1.3.6–1.3.9 contain results (with proofs) before only published in papers.

1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators

For .x ∈ Rn , we introduce .x = (1 + |x|2 )1/2 and denote by .Z+ the set of non-
negative integers and by .Zn+ the set of multi-indices .α = (α1 , . . . , αn ), where .αj ∈
Z+ . As it usually is, .∂ = ∂x = (∂/∂x1 , . . . , ∂/∂xn ) and .D = Dx = −i∂x =
(−i∂/∂x1 , . . . , −i∂/∂xn ).

1.1.1 Amplitudes

Let . be an open set in .Rn , which we will call a domain for brevity, and let .μ ∈ R.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

B. Plamenevskii, O. Sarafanov, Solvable Algebras of Pseudodifferential Operators,
Pseudo-Differential Operators 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28398-7_1
2 1 Preliminaries

Definition 1.1.1 A function .a ∈ C ∞ ( ×  × Rn ) is called an amplitude of order .μ (in

. × ), if for any compact .K ⊂  ×  and for all .α, β, γ ∈ Z+ there exists a constant
n

.C = C(α, β, γ , K) such that

|∂xα ∂yβ ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ )| ≤ Cξ μ−|γ | for (x, y, ξ ) ∈ K × Rn .

γ
. (1.1.1)

The collection of all .μ order amplitudes is denoted by .S μ (, ), or more simply, by .S μ .

We also set .S −∞ (, ) = μ S μ (, ) (the amplitudes of order .−∞) and .S(, ) =
 μ
μ S (, ). The following amplitude properties are evident.

1. For each .μ, the set .S μ is a complex linear space.

2. From .μ1 ≤ μ2 it follows that .S μ1 ⊂ S μ2 , so the amplitude order is not uniquely
determined.
3. Given .a ∈ S μ1 and .b ∈ S μ2 , .ab ∈ S μ1 +μ2 holds.
4. Given .a ∈ S μ , .∂xα ∂y ∂ξ a ∈ S μ−|γ | holds.
β γ


Example 1 Assume that . aα ∈ C ∞ ( × ). Then, .a(x, y, ξ ) = |α|≤μ aα (x, y)ξ α is
an amplitude of order .μ. In particular, for .μ = 0, the function .(x, y, ξ ) → a(x, y) with
∞
.a ∈ C ( × ) is an amplitude of order 0.

Example 2 Let a function .a ∈ C ∞ ( ×  × Rn ) be homogeneous of degree .μ ∈ C with

respect to .ξ for large .|ξ |, that is, .a(x, y, tξ ) = t μ a(x, y, ξ ), where .t ≥ 1 and .|ξ | ≥ 1.
Then .a ∈ S Re μ .

Example 3 For . μ ∈ R, the function .(x, y, ξ ) → ξ μ is the amplitude of order .μ.

Every space .S μ (, ) can be endowed with a locally compact topology. To this end,
for .a ∈ S μ with .μ > −∞, we set

pαβγ K (a) = sup{|∂xα ∂yβ ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ )|ξ |γ |−μ ; (x, y, ξ ) ∈ K × Rn },

(μ) γ
. (1.1.2)

where .α, .β, and .γ are any multi-indices and .K ⊂  ×  is an arbitrary compact. It is clear
(μ)
that .pαβγ K (a) is the minimal constant C satisfying (1.1.1). Formula (1.1.2) defines on .S μ
(μ)
the function .pαβγ K having all seminorm properties. The family of all such seminorms
makes .S μ into a Frechet space, that is, into a complete metrizable locally compact space.
The space .S −∞ is provided with the projective limit topology so that

aj → a in S −∞ ⇔ aj → a in S μ ∀ μ > −∞.
.

In what follows, we make use of the next simple assertions.

1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 3

(i) For any .μ1 , μ2 ∈ [−∞, +∞) there is a continuous bilinear mapping

S μ1 × S μ2  (a, b) → ab ∈ S μ1 +μ2 .
.

(ii) For any .α, .β, and .γ ∈ Zn+ and for .μ ∈ [−∞, +∞) there is a continuous mapping

S μ  a → ∂xα ∂yβ ∂ξ a ∈ S μ−|γ | .

γ
.

(iii) Given .μ1 < μ2 , the mapping .S μ1  a → a ∈ S μ2 is continuous.

(iv) Let .χ ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) for each .γ ∈ Zn+ satisfy .|∂ γ χ (ξ )| ≤ Cγ ξ −|γ | , that is, .χ is an
amplitude of order 0, independent of x and y. For every .ε > 0, we set .χε (ξ ) = χ (εξ ).
Assume also that .a ∈ S μ . Then,

χε a →ε→0 χ (0)a in S μ+1 .

.

We prove (iv). In view of (i), it suffices to verify that .χε → χ (0) in .S 1 , which means
  
. sup∂ γ χε (ξ ) − χ (0) ξ |γ |−1 →ε→0 0 ∀γ ∈ Zn+ . (1.1.3)
 
Assume that .γ = 0. Then, (1.1.3) follows from .χε (ξ ) − χ (0) ≤ C|ε ξ | ≤ Cεξ ,
where .C = sup |∇χ |. Suppose now that .γ = 0. Since .ε → 0, we can consider
.ε ∈ (0, 1). Then

 γ 
∂ χε (ξ ) − χ (0) ξ |γ |−1 = |(∂ γ χ )(ε ξ )|ε|γ | ξ |γ |−1 ≤
.

≤ Cγ ε ξ −|γ | ξ |γ |−1 ε|γ | ≤ Cγ ε;

we have used the relations

(1 + |ξ |2 )(|γ |−1)/2
ε ξ −|γ | ξ |γ |−1 ≤ ε ξ 1−|γ | ξ |γ |−1 =
. =
(1 + |ε ξ |2 )(|γ |−1)/2
 1 + |ξ |2 (|γ |−1)/2
= ε1−|γ | ≤ ε1−|γ | .
ε−2 + |ξ |2

Note that property (iv) remains valid when .S μ+1 changes for .S μ+δ with any positive
.δ. According to the property, every amplitude .a ∈ S
μ can be approximated in the

topology of .S μ+δ by amplitudes whose supports are compact with respect to .ξ .

4 1 Preliminaries

1.1.2 Pseudodifferential Operators

Denote by .Cc∞ () the subspace in .C ∞ () consisting of functions with compact supports.
By definition, .uj → u in .Cc∞ () if and only if .{supp uj } ⊂ K for a certain compact .K ⊂
 and .∂ α uj ⇒ ∂ α u on K for all .α. Recall also that .uj → u in .C ∞ () .⇔ .∂ α uj ⇒ ∂ α u
on each compact K for any multi-index .α.

Proposition 1.1.2 Assume that .a ∈ S(, ) and .u ∈ Cc∞ (). Then, the formula

v(x) =
. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ (1.1.4)

defines a function v in .C ∞ () (by the integral is meant an iterated integral).

Proof Let .K1 ⊂  be an arbitrary compact and let .K2 = supp u. We also set .Dx 2 =
1 − = 1 + (Dx21 + . . . + Dx2n ). Taking account of the equality

ei(x−y)ξ = Dy 2N ei(x−y)ξ ξ −2N ,

. N ∈ N,

we obtain

v(x) =
. ei(x−y)ξ Dy 2N (a(x, y, ξ )u(y))ξ −2N dydξ. (1.1.5)
Rn ×K2

Since .a ∈ S(, ), we have .a ∈ S μ (, ) with a certain .μ. From the amplitude
properties it follows that

|Dy 2N (a(x, y, ξ )u(y))ξ −2N | ≤ Cξ μ−2N ,

. (x, y, ξ ) ∈ K1 × K2 × Rn .

For large N such that .μ − 2N < −n, there holds the equality

. ξ μ−2N dydξ = mes K2 ξ μ−2N dξ < +∞.

Rn ×K2

Hence, for .x ∈ K1 the integrand in (1.1.5) has a summable majorant independent of x.

Therefore, integral (1.1.5) uniformly with respect to .x ∈ K1 converges and the function

.K1  x → ei(x−y)ξ Dy 2N (a(x, y, ξ )u(y))ξ −2N dydξ

Rn ×K2

≡ ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ

1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 5

is continuous. The compact .K1 has arbitrarily been chosen, so formula (1.1.4) defines
v ∈ C().
.

Now let .α be any multi-index. From (1.1.5), it formally follows

∂ α v(x) =
. ei(x−y)ξ Dy 2N (b(x, y, ξ )u(y))ξ −2N dydξ, (1.1.6)
Rn ×K2

where

α
b(x, y, ξ ) =
. (iξ )β ∂xα−β a(x, y, ξ )
β
β≤α

is an amplitude of order .μ + |α|. According to the first part of the proof, for .N > (μ +
|α| + n)/2, integral (1.1.6) converges uniformly with respect to .x ∈ K1 , while .K1 ⊂  is
any compact. This implies formula (1.1.6) and the inclusion .∂ α v ∈ C(). 


Integrating (“in the opposite direction”) the right-hand side of (1.1.6) by parts, we
obtain

∂ α v(x) =
. ∂xα (ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y)) dydξ.

Therefore, when calculating the derivatives of function (1.1.4), one can commute the
differentiation and integration.
Assume that .a ∈ S(, ). According to Proposition 1.1.2, the formula

Au(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ (1.1.7)

defines a linear operator .A : Cc∞ () → C ∞ (), which will sometimes be denoted by
.Op a.

Definition 1.1.3 An operator of the form (1.1.7) is called a pseudodifferential operator

(.DO) in the domain .. In the case of .a ∈ S μ (, ) and .μ ∈ [−∞, +∞), the number
.μ is called the order of .DO A. The collection of all .DO of order .μ is denoted by
−∞ () =
 
μ  () and .() =
μ
. (). We also set .
μ μ
μ  (). (Because of the
inclusion . 1 () ⊂  2 () for .μ1 ≤ μ2 , the .DO order is not uniquely determined.)
μ μ

Proposition 1.1.4 The bilinear mapping

S μ (, ) × Cc∞ ()  (a, u) → (Op a)u ∈ C ∞ ()

.

is continuous for any .μ ∈ [−∞, +∞).

6 1 Preliminaries

Proof Suppose that .aj → a in .S μ and .uj → u in .Cc∞ (). We have to show that
∞
.(Opaj )uj → (Opa)u in .C (). Because of

(Opaj )uj − (Opa)u = (Op(aj − a))uj + (Opa)(uj − u),

.

we can assume that at least one of the sequences .{aj } or .{uj } tends to zero. Then, we have
to verify .(Opaj )uj → 0 in .C ∞ ().
We set .vj = (Opaj )uj . Let .α be any multi-index and choose a number .N ∈ N such
that .μ + |α| − 2N < −n. When proving Proposition 1.1.2, we established that

∂ α vj (x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ σj (x, y, ξ ) dydξ,

where

σj (x, y, ξ ) = Dy 2N (bj (x, y, ξ )uj (y))ξ −2N ,

.

α
bj (x, y, ξ ) = (iξ )β ∂xα−β aj (x, y, ξ ).
β
β≤α

Each function .uj can be taken as a zero order amplitude independent of .(x, ξ ), while the
convergence .uj → u in .Cc∞ () implies that in .S 0 (, ). This and assertions (i)–(iii)
in 1.1.1 lead to

σj →j →∞ 0 in S μ+|α|−2N .
. (1.1.8)

Let .K1 ⊂  be any compact. Denote by .K2 (⊂ ) a compact containing each of the sets
supp uj . By virtue of (1.1.8),
.

|σj (x, y, ξ )| ≤ Cj ξ μ+|α|−2N ,

. (x, y, ξ ) ∈ K1 × K2 × Rn ,

where .Cj → 0 as .j → ∞. Hence

|∂ α vj (x)| ≤ Cj mesK2
. ξ μ+|α|−2N dξ, x ∈ K1 .

Since .μ + |α| − 2N < −n, the integral is finite. Therefore .∂ α v ⇒ 0 on .K1 . Because .α
and .K1 have arbitrarily been chosen, we obtain .vj → 0 in .C ∞ (). 


Corollary 1.1.5 For each fixed .a ∈ S(, ), there is the continuous mapping

Cc∞ ()  u → (Op a)u ∈ C ∞ ();

.
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 7

for each fixed .u ∈ Cc∞ (), there is a continuous mapping

S μ (, )  a → (Op a)u ∈ C ∞ ().

.

Corollary 1.1.6 Assume that .χ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) and .χ (0) = 1. For any .ε > 0 we set .χε (ξ ) =
χ (εξ ). Then
 
. Op (aχε ) u →ε→0 (Op a)u in C ∞ ()

for .a ∈ S(, ) and .u ∈ Cc∞ ().

Proof Let .μ be the order of the amplitude a. By virtue (iv) in 1.1.1, .aχε → a in .S μ+1 . It
remains to apply Corollary 1.1.5. 


Now, we show that .S(, )  a → Op a ∈ () is not a one-to-one mapping.

Proposition 1.1.7 For any .DO A there exist infinitely many amplitudes a such that
A = Op a.
.

Proof Let an amplitude a and a polynomial P be such that the function

(x, y, ξ ) → a(x, y, ξ )/P (x − y)

. (1.1.9)

is an amplitude as well (for instance, this is the case if .P (x) = 0 . ∀x). By Corollary 1.1.6,
setting .A = Op a, we have

  a(x, y, ξ )
Au(x) = lim (2π )−n
. P (Dξ )ei(x−y)ξ χε (ξ )u(y) dydξ =
ε→0 P (x − y)
 a(x, y, ξ )
= lim (2π )−n ei(x−y)ξ P (−Dξ ) χε (ξ ) u(y) dydξ.
ε→0 P (x − y)

Let .μ be the order of amplitude (1.1.9). Then,

 a(x, y, ξ ) a(x, y, ξ )
P (−Dξ )
. χε (ξ ) → P (−Dξ )
P (x − y) P (x − y)

in .S μ+1 , so

a(x, y, ξ )
Au(x) = (2π )−n
. ei(x−y)ξ P (−Dξ ) u(y) dydξ.
P (x − y)
8 1 Preliminaries

 
Therefore, .A = Op b with .b(x, y, ξ ) = P (−Dξ ) a(x, y, ξ )/P (x − y) . Varying P , we
arrive at the needed conclusion. 


For a .DO .A = Op a, we set

t
. a(x, y, ξ ) = a(y, x, −ξ ), a ∗ (x, y, ξ ) = a(x, y, ξ )

and introduce the transposed operator .tA = Op t a and the “adjoint” operator .A∗ = Op a ∗ .
The operators .tA and .A∗ belong to the same class . μ () as does A. There hold the
equalities

Au, v = u, tAv,

. (Au, v) = (u, A∗ v) , u, v ∈ Cc∞ (),

where the pairings .·, · and .(·, ·) are defined by

. u, v = u(x)v(x) dx, (u, v) = u(x)v(x) dx.

Examples

(1) A differential operator

. P (x, D) = pα (x)D α (qα (x) ·), pα , qα ∈ C ∞ (),

|α|≤μ

is a .DO of order .μ:


P (x, D)u(x) = (2π )−n
. ei(x−y)ξ pα (x)ξ α qα (y) u(y) dydξ.
|α|≤μ

In the case of .qα = 1 for all .α, the formula takes the form

P (x, D)u(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ P (x, ξ )u(y) dydξ

= (2π )−n/2 eixξ P (x, ξ )û(ξ ) dξ,

where .û denotes the Fourier transform of u,

û(ξ ) = (2π )−n/2

. e−iyξ u(y) dy.
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 9

(2) An integral operator with a smooth kernel

. Au(x) = G(x, y)u(y) dy, G ∈ C ∞ ( × ),

is a .DO of order .−∞. To prove this, we set

.a(x, y, ξ ) = e−i(x−y)ξ G(x, y)χ (ξ ),


where .χ ∈ S(Rn ) is any function that satisfies .(2π )−n χ (ξ ) dξ = 1 (one can even
take .χ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn )). Then, .a ∈ S −∞ and

(Op a)u(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ

= (2π )−n G(x, y)χ (ξ )u(y) dydξ = G(x, y)u(y) dy = Au(x).

1.1.3 The Kernel of a Pseudodifferential Operator

Suppose that .a ∈ S μ (, ) and .A = Op a. Assuming .μ < −n − k and .k ∈ Z+ , we

change the integration order in

Au(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ, u ∈ Cc∞ (),

and obtain

Au(x) =
. GA (x, y)u(y) dy, (1.1.10)

where

GA (x, y) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ ) dξ. (1.1.11)

The function .GA ∈ C k ( × ) is called the kernel of A. It can be identified with an

element in .D ( × ) acting on the functions .w ∈ Cc∞ ( × ) by the formula

GA , w =
. GA (x, y)w(x, y) dxdy, (1.1.12)
10 1 Preliminaries

where .D ( × ) stands for the general function space adjoint to .Cc∞ ( × ). In more
detail,

GA , w = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )w(x, y) dxdydξ ; (1.1.13)

because of .aw ∈ L1 ( ×  × Rn ), the integration order plays no role. For u, .v ∈ Cc∞ ()
we set .(v ⊗ u)(x, y) = v(x)u(y) and in (1.1.12) choose .w = v ⊗ u. Taking into account
(1.1.10), we arrive at

. GA , v ⊗ u = Au, v. (1.1.14)

For arbitrary .μ, the kernel of .DO A is, by definition, the distribution
  .GA given by
(1.1.13); however, this time the integral means the iterated integral . dξ . . . dxdy. To
prove that .GA is a distribution, we have to verify the existence of such an integral and its
continuous dependence on w. It can be done by means of the formula

GA , w = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ Dy 2N (a(x, y, ξ )w(x, y))ξ −2N dxdydξ

(compare with the proofs of Propositions 1.1.2 and 1.1.4). In fact, for any .μ ∈ R, the
integral (1.1.13) is a continuous function of .(a, w) ∈ S μ (, ) × Cc∞ ( × ).
Assume that .χ ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ), .χ (0) = 1, and .χε (ξ ) := χ (εξ ) for .ε > 0. As .ε → 0, we
have .χε a → a in .S μ+1 , .μ being the amplitude order of a. Hence,

. GA , w = lim (2π )−n ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )χε (ξ )w(x, y) dxdydξ

ε→0

= lim (2π )−n w(x, y) dxdy ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )χε (ξ ) dξ. (1.1.15)
ε→0

Therefore,

.GA (x, y) = lim (2π )−n ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )χε (ξ ) dξ

ε→0

in the sense of the convergence in .D ( × ). This formula has usually been written in
the form (1.1.11). We substitute .w = v ⊗ u into (1.1.15) and obtain the formula

GA , v ⊗ u = lim (2π )−n

. v(x) dx ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )χε (ξ )u(y) dydξ
ε→0

= v(x) Au(x) dx = Au , v,

1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 11

which coincides with (1.1.14). Now, it is easily seen that

(1) Distinct operators have distinct kernels.

(2) For .H ∈ D ( × ) such that .H, v ⊗ u = Au, v with any .u, v ∈ Cc∞ (), there
holds the equality .H = GA . In particular, .GA is independent of the choice of the
amplitude a in (1.1.15); it goes without saying that the equality .A = Op a must be
fulfilled. (Recall that the linear combinations of functions of the form .v ⊗ u are dense
in .Cc∞ ( × )).

We also note that the kernel of the transposed operator .DO .tA is defined by the
equality

GtA , w = GA , t w, where

.
t
w(x, y) = w(y, x),

and the kernel of the adjoint .DO .A∗ satisfies

GA∗ , w = GA , w ∗ , where w ∗ (x, y) = w(y, x).

.

In the case that the kernel belongs to .L1loc ( × ), equality (1.1.14) can be written in the
form

. v(x) dx GA (x, y)u(y) dy = v(x)Au(x) dx,

which implies (1.1.10).

Let .1 and .2 be domains in .Rn and .G ∈ D (1 × 2 ). For a fixed .u ∈ Cc∞ (2 ), the
mapping

Cc∞ (1 )  v → G(v ⊗ u)

. (1.1.16)

is a linear continuous functional on .Cc∞ (1 ); in other words, it belongs to .D (1 ).
Therefore, we have defined an operator .Cc∞ (2 ) → D (1 ) that takes .u ∈ Cc∞ (2 )
to functional (1.1.16). It is easy to verify that the operator is continuous. We denote this
operator by A and have

Au, v = G, v ⊗ u.

. (1.1.17)

Conversely, if .A : Cc∞ (2 ) → D (1 ) is a linear continuous operator, there exists a

unique distribution .G ∈ D (1 × 2 ) that satisfies (1.1.17). The distribution is called the
Schwartz kernel of the operator A, and the above statement is the Schwartz kernel theorem.
Let A be a .DO in a domain . ⊂ Rn . Then, A implements a continuous mapping
∞ ∞ ∞ 
.Cc () → C (). The canonical embedding .C () → D () is continuous, so A
12 1 Preliminaries

can be considered as continuous operator .Cc∞ () → D (). For any .u, v ∈ Cc∞ (), the
Schwartz kernel of such an operator satisfies (1.1.17) and consequently coincides with its
kernel in the sense of the definitions given in the present section.

1.1.4 Smoothing Operators

Definition A pseudodifferential operator A is called smoothing if its kernel belongs to

C ∞ ( × ).

Proposition 1.1.8 The following assertions are equivalent:

(1) A is a smoothing DO.

(2) A ∈  −∞ ().
(3) A ∈  −∞ ().

Proof (1)⇒(2). For G ∈ C ∞ ( × ), the operator

Au(x) =
. GA (x, y)u(y) dy

is integral with a smooth kernel, so A ∈  −∞ () (see Example 2 in Sect. 1.1.2).

(2)⇒(3). It is evident.
(3)⇒(1). For any k ∈ N, there exists an amplitude ak ∈ S −n−k such that A = Op ak .
Therefore,

GA (x, y) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ ak (x, y, ξ ) dξ

is a function of the class C k−1 ( × ). Because k is arbitrary, we have GA ∈ C ∞ ( × ).




Proposition 1.1.9 Let an amplitude a vanish on V × Rn , where V ⊂  ×  is a

neighborhood of the diagonal := {(x, y) ∈  ×  : x = y}. Then, Op a ∈  −∞ ().

Proof From the proposition assumption, it follows that, for any N ∈ N, the function
(x, y, ξ ) → a(x, y, ξ )/|x − y|2N is an amplitude (of same order μ as a). As shown
in Sect. 1.1.2, Op a = Op bN with bN = (− ξ )N a(x, y, ξ )/|x − y|2N . Moreover, bN ∈
S μ−2N and N has arbitrarily been chosen, so Op a ∈  −∞ (). 


Proposition 1.1.10 The kernel GA of each DO A is smooth outside the diagonal .
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 13

Proof Assume that a ∈ S(, ), ϕ ∈ C ∞ ( × ), and set A = Op a and B = Op(ϕa);
then GB = ϕGA . Indeed, for any w ∈ Cc∞ ( × ), we have

.GB , w = (2π )−n ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )ϕ(x, y)w(x, y) dxdydξ =

= GA , ϕw = ϕGA , w.

Let θ ∈ C ∞ (R) satisfy θ (t) = 0 for t ≤ 1 and θ (t) = 1 for t ≥ 2. We take an arbitrary
δ > 0 and set ϕδ (x, y) = θ (|x − y|/δ). It is obvious that ϕδ ∈ C ∞ (Rn × Rn ), ϕδ = 0 in
the δ-neighborhood Vδ of the diagonal , and ϕδ = 1 outside V2δ .
Assume that A = Op a is any DO and Aδ = Op (aϕδ ). Since aϕδ = 0 in a
neighborhood of the diagonal, we have Aδ ∈  −∞ () (Proposition 1.1.9). Therefore,
GAδ ∈ C ∞ ( × ) (Proposition 1.1.8). According to the remark at the beginning of the
proof, GAδ = ϕδ GA . Hence, GAδ = GA on ( × ) \ V2δ , so GA is a smooth function on
( × ) \ V2δ . Because δ > 0 has arbitrarily been chosen, which completes the proof.  

1.1.5 Properly Supported Pseudodifferential Operators

A mapping .f : X → Y of topological spaces is called proper if .f −1 (K) is compact for

any compact .K ⊂ Y . A distribution .G ∈ D ( × ) is said to have proper support if both
projections

π1 , π2 : supp G → 
.

are proper mappings.

Definition 1.1.11 A pseudodifferential operator is called properly supported (or simply

proper) if its kernel has proper support.

Any differential operator is proper because the support of its kernel belongs to the
diagonal. In the case that A is a proper .DO, the operators .tA and .A∗ are proper as well.
For an amplitude a, we denote by .suppx,y a the closure of the projection of .supp a into
. ×  . An amplitude a is said to have proper support if both projections

π1 , π2 : suppx,y a → 
.

are proper mappings.

Lemma 1.1.12 For a .DO A (that need not be proper), the following assertions are
valid:
14 1 Preliminaries

(a) In the case that .χ ∈ C ∞ ( × ) and .χ = 1 in a neighborhood of the set .supp GA ,

there holds the equality .A = Op (χ a).
(b) .supp GA ⊂ suppx,y a.

Proof

(a) Setting .B = Op (χ a), we have .GB = χ GA = GA , so .A = B.

(b) From

GA , w = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )w(x, y) dxdydξ, w ∈ Cc∞ ( × ),

it follows that .GA , w = 0 provided .suppw ∩ suppx,y a = ∅. Therefore, .GA = 0 on

.( × ) \ suppx,y a, so .supp GA ⊂ suppx,y a.




Proposition 1.1.13 The following assertions are equivalent:

(1) A is a proper .DO.

(2) There exists an amplitude a with proper support such that .A = Op a.

Proof (1).⇒(2). Assume that .A = Op a and .χ ∈ Cc∞ ( × ) with proper support equal
to 1 in a neighborhood of the set .supp GA . Then, .χ a is an amplitude with proper support
and (by Lemma) .A = Op (χ a).
(2).⇒ (1). The amplitude a has proper support and (by Lemma) .supp GA ⊂ suppx,y a,
therefore, .GA has proper support as well. 


Proposition 1.1.14 The following assertions are equivalent:

(1) A is a proper .DO.

(2) For any compact .K2 ⊂ , there exists a compact .K1 ⊂  such that

u ∈ Cc∞ (K2 ) ⇒ Au, tAu ∈ Cc∞ (K1 ).

. (1.1.18)

Proof (1). ⇒ (2). Assume that .A = Op a, where a is an amplitude with proper support.
We choose any compact .K2 ⊂  and set .K1 = π1 (π2−1 (K2 )), where .π1 and .π2 are the
projections .suppx,y a → . In the case of .x ∈ K1 , the function .(y, ξ ) → a(x, y, ξ )
vanishes on the set .K2 × Rn . Consequently, for .u ∈ Cc∞ (K2 ), we have

Au(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ = 0 for x ∈ K1 ,
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 15

which means that .Au ∈ Cc∞ (K1 ). The inclusion .tAu ∈ Cc∞ (K1 ) can for a certain compact
 
.K ⊂  be established in a similar way. It remains to set .K1 = K ∪ K .

1 1 2
(2). ⇒ (1). Denote by G the kernel of .DO A, and by .π1 and .π2 denote the projections
.supp G → . We have to verify that the mappings .π1 and .π2 are proper. Let .E ⊂ 

be an arbitrary compact and .V ⊃ E a domain with compact closure .K2 := V ⊂ . By

assumption, there exists a compact .K1 ⊂  such that there holds (1.1.18). Then,

G, v ⊗ u = Au, v = 0 for all u ∈ Cc∞ (V ), v ∈ Cc∞ ( \ K1 ).

.

For such u and v, the linear combinations of functions of the form .v ⊗ u are dense in
∞
.Cc (( \ K1 ) × V ), so

G, w = 0 for w ∈ Cc∞ (( \ K1 ) × V ).

.

Hence, .supp G ∩ (( \ K1 ) × V ) = ∅ and

π2−1 (V ) ∩ (( \ K1 ) × V ) = ∅ ⇒ π2−1 (E) ∩ (( \ K1 ) × E) = ∅

.

⇒ π2−1 (E) ⊂ K1 × E .

Being a closed subset of the compact .K1 × E, the set .π2−1 (E) is compact. This proves that
mapping .π2 is proper. Such a fact for the mapping .π2 : supp t G → , where . t G is the
kernel of .tA , can be verified in a similar way. Let s stand for the homeomorphism

supp G → supp t G : (x, y) → (y, x).

.

Then, .π1 = π2 ◦ s, and hence, the mapping . π1 is proper. 



Proposition 1.1.15 Every proper .DO A implements a continuous mapping .Cc∞ () →
Cc∞ ().

Proof Assume that .{uj }∞ ∞ ∞

j =1 ⊂ Cc () and .uj → 0 in .Cc (). There exists a compact
.K2 ⊂  such that .supp uj ⊂ K2 for all j . We employ Proposition 1.1.14 and obtain

.supp Auj ⊂ K1 (∀ j ),

with a certain compact .K1 ⊂ . Moreover,

Auj → 0 in C ∞ ().
.

It follows that .Auj → 0 in .Cc∞ (). 


16 1 Preliminaries

Proposition 1.1.16 Let A be a proper .DO. Then, A extends to the continuous operator
A : C ∞ () → C ∞ ().
.

Proof Let a be a proper amplitude such that .A = Op a. We set

v(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ.

It was shown in Sect. 1.1.2 that from .u ∈ Cc∞ () there follows .v ∈ C ∞ (); to
prove this, we integrated by parts. This was possible because the support of the function
.y → a(x, y, ξ )u(y) was compact owing to the compact support of u. Being proper, the

amplitude a provides a compact support for the product au and the support of u need not
be compact. Therefore, the inclusion .v ∈ C ∞ () can be verified in the same way as in
Proposition 1.1.2. Thus, the formula

Au(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ )u(y) dydξ, u ∈ C ∞ (),

defines a linear operator .A : C ∞ () → C ∞ (). We show that the operator is continuous.
Assume that .K1 ⊂  is any compact and .K2 = π2 (π1−1 (K1 )) , .π1 , π2 : suppx,y a → 
being the projections. Choose a function .ψ ∈ Cc∞ () to satisfy .ψ|K2 = 1. We also
suppose that .{uj } ⊂ C ∞ () and .uj → 0 in .C ∞ () as .j → ∞. From the equality
.a(x, y, ξ ) = a(x, y, ξ )ψ(y) for .x ∈ K1 , it follows that

Auj = (Op a)ψuj = A(ψuj ) on K1 .

.

Since .ψuj → 0 in .Cc∞ (), we have .A(ψuj ) → 0 in .C ∞ (). In particular, .A(ψuj ) ⇒ 0

on .K1 together with all derivatives. The compact .K1 ⊂  has arbitrarily been chosen, so
∞
.Auj → 0 in .C () 


The space .Cc∞ () is dense in .C ∞ (). (Indeed, let .{Kj } be an exhaustive sequence
of compact subsets in . and let the sequence .{ψj } ⊂ Cc∞ () satisfy .ψj |Kj = 1.
Then .uψj → u in .C ∞ () for .u ∈ C ∞ ().) Therefore, the extension .A of A given
by Proposition 1.1.16 is unique. In what follows we write A instead of .A.
Note that any .DO A admits the representation .A = A1 + A2 , where .A1 is a proper
.DO and .A2 is a smoothing .DO. To see that, it suffices to take a properly supported

function .χ ∈ C ∞ ( × ) equal to 1 in a neighborhood of the diagonal and to set .A1 =

Op (χ a), .A2 = Op ((1 − χ )a).
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 17

1.1.6 Pseudodifferential Operators in Generalized Function Spaces

Denote by .D () and .E  () the general function spaces adjoint to .Cc∞ () and .C ∞ (),
respectively. The space .E  () consists of the elements in .D () with compact supports in
 ∞
.. We assume that .A ∈ (), fix .u ∈ E () and define a functional .fu on .Cc () by the

equality

fu , v = u, tAv.

. (1.1.19)

Clearly, the functional is continuous, so .fu ∈ D (). We set

Au = fu .
. (1.1.20)

Then, (1.1.19) takes the form

Au, v = u, tAv.

. (1.1.21)

If the function u fixed above turns out to be in .Cc∞ (), the equality .Au, v = u, tAv
leads to .Au = Au. Therefore, formula (1.1.20) defines an extension of .DO .A :
Cc∞ () → C ∞ () to the operator .A : E  () → D (). This operator is continuous.
Indeed, if .uj → 0 in .E  (), we obtain .uj , tAv → 0 for .v ∈ Cc∞ () and then,
taking account of (1.1.21), arrive at .Auj , v → 0. In the sense of functional analysis,
the operator .A is adjoint to the operator .tA:

A
. D () ←− E  ()
tA
Cc∞ () −→ C ∞ ().

In what follows, we write A instead of .A.

Now suppose that A is a proper .DO. Such an operator implements continuous
mappings

A : Cc∞ () → Cc∞ ()

.

A : C ∞ () → C ∞ ().

Repeating the preceding arguments, we conclude that A extends to the continuous

operators

A : E  () → E  (),
.

A : D () → D ().
18 1 Preliminaries

1.1.7 Symbols

Definition 1.1.17 A function a ∈ C ∞ ( × Rn ) is called a symbol of order μ ∈ R if, for

any α, β ∈ Zn+ and for each compact K ⊂ , there exists a constant C = C(α, β, K) such
that

β
. |∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ )| ≤ Cξ μ−|β| for (x, ξ ) ∈ K × Rn .

Denote by S μ () the set of all symbols of order μ. We also introduce S −∞ () =
  μ
μ S (), S() =
μ
μ S ().
Every symbol can be considered as an amplitude independent of y, so S μ () ⊂
S (, ). The topology of S μ (, ) induces that of S μ (). For μ > −∞, such a
μ

topology can be given by the seminorm family

pαβK (a) = sup{|∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ )|ξ |β|−μ : (x, ξ ) ∈ K × Rn }.

(μ) β
.

For S μ () endowed with the above topology, assertions (i)–(iii) in 1.1.1 are valid.
For any symbol a, we introduce the DO A = Op a:

Au(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ a(x, ξ )u(y) dydξ = (2π )−n/2 eixξ a(x, ξ )û(ξ ) dξ,

where

û(ξ ) = (2π )−n/2

. e−iyξ u(y) dy.

In what follows, we use the notation a(x, D) along with Op a.

Examples
 ∞
(1) P (x, ξ ) = |α|≤μ aα (x)ξ with aα ∈ C () is a symbol of order μ. The
α

corresponding DO is the differential operator

P (x, D) =
. aα (x)D α .
|α|≤μ

(2) Let, for μ ∈ C, the function a ∈ C ∞ ( × Rn ) be degree μ homogeneous for large

|ξ |, that is, a(x, tξ ) = t μ a(x, ξ ), where t ≥ 1 and |ξ | ≥ 1. Then, a ∈ S Re μ ().
(3) The function (x, ξ ) → ξ μ is a symbol of order μ.
(4) Assume that ã ∈ S μ (, ) and set a(x, ξ ) = ã(x, x, ξ ). Then, a ∈ S μ ().
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 19

1.1.8 Asymptotic Expansions in the Classes S μ ()

Let .aj ∈ S μj (), .j = 0, 1, . . . , .μj → −∞ for .j → ∞ and let .a ∈ C ∞ ( × Rn ). The

relation
∞
a(x, ξ ) ∼
. aj (x, ξ ) (1.1.22)
j =0

means that for any .k ∈ N

k−1
a(x, ξ ) −
. aj (x, ξ ) ∈ S μk (), (1.1.23)
j =0

where .μk = maxj ≥k μj . In particular, from (1.1.23) it follows that .a ∈ S μ0 .

It is easy to verify the following assertions:

(1) Relation (1.1.22) defines a up to a term in .S −∞ ().

(2) From (1.1.22), it follows that

∞
β β
∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ ) ∼
. ∂xα ∂ξ aj (x, ξ ) (∀ α , β)
j =0

(the asymptotic expansions can be differentiated).

(3) Any permutation of the series terms does not violate (1.1.22). By permutation, we can
always provide the monotonically decreasing sequence .μj of the symbol orders and
obtain .μk = μk .

(4) The relations (1.1.22) and .aj (x, ξ ) ∼ ∞k=0 aj k (x, ξ ) with .j = 0, 1, . . . imply

a(x, ξ ) ∼
. aj k (x, ξ ).
j,k

Theorem 1.1.18 If .aj ∈ S μj (), .j = 0, 1, . . ., and .μj → −∞ as .j → ∞, there exists

a function .a ∈ S μ0 () that satisfies (1.1.22).

Proof We can assume that .μj ≥ μj +1 for all j . Choose .χ ∈ C ∞ (Rn ) such that .χ (ξ ) = 0
for .|ξ | ≤ 1 and .χ (ξ ) = 1 for .|ξ | ≥ 2. We also assume .{Kj } to be an exhaustive sequence
of compact subsets in .. Since .χ (εξ ) →ε→+0 0 in .S 1 (), for every j there is a number
.εj > 0 such that

|∂xα ∂ξ (χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ ))| ≤ 2−j ξ μj −|β|+1

β
. (1.1.24)
20 1 Preliminaries

for .(x, ξ ) ∈ Kj × Rn with .α and .β subject to .|α| + |β| ≤ j . We can consider that .εj → 0
as .j → 0. Let us define a function a by the equality

∞
a(x, ξ ) =
. χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ ). (1.1.25)
j =0

The sum on the right-hand side is locally finite, that is, for any compact .K ⊂ Rn , there are
only finitely many terms different from zero on . × K, so the definition of a is correct. It
is evident that .a ∈ C ∞ ( × Rn ) and

∞
β β 
.∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ ) = ∂xα ∂ξ χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ ) .
j =0

Any remainder of series (1.1.25) has similar properties. We show that, for every .k ≥ 0,
there holds the inclusion
∞
. χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ ) ∈ S μk (). (1.1.26)
j =k

Let .K ⊂  be an arbitrary compact and .α and .β be any multi-indices. We have to verify

the inequality

 ∞

 β

. ∂xα ∂ξ χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ )  ≤ Cξ μk −|β| , (x, ξ ) ∈ K × Rn .
j =k

There exists a number l such that .K ⊂ Kl , .|α + β| ≤ l and .μl + 1 ≤ μk . Because

∞ l−1 ∞
β 
. ∂xα ∂ξ χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ ) = ... + ...,
j =k j =k j =l

it suffices to check that both of the sums on the right are majorized by .ξ μk −|β| . For the
first sum, it is evident because the sum belongs to .S μk −|β| (). For the second one, the
needed estimate follows from (1.1.24):

 ∞
 ∞ ∞
 β

. ∂xα ∂ξ χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ )  ≤ 2−j ξ μj −|β|+1 ≤ ξ μl −|β|+1 2−j
j =l j =l j =l

≤ 2−l+1 ξ μk −|β| .

1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 21

The inclusion (1.1.26) has been established. Now, for any .k ≥ 1, we have

k−1 k−1 ∞
a(x, ξ ) −
. aj (x, ξ ) = (χ (εj ξ ) − 1)aj (x, ξ ) + χ (εj ξ )aj (x, ξ ) ∈ S μk ();
j =0 j =0 j =k

the first sum on the right vanishes for large .|ξ |, so it belongs to .S −∞ (), while the second
sum is in .S μk by virtue of (1.1.26). 


1.1.9 The Symbol of Proper Pseudodifferential Operator

Let A be a proper .DO. We set

σA (x, ξ ) = e−ξ Aeξ (x),

.

where .eξ (x) = eixξ . The function .σA is called the symbol of A.

Examples

(1) Let .P (x, D) be a differential operator in .. Taking into account that .P (x, D)eξ (x) =
P (x, ξ )eξ (x), we obtain .σP (x, ξ ) = P (x, ξ ).
(2) Let

A:u→
. G(x, y)u(y) dy, u ∈ C ∞ (),

be an integral operator with a properly supported smooth kernel. Then

. σA (x, ξ ) = e−ixξ G(x, y)eiyξ dy = (2π )n/2 e−ixξ Ǧ(x, ξ ),

where .Ǧ is the inverse Fourier transform of G with respect to the second argument.



In the case that A is a proper .DO and .A = Op a with properly supported amplitude
a, we have

e−ξ Aeξ (x) = e−ξ (x) (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)η a(x, y, η)eξ (y) dydη

= (2π )−n ei(x−y)η a(x, y, η)ei(y−x)ξ dydη = (2π )−n ei(x−y)(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η) dydη .
22 1 Preliminaries

Therefore,

σA (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)θ a(x, y, ξ + θ ) dydθ.

Theorem 1.1.19 Let .a ∈ S μ (, ) be a proper amplitude and .A = Op a. Then,

(1) .σA ∈ S μ (). 

 1 α α 
(2) .σA (x, ξ ) ∼ α! Dy ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ ) y=x .
α
(3) .A = Op σA .

Note that .Dyα ∂ξα a(x, y, ξ ) is an amplitude of order .μ−|α|. Hence, . Dyα ∂ξα a(x, y, ξ )y=x
is a symbol of the same order. Therefore, the terms of series (2) are symbols of decreasing
orders.
Before proving Theorem 1.1.19, we verify the following lemma.

Lemma 1.1.20 Assume that .a ∈ S μ (, ) is a proper amplitude, .h ∈ C[0, 1], and .α ∈
Zn+ . We set

1
σ (x, ξ ) =
. ei(x−y)θ a(x, y, ξ + tθ )θ α h(t) dtdydθ. (1.1.27)
0

Then, .σ ∈ S μ ().

Proof Using the equality .ei(x−y)θ = Dy 2N ei(x−y)θ θ −2N , we rewrite (1.1.27) in the
form
1
σ (x, ξ ) =
. ei(x−y)θ Dy 2N a(x, y, ξ + tθ )θ α θ −2N h(t) dtdydθ. (1.1.28)
0

Let .K1 ⊂  be any compact and .K2 = π2 (π1−1 (K1 )), where .π1 , π2 : suppx,y a →  are
the projections. For .x ∈ K1 , we have

Dy 2N a(x, y, ξ + tθ ) = 0 for y ∈ K2 ,

.

|Dy 2N a(x, y, ξ + tθ )| ≤ C1 ξ + tθ μ ≤ C1 2|μ|/2 ξ μ tθ |μ|

≤ C1 2|μ|/2 ξ μ θ |μ| for y ∈ K2 (C1 = C1 (K1 )).

These relations lead to

|Dy 2N a(x, y, ξ + tθ )θ α θ −2N h(t)| ≤ C2 χ (y)ξ μ θ |α|+|μ|−2N ,

. x ∈ K1 ,
(1.1.29)
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 23

where .χ is the characteristic function of the set .K2 . For the case that .|α| + |μ| − 2N < −n,
we obtain
1
. χ (y)θ |α|+|μ|−2N dtdydθ < +∞. (1.1.30)
0

Introduce the notation .BR = {ξ ∈ Rn : |ξ | ≤ R} with .R > 0. From (1.1.29)

and (1.1.30) it follows that for .(x, ξ ) ∈ K1 × BR the integrand in (1.1.28) has the
summable majorant .C2 χ (y) maxξ ∈BR ξ μ θ |α|+|μ|−2N independent of .(x, ξ ). Hence,
integral (1.1.28) converges uniformly with respect to .(x, ξ ) ∈ K1 × BR , and formula
(1.1.28) defines a continuous function .σ on the set .K1 × BR . Since the compact .K1 and
number .R > 0 have arbitrarily been chosen, there holds the inclusion .σ ∈ C( × Rn ).
Moreover, (1.1.28) and (1.1.29) provide the inequality

|σ (x, ξ )| ≤ C(K1 )ξ μ ,

. x ∈ K1 . (1.1.31)

Assume now that .β and .γ are arbitrary multi-indices. Differentiating (1.1.28), we obtain

γ β |β−ν|
. ∂xβ ∂ξ σ (x, ξ ) = i σν (x, ξ ) (1.1.32)
ν
ν≤β

with
1
ei(x−y)θ Dy N ∂xν ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ + tθ )θ α+β−ν θ −2N h(t) dtdydθ.
γ
σν (x, ξ ) =
.
0
(1.1.33)

Every function (1.1.33) is of the form (1.1.28) (with various a and .α). We choose N to
satisfy .|α + β| + |μ| − 2N < −n. Then, from the first part of the proof, it follows that
for all .ν integral (1.1.33) uniformly converges on any set of the form .K1 × BR . Hence,
γ
the differentiation in (1.1.28) was admissible and .σν ∈ C( × Rn ). Because .∂xν ∂ξ a ∈
S μ−|γ | (, ), the analogue of (1.1.31) for .σν is of the form

|σν (x, ξ )| ≤ C(ν, K1 )ξ μ−|γ | ,

. x ∈ K1 .

Therefore (see (1.1.32)),

|∂xβ ∂ξ σ (x, ξ )| ≤ Cξ μ−|γ | ,

γ
. x ∈ K1 .

In view of freedom in choosing the compact .K1 , we arrive at .σ ∈ S μ (). 


24 1 Preliminaries

Proof of Theorem 1.1.19 Taking into account the equality

σA (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)θ a(x, y, ξ + θ ) dydθ,

and the Taylor expansion

1 α N 1
a(x,
. y, ξ +θ ) = ∂ a(x, y, ξ )θ α+ (1−t)N −1 ∂ξα a(x, y, ξ+tθ )θ α dt,
α! ξ α! 0
|α|≤N −1 |α|=N

we obtain

1 (α)
σA (x, ξ ) =
. σ (x, ξ ) + rN (x, ξ ),
α!
|α|≤N −1

where

σ (α) (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n
. ei(x−y)θ ∂ξα a(x, y, ξ )θ α dydθ = Dyα ∂ξα a(x, y, ξ )y=x ,

N 1
rN (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n
. ei(x−y)θ ∂ξα a(x, y, ξ + tθ )θ α (1 − t)N −1 dtdydθ.
α! 0
|α|=N

By Lemma 1.1.20, the terms in the last sum, being considered as functions of .(x, ξ ), belong
to .S μ−N (). Therefore, for any N

1 α α 
σA (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n
. Dy ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ )y=x + rN (x, ξ ), rN ∈ S μ−N ().
α!
|α|≤N −1

This proves assertion 2 of the theorem, which implies assertion 1. It remains to verify that
.A = Op σA . The representation of .σA can be written in the form

σA (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η) dydη.

Therefore,

(2π )−n
. eixξ σA (x, ξ )û(ξ ) dξ = (2π )−2n eixξ ei(x−y)(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η) dydη û(ξ ) dξ,

that is,

(Op σA )u(x) = (2π )−2n

. eixη e−iy(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η)û(ξ ) dydηdξ. (1.1.34)
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 25

Now, we show that for fixed x the function

(ξ, η) →
. eixη e−iy(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η)û(ξ ) dy = eixη û(ξ ) e−iy(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η) dy

(1.1.35)

decreases rapidly as .|ξ | + |η| → ∞. Because of .û ∈ S(Rn ), it suffices to obtain the
estimate
 
 

. e−iy(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η) dy  ≤ CN ξ 2N ημ−2N

for any .N ∈ N. In view of .e−y(η−ξ ) = Dy 2N e−iy(η−ξ ) η − ξ −2N ,

 
 

. e−iy(η−ξ ) a(x, y, η) dy  ≤ |Dy 2N a(x, y, η)|dy η − ξ −2N

≤ CN ημ η−2N ξ 2N = CN ξ 2N ημ−2N ,

as we wanted to obtain. Due to the rapid decrease of function (1.1.35), we can in (1.1.34)
permute the integrals with respect to .η and .ξ :

(Op σA )u(x) = (2π )−2n
. ei(x−y)η eiyξ a(x, y, η)û(ξ ) dydξ dη.

By the integral in brackets is meant a double one (for fixed x and .η, the function .(y, ξ ) →
a(x, y, η)û(ξ ) vanishes for large y and rapidly decreases as .ξ → ∞). Integrating over .ξ ,
we arrive at

(Op σA )u(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)η a(x, y, η)u(y) dydη = Au(x).




The asymptotic expansion of the symbol of a proper .DO A remains valid even in the
case that the amplitude a satisfying the condition .A = Op a is not proper. Indeed, choose
a properly supported function .χ ∈ C ∞ ( × ) equal to 1 in a neighborhood of the set
. ∪ supp GA . Then, .A = Op (χ a) (see Lemma 1.1.12). Since the amplitude .χ a is proper,
from Theorem 1.1.19, it follows that

1 α α  1 α α 
σA (x, ξ ) ∼
. Dy ∂ξ (χ a)(x, y, ξ )y=x = Dy ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ )y=x .
α
α! α
α!
26 1 Preliminaries

The equalities .σA (x, ξ ) = eξ (x)Aeξ (x) and .A = Op σA establish a bijection between
the proper .DO and their symbols. If A is an arbitrary .DO, it is usual to introduce
.σA = σ
−∞ . Such a symbol is
A1 , where .A1 is a proper .DO and .A − A1 ∈ 
not uniquely defined; however, any two symbols differ by a function in .S −∞ . More
precisely, the correspondence .A ↔ σA generates the isomorphism . μ ()/ −∞ () ∼ =
S μ ()/S −∞ () for every .μ.

1.1.10 Symbolic Calculus of Pseudodifferential Operators

1◦ . Symbol expansions of transposed and adjoint operators.

Theorem 1.1.21 Let A be a proper DO and σA its symbol. Then,

1 α α
σ tA (x, ξ ) ∼
. D ∂ σA (x, −ξ ), (1.1.36)
α
α! x ξ

1 α α
σA∗ (x, ξ ) ∼
. D ∂ σA (x, ξ ). (1.1.37)
α
α! x ξ

Proof Because A = OpσA , we have

.
t
Au(x) = (2π )−n ei(x−y)ξ σA (y, −ξ )u(y) dydξ, u ∈ Cc∞ ().

By Theorem 1.1.19,

1 α α 
σ tA (x, ξ ) ∼
. D ∂ σA (y, −ξ )y=x ,
α
α! y ξ

which coincides with (1.1.36). The relation (1.1.37) can in a similar way be derived from
the equality

A∗ u(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ σA (y, ξ )u(y) dydξ.




The function σ̃A (x, ξ ) := σ tA (x, −ξ ) is sometimes called the dual symbol of A. From
(1.1.36), it follows that

1 α
σ̃A (x, ξ ) ∼
. D (−∂ξ )α σA (x, ξ ).
α
α! x
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 27

2◦ . Symbol expansion of operator composition. Let A and B be arbitrary DO. In the

case that u ∈ Cc∞ (), we have Bu ∈ C ∞ () but generally Bu ∈ Cc∞ (). Therefore,
in the general case, the composition AB makes no sense. However, the composition
AB is defined if at least one of the operators, A or B, is proper.

Theorem 1.1.22 Let A and B be proper DO of order μ1 and μ2 , respectively. Then,

1. AB is a proper DO of order μ1 + μ2 .

 1 α
2. σAB ∼ α α! ∂ξ σA (x, ξ )Dxα σB (x, ξ ).

Proof Since B = t (t B) and t B = Op σ tB , we have

Bu(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ σ tB (y, −ξ )u(y) dydξ

= (2π )−n eixξ dξ e−iyξ σ̃B (y, ξ )u(y) dy.

Therefore,

(Bu)∧ (ξ ) =
. e−iyξ σ̃B (y, ξ )u(y) dy.

Setting v = Bu in the equality

Av(x) = (2π )−n

. eixξ σA (x, ξ )v̂(ξ ) dξ,

we obtain

ABu(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ σA (x, ξ )σ̃B (y, ξ )u(y) dydξ. (1.1.38)

The function (x, y, ξ ) → σA (x, ξ )σ̃B (y, ξ ) is an amplitude of order μ1 + μ2 , so AB ∈

 μ1 +μ2 ().
Now, we verify that DO AB is proper. According to Proposition 1.1.14, for any
compact K2 ⊂ , there exists a compact K  ⊂  such that

u ∈ Cc∞ (K2 ) ⇒ Bu ∈ Cc∞ (K  ).

.

In turn, for K  there exists a compact K1 ⊂  such that

. v ∈ Cc∞ (K  ) ⇒ Av ∈ Cc∞ (K1 ).

28 1 Preliminaries

Consequently,

u ∈ Cc∞ (K2 ) ⇒ ABu ∈ Cc∞ (K1 ).

.

The operator t (AB) = t B tA has a similar property. Again employing Proposition 1.1.14,
we conclude that AB is a proper DO.
The asymptotic expansion of σAB remains to be obtained. Making use of Theo-
rem 1.1.19, we derive from (1.1.38) that
1 α α 
σAB (x, ξ ) ∼
. Dy ∂ξ [σA (x, ξ )σ̃B (y, ξ )]y=x
α
α!

1 α 1 α! β γ
. = ∂ [σA (x, ξ )Dxα σ̃B (x, ξ )] = ∂ σA · ∂ξ Dxα σ̃B
α! ξ α! β!γ ! ξ
α α β+γ =α

1 β γ β+γ
= ∂ σA · ∂ξ Dx σ̃B .
β!γ ! ξ
β,γ

Furthermore,

1 δ γ β+γ (−1)|δ| γ +δ β+γ +δ

σ̃B ∼
. D (−∂ξ )δ σB ⇒ ∂ξ Dx σ̃B ∼ ∂ξ D x σB .
δ! x δ!
δ δ

Hence,

(−1)|δ| β γ +δ β+γ +δ 1 β (−1)|δ|

σAB ∼
. ∂ σA ·∂ξ Dx σB = ∂ σA ·∂ξν Dxβ+ν σB .
β!γ !δ! ξ β! ξ γ !δ!
β,γ ,δ β,ν γ +δ=ν

In the equality

ν! γ δ
(x + y)ν =
. x y
γ !δ!
γ +δ=ν

we set x = −y = (1, 1, . . . , 1) and obtain

(−1)|δ|
. =0
γ !δ!
γ +δ=ν

for ν = 0. Therefore,

1 β
σAB ∼
. ∂ σA Dxβ σB .
β! ξ
β



1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 29

Corollary 1.1.23 Let A ∈  μ1 () and B ∈  μ2 () be proper DO. Then, [A, B] ≡
AB − BA ∈  μ1 +μ2 −1 ().

Let A ∈  μ1 () and B ∈  μ2 (), while the operator B is proper. Then, as was
mentioned before Theorem 1.1.22, both compositions AB and BA are defined. We show
that they belong to  μ1 +μ2 (). To this end, we represent A in the form A1 + A2 , where
A1 is a proper DO, and A2 is a smoothing DO. We have

AB = A1 B + A2 B ,
. BA = BA1 + BA2 . (1.1.39)

By Theorem 1.1.22, the operators A1 B and BA1 are proper DO of order μ1 +μ2 . Denote
by G the kernel of A2 . It is easy to verify that A2 B and BA2 have the smooth kernels
t B G(x, y) and B G(x, y), respectively. Therefore, these operators are smoothing, that
y x
is, they belong to  −∞ (). Taking into account (1.1.39), we obtain the needed result.

1.1.11 Change of Variables in Pseudodifferential Operators

Let . and .1 be domains in .Rn and let .f :  → 1 be a .C ∞ -diffeomorphism. Then, the
mappings

C ∞ (1 )  u → u ◦ f ∈ C ∞ (),
.

Cc∞ (1 )  u → u ◦ f ∈ Cc∞ ()

are isomorphisms of the linear topological spaces. A pseudodifferential operator A in . is

in accordance with a linear continuous operator

.A1 : Cc∞ (1 ) → C ∞ (1 )

defined by

A1 u = [A(u ◦ f )] ◦ f −1 .
. (1.1.40)

Theorem 1.1.24

(1) The mapping

 μ ()  A → A1
. (1.1.41)

defined by (1.1.40), for any .μ, is a linear bijection of . μ () onto . μ (1 ) sending
proper operators to proper ones.
30 1 Preliminaries

(2) There holds the asymptotic expansion

σA1 (f (x), η) ∼
. σA(α) (x, tf  (x)η)ϕα (x, η),
α

where .σA (x, ξ ) = ∂ξα σA (x, ξ ), . f  (x) = (∂fi /∂xj ) is the Jacobi matrix of the
(α)

mapping f , and .ϕα ∈ C ∞ ( × Rn ) are polynomials of .η with degree .≤ |α|/2 being

dependent on f but independent of A.

Let us describe the basic stages of the proof.

1. Clearly, the mapping (1.1.41) is linear. It is a bijection because there exists the inverse
mapping given by the formula .Av = [A1 (v ◦ f −1 )] ◦ f . In what follows, we write g
instead of .f −1 .
2. Let .A = Op a with .a ∈ S μ (, ) and let .χ ∈ C ∞ ( × ) be a properly supported
function equal to 1 in a neighborhood of the diagonal. We write an operator A in the
form .B + C, where .B = Op (χ a) is a proper operator and .C = Op ((1 − χ )a) is a
smoothing operator. Under the mapping (1.1.41), the operator C is in accordance with a
.DO .C1 ∈ 
−∞ ( ), so to prove .A ∈ ( ) it suffices to verify that .B ∈  μ ().
1 1 1 1
3. There exists a neighborhood V of the diagonal . 1 := {(x, y) ∈ 1 × 1 : x = y} such
that, for all pairs .(x, y) ∈ V , the line segment joining x and y belongs to .1 . In the
neighborhood V , the equality

g(x) − g(y) = h(x, y)(x − y)

.

holds, where h is a matrix-valued function defined by the integral

1
h(x, y) =
. g  (y + t (x − y)) dt.
0

For .x = y, we have .h(x, x) = g  (x). Since .|g  (x)| = 0, by continuity .|h(x, y)| = 0
for all .(x, y) in the vicinity of . 1 . Diminishing the neighborhood V , we can obtain
.|h(x, y)| = 0 for .(x, y) ∈ V .

4. We choose .χ (see stage 2) so that the support of the function .χ1 defined by .χ1 (x, y) :=
χ (g(x), g(y)) belongs to V . We have

B1 u(x) = [B(u ◦ f )] ◦ g(x)

.

= (2π )−n ei(g(x)−y)ξ a(g(x), y, ξ )χ (g(x), y)(u ◦ f )(y) dydξ

= (2π )−n ei(g(x)−g(y))ξ a(g(x), g(y), ξ )χ1 (x, y)|g  (y)|u(y) dydξ

= (2π )−n ei(x−y) h(x,y)ξ a(g(x), g(y), ξ )χ1 (x, y)|g  (y)|u(y) dydξ.
t
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 31

Thus,

B1 u(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)η a(g(x), g(y), t h(x, y)−1 η)χ1 (x, y)×

× |g  (y)||h(x, y)|−1 u(y) dydη . (1.1.42)

It can be verified that the function .(x, y, η) → a(g(x), g(y), t h(x, y)−1 η) × χ1 (x, y)
is in .S μ (1 , 1 ). This proves the inclusion .B1 ∈  μ (1 ) and, consequently, .A1 ∈
 μ (1 ).
If A is a proper .DO, the equality .A = B + C implies that C is proper. Since .A1 =
B1 + C1 and both operators on right are proper, A is proper as well. Thus, mapping
(1.1.41) sends a proper .DO to a proper .DO.
5. If A is a proper .DO, from the very beginning, we can take .σA for the role of a. Then,
(1.1.11) takes the form

B1 u(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)η a1 (x, y, η)χ1 (x, y)u(y) dydη,

where

a1 (x, y, η) = σA (g(x), t h(x, y)−1 η) |g  (y)| |h(x, y)|−1 .

. (1.1.43)

We apply Theorem 1.1.19 and obtain (taking into account .χ1 = 1 in a neighborhood of
the diagonal . 1 )
1 β β 
σA1 (x, η) ∼ σB1 (x, η) ∼
. Dy ∂η a1 (x, y, η)y=x ; (1.1.44)
β!
β

the first relation meaning that .σA1 −σB1 ∈ S −∞ (1 ) follows from . A1 = B1 +C1 , where
.C1 ∈ 
−∞ ()). From (1.1.43), it follows that the terms of (1.1.44) are sums of terms of

(g(x), t g  (x)−1 η) × η δ , where .c ∈ C ∞ (1 ) and .|γ | = |δ| ≤ |β|.

(β+γ )
the form .c(x)σA
We substitute these sums into (1.1.44), collect similar terms with the same .β + γ in one
group, and arrive at

ψα (x, η)σA (g(x), t g  (x)−1 η),

(α)
σA1 (x, η) ∼
.
α

where .ψα (x, η) are polynomials in .η of degree .≤ |α|/2. Changing x for .f (x), we finally
obtain

ϕα (x, η)σA (x, tf  (x)η),

(α)
σA1 (f (x), η) ∼
.
α

where .ϕα (x, η) = ψα (f (x), η) (we took into account .g  (f (x))−1 = f  (x)). .
32 1 Preliminaries

Remark We set . fx (y) = f (y) − f (x) − f  (x)(y − x). It can be shown that

1 α ifx (y)η 
ϕα (x, η) =
. D e .
α! y y=x

μ
1.1.12 Classes b (Rn )

This section is preparatory for proving the continuity of .DO in .L2 (Rn ).

1◦ . Amplitudes, symbols, and .DO. For any .μ ∈ R, we denote by .Sb (Rn , Rn ) the set
μ
.

of all amplitudes .a ∈ S μ (Rn , Rn ) satisfying

|∂xα ∂yβ ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ )| ≤ Cαβγ ξ μ−|γ | ,

γ
. x, y, ξ ∈ Rn ,

μ
for all .α, β, γ ∈ Zn+ . We also let .Sb (Rn ) denote the set of all symbols .σ ∈ S μ (Rn )
such that

β
|∂xα ∂ξ σ (x, ξ )| ≤ Cαβ ξ μ−|β| ,
. x, ξ ∈ Rn .

μ
The symbols can be considered as amplitudes independent of y so that .Sb (Rn ) ⊂
 μ  μ 
Sb (Rn , Rn ). We set .Sb−∞ = μ Sb , .Sb = μ Sb and .b (Rn ) = μ b (Rn ),
μ μ

where

μ μ
b (Rn ) = {Op a : a ∈ Sb (Rn , Rn )},
. μ ∈ [−∞, ∞).

μ μ
Since . Sb (Rn , Rn ) is a linear subspace in .S μ (Rn , Rn ), the set .b (Rn ) is a linear
subspace in . μ (Rn ).
◦
.2 . Symbol of .DO

Proposition 1.1.25 For any .DO .A ∈ bm (Rn ) there exists the only symbol .σ ∈ Sbm (Rn )
such that .A = Op σ .

Proof The uniqueness is evident because

. eixξ σ (x, ξ )û(ξ ) dξ = 0 for ∀ u ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) ⇒ σ = 0

μ μ
(here, the conditions .A ∈ b (Rn ) and .σ ∈ Sb (Rn ) are not used; it suffices to assume that
.A ∈  (R ) and .σ ∈ S (R )).
μ n μ n
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 33

μ
Let us prove the existence. For .∀ s ≥ 0, there is an amplitude .a ∈ Sb (Rn , Rn ) such that
.A = Op a and

|∂xα ∂yβ ∂ξ a(x, y, ξ )| ≤ Cαβγ x − y−s ξ μ−|γ |

γ
. (∀ α, β, γ ). (1.1.45)

μ
Indeed, if .A = Op ã, .ã ∈ Sb (Rn , Rn ), one can take .a(x, y, ξ ) = Dξ 2N ã(x, y, ξ )x −
y−2N , .N > s/2 (see Sect. 1.1.2).
μ
Let .A = Op a, where the amplitude .a ∈ Sb (Rn , Rn ) satisfies (1.1.45) and .s > n. We
set

σ (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)θ a(x, y, ξ + θ ) dydθ (1.1.46)

(cp. Sect. 1.1.9). Integrating by parts, we obtain

σ (x, ξ ) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)θ Dy 2N a(x, y, ξ + θ ) θ −2N dydθ. (1.1.47)

If . N is sufficiently large, the integrand in (1.1.47) is summable (see estimate (1.1.48)

below) and the integral (1.1.46) exists as an iterated one. We have
 
Dy 2N a(x, y, ξ + θ ) θ −2N  ≤ C x − y−s ξ + θ μ θ −2N
.

≤ 2|μ|/2 C x − y−s ξ μ θ |μ|−2N . (1.1.48)

Therefore,

|σ (x, ξ )| ≤ 2|μ|/2 C ξ μ
. x − y−s θ |μ|−2N dydθ ≤ C  ξ μ .

β
The estimates .|∂xα ∂ξ σ (x, ξ )| ≤ Cξ μ−|β| can be established in a similar way. Thus, .σ ∈
μ
Sb (Rn ). The equality .Op σ = A is verified in the same way as in Theorem 1.1.19. 


μ μ
We now assume that . A ∈ b (Rn ). A function .σ ∈ Sb (Rn ) satisfying .A = Op σ will
be called a symbol of A and denoted by .σA . According to Proposition 1.1.25, any operator
.A ∈ b (R ) (which does not need to be proper) has the only symbol. If .A ∈ b (R ) is
n n

a proper .DO, the symbol .σA just defined coincides with .σA in Sect. 1.1.9. Repeating the
proof of Theorem 1.1.19 with evident modifications, we obtain the asymptotic expansion

1 α α 
σA (x, ξ ) ∼
. D ∂ a(x, y, ξ )y=x ; (1.1.49)
α
α! y ξ
34 1 Preliminaries


here, a is any amplitude that defines A, and (1.1.49) means that .σA − |α|≤k−1 ... ∈
μ−k
Sb (Rn ) for all .k ∈ N.

3◦ . Symbols of transposed .DO and adjoint .DO. For .a ∈ Sb we have .t a , a ∗ ∈ Sb .

μ μ
.

Therefore, .A ∈ b implies .t A and .A∗ ∈ b . The expansions

μ μ

1 α α
σ (x, ξ ) ∼
. t D ∂ σA (x, −ξ ),
A
α
α! y ξ
1 α α
σA∗ (x, ξ ) ∼ D ∂ σA (x, ξ ) (1.1.50)
α
α! y ξ

follow from (1.1.49) (see Sect 1.1.10).

4◦ . Composition of .DO. We assume .A ∈ b (Rn ) and note that in the integral
μ
.

Au(x) = (2π )−n/2

. eixξ σA (x, ξ )û(ξ ) dξ (1.1.51)

one can change .u ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ) for any function in the Schwartz class .S(Rn ).

Proposition 1.1.26 The operator .A : S(Rn ) → S(Rn ) is continuous.

Proof Since .û ∈ S, the integral (1.1.51) is convergent. Integrating by parts, we obtain

Au(x) = (2π )−n/2

. eixξ Dξ 2N (σA (x, ξ )û(ξ )) dξ · x−2N .

We now note that .Dξ 2N (σA (x, ξ )û(ξ )) is a linear combination of the functions
γ
.∂ σA (x, ξ ) .× ∂ û(ξ ) with .|γ + δ| ≤ 2N and every of these functions is majorized
δ
ξ ξ
by const.ξ  for any .s ∈ R. Therefore, taking .s < −n, we obtain
s

.|Au(x)| ≤ C ξ s dξ · x−2N = C  x−2N .

Because the number N can be chosen arbitrarily, the function Au rapidly decays as .|x| →
∞. A similar assertion for the derivatives .∂ α (Au) follows from the fact that .∂ α (Au) is a
linear combination of integrals of the form (1.1.51):

α
∂ α (Au)(x) = (2π )−n
. i |β| eixξ ∂xα−β σA (x, ξ )ξ β û(ξ ) dξ.
β
β≤α
1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 35

Verification of the continuity of the mapping .A : S → S is left to the reader. (The

convergence .uj → 0 in .S means that, for any .α ∈ Zn+ and .s ∈ R, there exists a number
sequence .Cj → 0 such that .|∂ α uj (x)| ≤ Cj xs ). 


μ
In what follows, we assume that all operators in .b are defined on .S(Rn ). It is
convenient because every such operator sends .S(Rn ) to .S(Rn ), and the composition makes
sense for any A and B in .b (Rn ), which do not need to be proper. Let us show for
μ1 μ2 μ1 +μ2
.A ∈ 
b (R ) and .B ∈ b (R ) that .AB ∈ b
n n (Rn ). We use

ABu(x) = (2π )−n

. ei(x−y)ξ σA (x, ξ )σ̃B (y, ξ )u(y) dydξ,

μ μ
where .σ̃B (y, ξ ) = σtB (y, −ξ ) (see Sect. 1.1.10). Since .σA ∈ Sb 1 (Rn ) and .σ̃B ∈ Sb 2 (Rn ),
μ +μ
the function .(x, y, ξ ) → σA (x, ξ )σ̃B (y, ξ ) belongs to .Sb 1 2 (Rn , Rn ). Therefore, .AB ∈
μ1 +μ2
b (Rn ). The expansion

1 α
σAB (x, ξ ) ∼
. ∂ σA (x, ξ )Dxα σB (x, ξ ) (1.1.52)
α
α! ξ

can be verified in the same way as in Sect. 1.1.10.

1.1.13 The Boundedness of DO in L2 (Rn )

Let .(u, v) and .$u$ be the inner product and norm in .L2 (Rn ) and let .BL2 (Rn ) be the set
of all bounded operators in .L2 (Rn ). An operator .A ∈ (Rn ) is said to be bounded and
.A ∈ BL2 (R ) if A extends to a bounded operator in .L2 (R ). Every following condition is
n n

equivalent to .A ∈ BL2 (Rn ):

(i) .$Au$ ≤ C$u$ ∀ u ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ).

(ii) .|(Au, v)| ≤ C$u$$v$ ∀ u, v ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ).

For .A ∈ b (Rn ), we have .(Au, v) = (u, A∗ v) with any .u, v ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ). By continuity,
the equality extends to .u, v ∈ S(Rn ). Since .$Au$2 = (Au, Au) = (A∗ Au, u) ≤
$A∗ Au$$u$, the inclusion .A∗ A ∈ BL2 (Rn ) ∈ BL2 (Rn ) implies .A ∈ BL2 (Rn ).
Moreover, .A∗ A ∈ BL2 (Rn ) follows from .(A∗ A)∗ (A∗ A) = (A∗ A)2 ∈ BL2 (Rn ) and
so on. Therefore, if the operator .(A∗ A)2 is bounded for a certain .k ∈ Z+ , we obtain
k

.A ∈ BL2 (R ).
n
36 1 Preliminaries

Lemma 1.1.27 Let .G ∈ C(R2n ) and let A be an integral operator given for .u ∈ Cc∞ (Rn )
by

Au(x) =
. G(x, y)u(y) dy.

Under the conditions

C1 := sup
. |G(x, y)| dx < +∞ and C2 := sup |G(x, y)| dy < +∞,
y x

√
the operator A belongs to .BL2 (Rn ) and .$A$ ≤ C1 C2 .

Proof Since .Cc∞ (Rn ) is dense in .L2 (Rn ), it suffices to show that .|(Au, v)| ≤
√
C1 C2 $u$$v$ for all .u, v ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ). We have
 2
|(Au, v)|2 ≤
. |G(x, y)||u(y)||v(x)| dxdy

≤ |G(x, y)||u(y)|2 dxdy |G(x, y)||v(x)|2 dxdy

≤ C1 |u(y)|2 dy · C2 |v(x)|2 dx = C1 C2 $u$2 $v$2 .




Theorem 1.1.28 Every operator .A ∈ b0 (Rn ) is bounded in .L2 (Rn ).

Proof We consider the following three cases.

μ μ
(1) .A ∈ b , .μ < −n. Let .a ∈ Sb (Rn , Rn ) be an amplitude satisfying .A = Op a and

|a(x, y, ξ )| ≤ C x − y−(n+1) ξ μ
. (1.1.53)

(such an amplitude exists, see the proof of Proposition 1.1.25). Since .μ < −n, the
function .ξ → a(x, y, ξ ) is summable for fixed x and y. Therefore,

Au(x) =
. G(x, y)u(y) dy, u ∈ Cc∞ (Rn ),

where

.G(x, y) = (2π )−n ei(x−y)ξ a(x, y, ξ ) dξ.

1.1 Pseudodifferential Operators 37

From (1.1.53), it follows that .|G(x, y)| ≤ C  x − y−(n+1) . Then,

C1 := sup
. |G(x, y)| dx ≤ C  z−(n+1) dz < +∞
y

C2 := sup |G(x, y)| dy < +∞.

x

By Lemma 1.1.27, the operator A extends to a continuous operator in .L2 (Rn ).

(2) .A ∈ b , .μ < 0. For .k ∈ Z+ the order of .DO .(A∗ A)2 is equal to .μ2k+1 . If k is
μ k

chosen to satisfy .μ2k+1 < −n, the operator .(A∗ A)2 is bounded, and consequently, A
k

is bounded as well.
(3) .A ∈ b0 . We set .b = (M 2 − |σA |2 )1/2 with a constant M such that .sup |σA | < M. It
is easy to verify .b ∈ Sb0 . Let .B = Op b. From the expansions (1.1.50) and (1.1.52), it
follows that

σA∗ A = |σA |2 + σ1 ,
. σ1 ∈ Sb−1 ,
σB ∗ B = M 2 − |σA |2 + σ2 , σ2 ∈ Sb−1 .

Hence, .σA∗ A + σB ∗ B = M 2 + σ , where .σ ∈ Sb−1 . Therefore,

A∗ A + B ∗ B = M 2 I + C ,
. C ∈ b−1 ;

here, .I : u → u is the identity operator. Since .M 2 I + C ∈ BL2 (Rn ), we obtain

∗ ∗
.A A + B B ∈ BL2 (R ). Then,
n

 
$Au$2 ≤ $Au$2 + $Bu$2 = (A∗ A + B ∗ B)u, u
.

≤ $A∗ A + B ∗ B$$u$2 .

Thus, .A ∈ BL2 (Rn ).




1.1.14 DO in Sobolev Spaces

For .s ∈ R, the Sobolev space .H s (Rn ) is the completion of the set .S in the norm
 1/2
$u$s := (2π )−n
. |û(ξ )|2 ξ 2s dξ < +∞.
38 1 Preliminaries

For .s ∈ Z+ , the formula

 1/2
$u$s =
. |∂ α u|2 dx
|α|≤s

defines an equivalent norm in .H s (Rn ). We set .Dt = F −1 ξ t F for .t ∈ R. It is easy to

see that the operator . Dt : H s (Rn ) → H s−t (Rn ) is unitary for all s.

μ
Theorem 1.1.29 Every .DO .A ∈ b (Rn ) extends to a bounded operator .As :
H s (Rn ) → H s−μ (Rn ) (∀ s).

Proof Let us write A in the form .A = Dμ−s (Ds−μ AD−s )Ds . The operators
.D
s : H s (Rn ) → H 0 (Rn ) and .Dμ−s : H 0 (Rn ) → H s−μ (Rn ) are unitary, and

the operator in parentheses belongs to .b0 (Rn ) and consequently extends to a bounded
operator .H 0 (Rn ) → H 0 (Rn ). 


1.1.15 Elliptic Pseudodifferential Operators

Definition 1.1.30 A symbol a ∈ S μ () is called an elliptic symbol of order μ if, for any
compact K ⊂ , there exist positive constants c and t such that

|a(x, ξ )| ≥ c ξ μ
. for x ∈ K , |ξ | ≥ t. (1.1.54)

We denote by ES μ () the set of all elliptic symbols of order μ. Unlike S μ (), the classes
ES μ () are pairwise non-intersecting. If a ∈ ES μ (), the function (x, ξ ) → a(x, ξ )−1
is an elliptic symbol for large |ξ |. More precisely, let K ⊂  be an arbitrary compact and
let c and t be constants corresponding to K (see (1.1.54)). Then,
β 
|∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ )−1 | ≤ Cξ −μ−|β|
. for x ∈ K , |ξ | ≥ t

β 
(∀ α, β; C = C(α, β, K)). Indeed, it is easy to verify by induction that ∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ )−1
is a linear combination of functions of the form a −k b, 1 ≤ k ≤ |α + β| + 1, b ∈
S (k−1)μ−|β| (). From the last inclusion, it follows that

|b(x, ξ )| ≤ C ξ (k−1)μ−|β| ,
. (x, ξ ) ∈ K × Rn ;

moreover, |a(x, ξ )−1 | ≤ c−1 ξ −μ for x ∈ K, |ξ | ≥ t. Therefore,

|a(x, ξ )−k b(x, ξ )| ≤ Cc−k ξ −μ−|β|

.

β 
⇒ |∂xα ∂ξ a(x, ξ )−1 | ≤ C  ξ −μ−|β| , x ∈ K, |ξ | ≥ t,

what was needed. The ellipticity of a(x, ξ )−1 is evident.

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Abedário, as Abecedário.

Abedáre, as Abecedáre.
A bẻll'ágio, at faire leasure, leasurely.
A bẻlla pósta, for the verie nonce, purposely, wittinglie, expreslie.
A bẻl stúdio, as A bẻlla pósta.
Abẻllíne, a kind of fill-birds, or small-nuts.
Abenchè, although, albeit.
A bendẻlle, with bendlets in armory.
Abentáre, as Abbentáre.
Abénto, vsed for Atténto.
Abẻrráre, to stray or wander vp and downe.
A bẻrtolótto, scotfree, without paiment, fidlers fare, meat, drinke and
mony.
Ab espẻrto, by experience, by proofe.
Abestóne, a kind of blackish stone.
Abẻte, the tree or wood called Firre.
Abẻto, idem.
Ab etẻrno, of yore, from all eternitie.
Abgiuráre, to abiure, to forsweare.
Abgiuratióne, an abiuring, or forswearing.
Abhorréuole, loathsome, to be abhorred.
Abhorriménto, abhorring, loathsomnesse.
Abhorríre, rísco, ríto, to abhorre, to loath.
Abiccáre, as Abbiccáre.
Abiẻttaménte, abiectly, basely, contemptibly, scornfully.
Abiẻttáre, to abiect, to dispise, to scorne, to outcast, to contemne.
Abiẻttióne, abiection, basenesse, scorne, contempt.
Abiẻtto, abiect, base, vile, outcast, scorned.
Abíga, Iuie, or ground frankinsense.
Abigáre, to twine or bind about, as Iuie.
Ábile, able, sufficient.
Abilità, ablenesse, abilitie.
Abilitáre, to enable.
Abilẻo, a kind of fine, soft, and best spunge.
Ab inítio, from the beginning.
A bisdósso, bare-backt, looke Caualcáre.
Abissáre, as Abbissáre.
Abísso, as Abbísso.
Abísto, a stone which being once heated keepes his heat eight daies.
Abitábile, enhabitable.
Abitácolo, an habitation, a dwelling.
Abitánte, a dweller, an enhabitant.
Abitánza, a dwelling, an inhabitation.
Abitáre, to dwell, to inhabit, to win.
Abitatióne, a dwelling, an habitation.
Abitatíuo, inhabiting, dwelling.
Abitẻllo, any kind of little weede or habit.
Ábito, as Hábito.
Abitúdine, as Habitúdine.

Abitúro, as Habitúro.
Ablatíuo, the Ablatiue case of taking away.
Abláto, caried away by force, or violently.
Abnegáre, to deny, to abiure.
Abnegatióne, a denying, an abiuring.
A bócca, by word of mouth, by mouth.
A bócca piéna, with full mouth.
A bócca baciáta, as easie as to kisse my mouth, that is to say with thanks.
Abócco, a kind of waight or coine.
Abolatíuo, looke vẻrme.
Abólla, a Senators habite, a furred garment vsed anciently by Kings and
Philosophers.
Abollíre, as Abbollíre.
Abollitióne, as Abbollitióne.
Abómba, is properly the place, where children playing hide themselues, as
at a play called king by your leaue. Some call it Gióstra prigioniéra: it is
also prouerbially vsed of them that in hard enterprises keepe their wits
 about them. It is also a mans home or dwelling. Also as we vse to say:
Home againe home againe, market is done. Also soked or laid in steepe.
Abombáre, to steepe or lay in soke, looke Abómba.
Abominándo, as Abbominándo.
Abominánza, as Abbominánza.
Abomináre, as Abbomináre.
Abominatióne, as Abbominatióne.
Abominéuole, as Abbominéuole.
Abomínio, as Abbomínio.
Abominóso, as Abbominóso.
Abonaménto, as Abbonaménto.
Abonáre, as Abbonáre.
Abondánte, abundant, plenteous.
Abondanteménte, abundantly, plenteously.
Abondánza, abundance, plenty, store.
Abondanziére, one that hath the charge to looke to the store of victualls in
a citty or campe, and to prouide plenty of prouision, a victualer.
Abondáre, to abound, to haue plenty.
Abondéuole, abundant, plentifull.
Abondóso, abundant, plenteous.
Abonéuole, that may be made good.
Abordáre, as Abbordáre.
Abórdo, as Abbórdo.
Aborráre, to stuffe or guilt. Also to abhorre.
Abortáre, as Abbortáre.
Abortíre, as Abbortáre.
Abortióne, as Abbortióne.
Abortíuo, as Abbortíuo.
Abosimáre, as Bosimáre.
Abotáre, to vowe or promise vnto.
A bótta, made like the back of a toad, as some breast plates be.
A bótta di fíco, look Tiráre a bótta di fico.
Abottinaménto, as Abbottinaménto.
Abottináre, as Abbottináre.
Abottíno, mutinously, a boot-haling, a freebooting.
Abozzaménto, as Abbozzaménto.
Abozzáre, as Abbozzáre.
Abozzatóre, as Abbozzatóre.
Abozzatúra, as Abbozzatúra.
A bráccia apẻrte, with open armes.
A bráccia quádre, with vnfolded armes.
A brága, with a breeche, as some pieces are.
Abráme, a fish called a breame.
A bráno, by piece-meale, by mamocks.
A bráno a bráno, idem.
Abrenúzzo, as Abronúntio.
A bríglia sciólta, in full speed, vnbrideledly.
Abriólo, a singing Canary bird.
Abristicáre, as Abbrustoláre.
A brócca. Nemíco a brócca, an enemy from the lance to the bodkin or
nailes point.
Abrocáre, to become hoarce. Also to snort.
Abrodiẻto, fine, delicate and sumptuous.
Abrogáre, as Abbollíre.
Abrogatióne, as Abbollitióne.
Abronúntia, hath beene vsed for a whirret on the eare, or any other
meanes to rid one away, as one would say, a casting of.
Abrostína, a kind of wild wine or grape.
Abrótano, the herb southernwood.
Abruciáre, as Abrusciáre.
Abruggiáre, to burne, as Abrusciáre.
A brúno, vestíto a brúno, clad in mourning or blacke.
Abrúsca, any wild wine or grape.
Abruscáre, to make sowre or sharpe. Also to seare, to parch, to scorch, to
singe.
Abrusciáre, to burne or consume with fire. Also to itch or smart.
Abrusciaménto, a burning.
Abrusciéuole, that may burne.
Abrustíre, as Abbrustoláre.
Abrutáre, as Abbrutáre.
Abruttaménte, abruptly, out of order, without preface or due course.
Abrútto, abrupt, disordered, out of course.
Absentáre, to absent.
Absénza, absence.
Absíde, the point wherein any planet is furthest from the earth.
Absíde supréma, the highest point of any planet.
Absíde ínfima, the lowest point of any planet.
Absínthio, the herbe wormewood. Also a kind of blackish stone.
Absinthíno, made, or tasting of wormewood.

Absíte, a kind of pretious stone.

Absoléto, out of vse, vtterly abolished.
Absólto, as Assólto.
Absóluere, as Assóluere.
Absolutióne, as Assolutióne.
Absolúto, as Assolúto.
Absóno, dissonant, vntuned.
Absórbere, sórbo, sorbéi, sorbúto, sórto, to swallow, or glut vp.
Absordità, absurdity, inconuenience.
Absórdo, absurd, inconuenient, against reason.
Abstenére, to abstaine.
Abstẻrgere, to cleanse or wipe away.
Abstẻrtíuo, scouring, cleansing, or wiping away.
Abstinẻnte, abstinent.
Abstinẻnza, abstinence.
Abstrárre, to abstract, or draw from.
Abstrattióne, abstraction.
Abstrúso, abstruse, secret, inward, darke to be vnderstood.
Absurdaménte, absurdly, vnorderly.
Absurdità, absurdity, inconuenience.
Absúrdo, absurd, against reason.
Abucciuólo, looke Innestáre.
A buóna derráta, good cheape, cheapefull.
A buóna lúna, in a luckie time of the moone, as we say in a good houre.
A buóna ragióne, vpon good reason, good reason why, rightfully.
A buón barátto, cheape, good cheape.
A buón cónto, in part of paiment, toward the reckoning.
A buón hóra, early, timely, betimes.
A buón hótta, idem.
A buón mercáto, cheape, good cheape.
Aburattáre, to belt or sift meale.
Abusáre, to abuse, to misorder.
Abuséuole, that may be abused.
Abusióne, abusion, misorder.
Abusiuaménte, abusiuely, misorderly.
Abusíuo, abusiue, improper.
Abúso, abuse, misorder.
Ab úso, from vse or custome.
Abuzzágo, a kind of buzzard, kite or puttocke.
A cáccia, a hunting, a hawking, a fowling, a chasing, a driuing.
Acácia, a shrub called the Egyptian thorne. Also a certaine iuice made of
apples and other things. Also a kind of thorny plant bearing great
timber.
Acadẻmia, an academie or vniuersitie where studies are professed.
Acadẻmiánte, of or pertaining to an vniuersitie, an academian.
Acadẻmico, academicall, a student in any vniuersity.
A cagióne, by occasion, because.
A calzóppo, skipping or hopping vpon one foot.
A cámbio, by exchange, mutually.
A cámmẻra locánda, in or at an hired chamber.

Acaníno, a casting bottle. Also an ewer.

Acáno, the sea-holy. Some take it for licorice.
Acantáuola, an instrument that Chirurgions vse to pull out bones with.
Acánte, the hearb grounswell. Also a dumb grashopper. Also the bird
Linnet or Siskin.
Acanthicéne, the thistle-masticke.
Acánthio, the brazell-tree or wood.
Acántica, a kind of gum or drug.
Acántida, as Acánte.
A cánto, neere, by, ioining or close vnto. Also the hearb Beare-foot,
Beares-breech, or Brank-ursin.
Acánzi, soldiers among the Turkes that only to get themselues honor goe
to the wars on their owne charges.
Acapnóne, a kind of hony gathered without smoke.
A cápo, to the head, or end, or conclusion.
A cápo chíno, with head bending, that is reuerently stooping or louting.
A cápo ẻrto, with an vpright head, or vndanted looke.
A cápo rítto, idem.
A capríccio, toyeshly, humorously.
Acaremónde, the root of Ossimirsine.
Acarionágrio, the hearb Ossimirsine.
Acárno, a sea fish hauing a great head and skales like gold.
A cáro, deer, acceptably, gladly, pleasing to ones mind. Also wild Mirtle or
Gow. Also a kind of little worme or mite.
Acaróne, a kind of Mirtle with indiuisible branches.
A cása, at home, home, in the house.
A casáccio, by ill or filthy chance.
A cáso, by chance, by fortune, by hap, casually.
Acáta. Acáte, an agath stone.
A catafáscio, in hudling or rumbling fashion.
Acatía, a kind of drug so called.
A caualcióni, stradling as men ride.
A caualliére, as topping ouer or mounted vpon. Looke Caualliére.
A cauállo, on horseback mounted vpon.
A cauállo a cauállo, in post-hast, a snatch and away. Also a certaine march
that trumpetters vse to sound in giuing a suddaine alarum.
A cáusa, because, by occasion.
A cáusa chè, because, that.
Ácca, the letter H.
Accadére, cádo, cáddi, cadúto, to befall, to happen.
Accadéuole, that may befall, or happen.
Accadútoo, befalne, hapned, chanced.
Accaffáre, as Acceffáre.

Accagionáre, as Occasionáre, to blame, to lay to ones charge, to impute.

Accagliáre, to crud or crudle.
Accaglióso, cruddy, full of cruds.
Accaláre, as Caláre.
Accaldáre, to heat, to warme.
Accalonniáre, as Calonniáre.
Accambiáre, to exchange, as Cambiáre.
Accambiatóre, as Cambiatóre.
Accampanáre, to frame as a bell.
Accampanáto, fashioned as a bell.
Accampáre, to encampe, to beleagre, to besiege. Also to place a cote vpon
any field or Skutcheon.
Accanalatúra, a chanfuring, a chaneling.
Accanáre, Accanáto, as Accaníre.
Accaneggiáre, to bait with dogs.
Accanẻlláre, to dresse with cinamond.
Accanẻlláre, to chamfure, to enchanell, to make gutter-wise.
Accaníre, nísco, níto, to make or become dogged, currish, churlish, cruell,
or remorcelesse, to enrage as a mad dog.
Accaníto, endogged, currish, enraged as a mad dog. Also set on by dogs.
Accannáre, to pricke or strike with canes, or reeds. Also to glut to the
throte.
Accanneggiáre, as Accannáre.
Accánto, a Goldfinch or Linnet as some take it.
Accantonáre, as Cantonáre.
Accantonáto, cornered, angled. Also cosened, cheated or left in a corner.
Accantoniére, as Cantoniére.
Accapacciáto, entangled in businesse, busied in mind and bodie.
Accapére, to cull, to chuse.
Accapestráre, as Capestráre.
Accapẻzzáre, to put in a maund or hutch.
Accaponáre, to capon, to geld, to lib, to splaie.
Accappáre, to snatch, to catch, or seaze vpon.
Accapparisonáre, to caparison a horse.
Accapparisonáto, caparisoned.
Accappiáre, to make in sliding knots. Also to entangle, to ensnare, to
entramell.
Accappiatúra, an entangling, an entrameling, an ensnaring.
Accappigliáre, to tug or touze by the haire, to bind vp a womans haire.
Also to ioine battell, to set together by the haires, to bind, to tie, to knit.
Accappucciáre, to grow round as a cabadge.
Accappucciáta lattúca, a hard cabidge letuce.
Accapricciársi, to take a mood or humor in ones head. Also to looke
staringlie, to be affrighted till ones haire stand for feare.

Accarezzaménto, any cherishing or cockering or making much of.

Accarezzáre, to cherish, to cocker, to make much of, to entertaine louingly.
Accarieráre, to teach a horse to cariere.
Accarnáre, to flesh, to incarnate, to entre a dog.
Accárno, as Acárno.
Accarpionáre, to souse or dresse fish with vinegre to bee eaten cold, to
marle fish.
Accartocciáre, to wrap or fold vp in coffins of paper.
Accasáre, to house, to build or store with houses, to ioine house to house,
to lodge, to harborough. Also to marry or allie house to house.
Accascáre, to befall, to happen.
Accasciáre, to crudle as cheese. Also to bruse, to squease or make flat.
Also to weare flat, to diminish, to bruise or squat in falling.
Accastiáre, as Accasciáre.
Accatta-bríghe, as Catta-bríghe.
Accattalíngua, a getter of the word, a purchaser of audience.
Accattaménti, borrowings, gettings, findings or shiftings.
Accattáre, to borrow, to get, to shift for, to acquire. Also to beg vp and
downe.
Accattáre in préstito, to get by borrowing.
Accattaráto, as Accattarróso.
Accattarróso, rheumatick, full of catarrhs.
Accattastáre, to pile or range orderly.
Accattatóre, a shifter, a getter, a borrower.
Accattatózzi, a begger of scraps.
Accátti, gettings, gaines, vailes, borowings, or shiftings for.
Accattítia, a kind of grose furmentie gurts.
Accaualláre, to set or mount on horse-back. Also to mount ordinance.
Accauigliáre, to stringe silke or giue it a glasse.
Accauigliatóre, a stringer of silke.
Accecaménto, a blinding.
Accecáre, to blind.
Accédere, cẻdo, cedéi, cedúto, to accede, to aproch or haue accesse vnto.
Also to assent vnto.
Acceffáre, to take by the snout. Also to busse or beake as a hog doth.
Accẻffo, a taking by the snout. Also a bussing of beake to beake.
Accégia, a moore hen.
Acceleránza, haste or quicke speed.
Acceleráre, to hasten, to make speed.
Acceleratióne, haste or quick speed.
Accencíre, císco, cíto, to reduce vnto tatters or rags. Accencíre úna dónna,
to thrum a wench.

Accẻndere, accẻndo, accési, accéso, to kindle, to enflame, to set on fire, to

light. Also to prouoke or egge-on. Also in Florence to curse, to banne, to
chafe, to sweare.
Accẻndéuole, that may be enkindled.
Accẻndiménto, an enkindling, a prouoking.
Acceneríre, rísco, ríto, to consume or burne to ashes or cinders, to
encinder.
Accennáre, to nod, to becken, to make a signe, to giue an inkling. Also by
some signe to glance at anie thing a far of by speech or action.
Accennaménto, a nod, a beck, an inkling. Also a signe or glancing at anie
thing.
Accẻnsióne, an enkindling, an enflaming.
Accẻnso, enflamed, enkindled. Also such a one as is appointed in the place
of a dead man.
Accẻntáre, to accent or giue the due sound to any letter or word.
Accẻnto, an accent or point ouer anie letter to giue it a due sound.
Accentuáre, as Accentáre.
Accerchiáre, to hoope or circle about. Also to encompasse round.
Accerchiéuole, compassable, that may be hooped.
Accẻrrimo, cruell, fell, moodie.
Accẻrtaménto, an assurance, a warrant.
Accẻrtánza, assurance, a warrant.
Accẻrtáre, to assure, to ascertaine, to warrant.
Accẻrtatióne, an assurance, a certificate.
Accẻrto, certes, certainlie.
Accẻruíre, vísco, víto, to heape or huddle together.
Accẻruo, a heape, a hudle, a round masse.
Accéso, enflamed, enkindled, set on fire.
Accẻssíbile, accessible, that accesse may be had vnto.
Accẻssióne, an accession, an eeking, an augmentation. Also as Accẻsso.
Accẻssíuo, accessiue, aproachable.
Accẻsso, accesse or aproach vnto. Also an encrease or flowing vnto. Also a
fit or accesse of an ague or any other sicknesse, a qualme. Also a
skonce.
Accẻssóre, accessarie or a consenter.
Accẻssoriaménte, accessiuelie, by his owne seeking.
Accẻssório, accessorie, consenting vnto.
Accẻttábile, acceptable.
Accẻttábolo, the pan or hollownesse wherein the huckle bone turneth. Also
a iuglers box. Also a certaine measure. Also a kind of musicall
instrument. Also a kind of plant.

Accẻttáre, to accept, to take.

Accẻttár l'inuíto, to accept an offer or inuitation, to see the vie at any
plaie.
Accẻttatióne, an acceptation.
Accẻttéuole, acceptable.
Accẻtteuolézza, acceptation.
Accẻttíssimo, most acceptable.
Accẻtto, accepted. Also acceptable, gratefull, in good worth.
Acchéggia, a moore hen.
Acchenẻa, a hackney or ambling nag.
Acchetáre, to quiet, to hush, to still, to appease, to calme.
Acchetatióne, a quieting, a hushing, a stilling, an appeasing, a calming.
Acchetéuole, that may be quieted, husht or calmed.
Acchiappáre, to catch by the buttocks. Also to take or ouertake or catch in
running.
Acchinẻa, a hackney or ambling nag.
Acchiocciáto, become lustie and strouting as a cackling hen about her
chickens.
Áccia, anie yarne to be wouen, any spinning, or statute yarne in skeanes.
Also a hatchet, an axe, a chip-axe, or chopping knife.
Acciaccáre, to stampe or punne in a morter, to hauock, to spoile or
destroie. Also to offer some affront or suddaine iniurie vpon ods and
aduantage.
Acciácco, a hauock, a spoile. Also an affront or iniurie offered vnto another
vpon anie ods and aduantage. Also a stamping or punning and brusing
in a morter.
Acciaffáre, to snatch or hooke away.
Acciáio, Acciále, steele.
Accialáre, to steele.
Acciále, anie kind of steele.
Accialíno, a steele to strike fire. Also the swiuell of a chaine.
Acciapináre, to miche, to shrug or sneake in some corner, and with
pouting lips to shew anger as an ape being beaten and grinning with his
teeth.
Acciáre, to reduce into skeanes as spinning yarne. Also to hatch or chop.
Acciárpa, botchinglie, bunglinglie.
Acciarpáre, to botch or bungle.
Accidẻntalità, casualtie, chance, hap.
Accidẻntále, accidentall, casuall.
Accidẻntalménte, by chance, accidentallie.
Accidẻnte, an accident, a chance, a hap. Also a fit of an ague or other
sicknesse.
Accidẻntário, accidentall, casuall.
Accídia, sloth, idlenesse, lazinesse.
Accidióso, slothfull, idle, lazie.
Acciẻcáre, to blind, to hoodwinke.
Acciẻcatúra, a blinding.
Acciẻffáre, as Acciuffáre.

Accigliáre, to seele a pigeons eies. Also to looke staringlie or musinglie.

Accimáre, to sheare clothes. Also to clip, to pare, to top or lop trees. Also
to trim, to dresse or pranke vp. Also to gird or prepare for something.
Accimatúra, as Cimatúra.
Accíngere, cíngo, cínsi, cínto, to gird about. Also to prepare to doe
something.
Accíno, a grape-stone, a kernell, a graine or seed of anie fruit. Also the
wheele of anie well wherein the chaine goes. Also a crane to draw vp
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