Module 7: Understanding HVAC

Systems

HVAC System Overview

Why do we need HVAC? Basic principles of

thermodynamics relevant to HVAC

HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilation, and Air

Conditioning. These systems are essential in both residential
and commercial buildings for:

1. Thermal Comfort: Maintaining comfortable indoor

temperatures (heating in winter, cooling in summer).
2. Air Quality: Filtering, humidifying/dehumidifying, and
exchanging air to ensure healthy indoor environments.
3. Energy Efficiency: Proper HVAC design minimizes
energy use while maintaining comfort.
4. Equipment Protection: Sensitive electronics or
industrial equipment require stable temperature and
humidity.
5. Building Health: Prevents mold, condensation, and
indoor pollutants.
Basic Principles of Thermodynamics in HVAC
HVAC systems operate based on the laws of thermodynamics,
which govern energy transfer, especially heat and work.

1. First Law of Thermodynamics – Conservation of Energy

 Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.

 In HVAC: Heat added or removed from air is calculated using
this law.
o Example: In an air conditioner, electrical energy powers a

compressor that removes heat from indoor air and releases

it outside.

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics – Direction of Heat Transfer

 Heat naturally flows from hot to cold.

 HVAC systems use energy to reverse this flow when needed
(e.g., in heat pumps or refrigerators).
o Example: A heat pump moves heat from the cold outside

into a warm interior during winter.

3. Thermodynamic Cycles (e.g., Refrigeration Cycle)

 The vapor-compression cycle is foundational to air

conditioning and refrigeration.
o Involves evaporation, compression, condensation, and

expansion.
o Transfers heat from inside to outside using a refrigerant.

4. Latent and Sensible Heat

 Sensible heat: Change in temperature.

  Latent heat: Change in phase (e.g., water vapor condensing
without changing temperature).
o HVAC systems manage both (e.g., dehumidifying air

involves removing latent heat).

5. Enthalpy and Specific Heat

 Enthalpy is used to calculate the total heat content of air.

 Specific heat is used to determine how much energy is required
to raise air temperature.

Refrigeration cycle in HVAC systems

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most common

method used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems. It
consists of four main components:

Four Stages of the Refrigeration Cycle:

1. Evaporator (Low Pressure Side)
o Function: Absorbs heat from indoor air.

o Process: The liquid refrigerant evaporates by absorbing

heat, cooling the air.

 o Result: Air gets cooler; refrigerant becomes low-pressure
vapor.
2. Compressor
o Function: Increases pressure and temperature of the

vapor.
o Process: Sucks in low-pressure vapor and compresses it to

high-pressure vapor.
o Result: The refrigerant becomes hot and pressurized.

3. Condenser (High Pressure Side)

o Function: Releases heat to the outside air.

o Process: Hot vapor condenses back into a liquid as it loses

heat to the outdoors.

o Result: Heat is expelled; refrigerant becomes high-

pressure liquid.

4. Expansion Valve (or Capillary Tube)

o Function: Reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant.

o Process: The high-pressure liquid passes through the valve

and expands.
o Result: Becomes a low-pressure, cool liquid ready for the

evaporator.
Psychrometric Processes in HVAC (8 Basic
Processes)
Psychrometrics is the study of moist air and its properties, essential
for air conditioning design.

The chart illustrates the relationship between temperature (t) on the x-

axis and humidity ratio (ω) on the y-axis. It is divided into different
regions, each representing a specific psychrometric process. The eight
main processes shown in the image are:

1. Sensible Cooling: This process cools the air without changing

its moisture content, resulting in a decrease in the dry-bulb
temperature.
 2. Sensible Heating: This process heats the air without altering its
moisture content, leading to an increase in the dry-bulb
temperature.

3. Cooling + Dehumidification: This process cools the air while

reducing its moisture content, leading to a decrease in both the
dry-bulb temperature and the humidity ratio.
4. Heating + Humidification: This process involves heating the
air while increasing the moisture, increasing the dry-bulb
temperature and the humidity ratio.

5. Humidification: This process adds moisture to the air without

changing its dry-bulb temperature.
6. Dehumidification: This process removes moisture from the air
without changing its dry-bulb temperature.

7. Evaporative Cooling: Cooling air by evaporating water into it

(e.g., using a swamp cooler).
8. Mixing of Two Streams: Combining two air streams with
different temperatures and humidity levels. The resulting air's
properties depend on the flow rates and properties of the input
streams

The 8 Basic Psychrometric Processes:

# Process Description
Dry-bulb temperature increases, moisture
1 Sensible Heating content stays the same (e.g., heating air with
a coil).
Dry-bulb temperature decreases, no
2 Sensible Cooling moisture removed (e.g., cooling coil above
dew point).
3 Humidification Moisture added to air (e.g., steam or spray
# Process Description
humidifiers), raising humidity ratio.
Moisture removed from air (e.g., cooling air
4 Dehumidification
below dew point), lowering humidity ratio.
Heating and Both temperature and moisture increase
5
Humidification (e.g., in winter air handling).
Cooling and Both temperature and moisture decrease
6
Dehumidification (e.g., summer air conditioning).
Two air streams mix without
Adiabatic Mixing of
7 adding/removing heat, resulting in
Air Streams
intermediate conditions.
Water evaporates into air, reducing
8 Evaporative Cooling temperature while increasing humidity (e.g.,
swamp coolers).

These processes are visualized using a psychrometric chart, which

maps out relationships between:

 Dry-bulb temperature
 Wet-bulb temperature
 Relative humidity
 Enthalpy (heat content)
 Dew point
 Specific volume

Air Handling Units (AHU)

An Air Handling Unit (AHU) is a central component of HVAC

systems, responsible for conditioning and circulating air as part of
the building's heating, cooling, and ventilation system.

What is an AHU?
An AHU is a large metal box that contains various components for
managing air.

It receives outside air, filters it, heats or cools it, and then
distributes it throughout the building via ductwork.

AHUs are typically located in mechanical rooms, rooftops, or within

large duct systems.

Working Principles of an Air Handling Unit (AHU)

An Air Handling Unit (AHU) operates based on the principles of air
movement, heat exchange, filtration, and humidity control to
condition and circulate air within a building.

Step-by-Step Working Principle of AHU:

1. Air Intake
o Fresh outdoor air and return air (from inside the

building) enter the AHU through dampers.

o Dampers regulate the proportion of fresh vs. return air

based on demand or occupancy.

2. Air Filtration
o The incoming air passes through filters (pre-filters and

fine filters) to remove dust, pollen, and contaminants.

o This ensures indoor air quality and protects internal AHU

components.
3. Air Conditioning (Cooling/Heating)
o The filtered air flows through heating or cooling coils:

 Cooling Coil: Uses chilled water or refrigerant to

lower the air temperature.

 Heating Coil: Uses hot water, steam, or electric

heating to increase air temperature.

o The heat exchange follows thermodynamic principles

(sensible and latent heat exchange).

 4. Humidity Control (Optional)
o Humidifiers or dehumidifiers may be used to maintain

desired humidity levels.

o Important in hospitals, data centers, or clean rooms.

5. Air Circulation
o A fan/blower drives the conditioned air through the

ductwork system into the occupied spaces.

o Fan speed may be controlled by variable frequency

drives (VFDs) to optimize airflow and save energy.

6. Air Mixing and Recirculation
o Some of the air may be recirculated through the return

ducts.
o This mixed air again enters the AHU for reconditioning.

7. Sensors and Control Systems

o Temperature, pressure, and humidity sensors provide

data to the Building Management System (BMS).

o Automated controls adjust damper positions, coil

temperatures, and fan speeds.

Key Concepts Behind AHU Operation:

 Psychrometrics: Understanding air properties like temperature,

humidity, and enthalpy is critical for proper control.
 Thermodynamics: Heat is added or removed from the air using
coils (1st Law of Thermodynamics: Energy conservation).
 Fluid Mechanics: Governs how air moves through filters, coils,
and ducts.
 Heat Transfer: Coils exchange heat with air using conduction
and convection.

An AHU works by:

1. Drawing in air
2. Filtering and conditioning it (temperature + humidity)
 3. Circulating it efficiently to the space
4. Managing air quality and comfort based on occupancy and
environmental needs

Components of Air Handling Unit (AHU)

Sensors and Actuators

Sensors and actuators are vital components that enable an AHU to

function intelligently, efficiently, and automatically under the
control of a Building Management System (BMS) or Direct Digital
Control (DDC) system.

Sensors in AHU
Sensors monitor environmental and system parameters to ensure
the AHU maintains desired indoor conditions.
 Sensor Type Function
Measures supply, return, mixed, and outside
Temperature Sensor
air temperatures.
Monitors relative humidity (RH) in
Humidity Sensor
supply/return air or room environment.
Differential Pressure Checks pressure across filters to detect
Sensor clogging or airflow resistance.
Measures the volume or velocity of air in
Airflow Sensor
ducts.
Carbon Dioxide Detects CO₂ levels to control fresh air intake
(CO₂) Sensor for ventilation efficiency.
Measures pressure in ductwork to regulate fan
Static Pressure Sensor
speed and maintain airflow.
Helps prevent condensation on cooling coils
Dew Point Sensor
or in the air stream.
Occupancy Sensor Detects presence of people to optimize airflow
 Sensor Type Function
(optional) and energy use.
Detects smoke and shuts down AHU in case
Smoke Detector
of fire.

Actuators in AHU
Actuators control the movement or adjustment of mechanical
components based on signals from the control system or sensors.

Actuator Type Function

Opens/closes dampers to control outside air,
Damper Actuator
return air, and exhaust air mixing.
Regulates the flow of hot/chilled water through
Valve Actuator
heating or cooling coils.
Fan Speed Adjusts fan motor speed for variable airflow
Controller (VFD) based on demand.
Controls the release of moisture into the
Humidifier Actuator
airstream.
Bypass Damper Diverts air around certain components (e.g.,
Actuator coils or filters) when needed.
Fire Damper Closes fire dampers automatically during a fire
Actuator event.
How They Work Together:

For example:

 A temperature sensor detects low supply air temperature.

 It sends data to the controller.
 The controller commands the valve actuator to reduce chilled
water flow.
 Simultaneously, the fan VFD may adjust speed to maintain
airflow efficiency.

Sequence of operation for Mixed Air VAV

AHU and 100% OA AHU

The sequence of operation for a Mixed Air Variable Air Volume

(VAV) Air Handling Unit (AHU) and a 100% Outside Air (OA)
AHU defines how each system functions to maintain proper
temperature, ventilation, and air quality in a building. Below is a clear
breakdown for both types.

1. Mixed Air VAV AHU - Sequence of

Operation
A Mixed Air VAV AHU uses a combination of return air and
outside air, modulates airflow via VAV boxes, and typically includes
cooling and/or heating coils.

➤ Sequence:

1. Start-up
o AHU fan starts based on a schedule or building automation
system (BAS).
o Outside air damper and return air damper modulate to
maintain minimum ventilation rate.
2. Economizer Control
o If outside air is cool enough (free cooling), OA damper
opens more to reduce mechanical cooling.
o Return air damper closes proportionally.
3. Filtration
o Mixed air passes through filters to remove particulates.
4. Cooling Coil Control
o If mixed air temp > setpoint, chilled water or DX cooling
coil activates.
o Coil valve modulates to maintain discharge air temp
(DAT) setpoint.
5. Heating Coil Control (if present)
o If mixed air temp < setpoint, heating coil activates.
o Hot water or electric coil modulates to maintain DAT.
6. Supply Fan Operation
 o Supply fan operates to maintain static pressure in supply
duct.
o Variable speed drive (VFD) adjusts speed based on duct
pressure sensor feedback.
7. VAV Terminal Control
o Each zone has a VAV box with a thermostat.
o VAV box modulates damper to deliver required airflow.
o Some VAVs include reheat coils for local zone heating.

8. Shutdown
o Based on schedule or command from BAS.
o Dampers close, fans stop.

2. 100% OA AHU - Sequence of Operation

A 100% OA AHU pulls in only outside air (no return air), used in
clean rooms, labs, hospitals, or where high ventilation is needed.

➤ Sequence:

1. Start-up
o System starts on schedule or BAS command.
o OA damper opens fully (since there's no return air).
2. Filtration
o OA passes through pre-filters and final filters (often HEPA
in healthcare).
3. Pre-Conditioning (Optional)
o In very hot/cold climates, a preheat coil or pre-cooling coil
may condition air before main coils.
4. Cooling Coil Operation
o Chilled water or DX coil cools air to desired supply air
temperature.
o Modulates via discharge air sensor.
5. Heating Coil Operation
o If needed, hot water or electric coil adds heat to maintain
setpoint.
6. Dehumidification
o May include humidity sensors and moisture removal
processes (cool-reheat method).
7. Supply Fan Operation
o VFD supply fan maintains required airflow and static
pressure.
o Often delivers constant volume (CV) or can be VAV
depending on application.
8. Exhaust/Air Recovery (if present)
o Heat Recovery Wheel (HRW) or Energy Recovery
Ventilator (ERV) may reclaim energy before exhaust.
9. Shutdown
o Stops based on schedule or demand.
o Dampers close, fans off, valves shut.
Fan Coil Units (FCU)
A Fan Coil Unit (FCU) is a simple device consisting of a coil and a fan, used
to condition the air in a space without needing ductwork connected to a
central Air Handling Unit (AHU). FCUs are widely used in commercial,
residential, and hospitality settings.

What is a Fan Coil Unit (FCU)?

An FCU is a terminal unit in an HVAC system that:

 Receives chilled water or hot water from a central plant.

 Uses a fan to blow air over the coil.
 Delivers cooled or heated air directly into the room or zone

Components of an FCU
1. Fan/Blower – Circulates air over the coil.
2. Cooling/Heating Coil – Heat exchanger connected to chilled/hot water
lines.
3. Filter – Captures dust before air is recirculated.
4. Drain Pan – Collects condensate from the coil.
5. Control Valve – Regulates water flow (modulating or on/off).
6. Thermostat – Local or remote, controls temperature.

Types of FCUs
 Type Description
One supply and one return; either hot or chilled water
2-pipe system
(seasonal changeover).
Separate pipes for hot and chilled water, allowing
4-pipe system
simultaneous heating/cooling.
Ceiling concealed Hidden above ceiling; ducted to diffusers.
Ceiling exposed / wall-
Visible units in the space.
mounted
Floor-mounted /
Often used in perimeter spaces or hotels.
Vertical

Role of FCUs in HVAC

✔️Localized Comfort Control:

 Allows individual zone control, ideal for buildings with variable

occupancy or usage patterns.

✔️Energy Efficiency:

 FCUs serve only the area they're in, minimizing unnecessary air
distribution.
 Uses chilled/hot water, which is more efficient to transport than air.

✔️Decentralization:

 Reduces the burden on central AHUs and ductwork.

 Each FCU operates independently, improving redundancy and
maintenance flexibility.

✔️Versatile Applications:

 Suitable for hotels, apartments, offices, and hospitals.

 Often used in retrofit projects where full ducted systems are impractical.

Example of FCU Operation

1. Room thermostat calls for cooling.
 2. FCU control valve opens, allowing chilled water to flow through the
coil.
3. Fan blows room air over coil, cooling it.
4. Air is returned to the room; excess moisture is drained via condensate
pan.
5. When setpoint is reached, valve closes, and fan may stop or run
continuously.

Variable Air Volume (VAV)

A Variable Air Volume (VAV) system is a type of HVAC system
that controls the amount of airflow (volume of air) delivered to
different zones of a building based on demand, rather than keeping
the airflow constant like in CAV (Constant Air Volume) systems.
This provides more precise temperature control and better energy
efficiency.

Core Concept of VAV

 The temperature of the supply air remains mostly constant.
 The air volume (flow rate) to each space varies depending on
the cooling or heating demand of the space.
 Air is typically supplied by a central Air Handling Unit
(AHU), and VAV terminal boxes modulate airflow to zones.

How a VAV System Works

1. Air Handling Unit (AHU)
o Supplies cooled (or heated) air at a fixed temperature.

o Air is distributed through ducts to multiple zones.

2. VAV Boxes
o Installed in ductwork before each zone.
 o Use a damper to adjust airflow based on temperature
demand from a thermostat.
o Can include reheat coils (electric or hot water) for heating

in that zone.
3. Thermostat Control
o Each zone has a thermostat that signals the VAV box to

open/close the damper.

o Less air is delivered when the zone reaches or exceeds the

desired temperature.
4. Fan Speed Control (Optional)
o Central supply fan with a variable frequency drive

(VFD) adjusts speed to maintain duct static pressure as

VAV dampers open/close.

Components of a VAV System

Component Function
AHU Central air handler supplies conditioned air.
Controls airflow to a zone by modulating a
VAV Box
damper.
Thermostat Sends demand signals to VAV box.
Reheat Coil Warms air if zone needs heat after airflow is
(optional) reduced.
Sensors Monitor temperature, pressure, and air quality.

Benefits of VAV Systems in HVAC

 Energy Efficiency: Reduces fan energy use and avoids
overcooling.
 Zoned Control: Individual temperature control per zone.
 Comfort: Maintains stable temperatures with less fluctuation.
 Scalability: Ideal for medium to large buildings.
Example Sequence of Operation
1. AHU supplies 55°F (13°C) air.
2. Zone A heats up due to sunlight → thermostat senses rise in
temperature.
3. VAV box opens damper to increase airflow to Zone A.
4. When Zone A reaches setpoint, VAV box closes damper
slightly.
5. If cooling load drops too much, reheat coil may activate (in cold
seasons).

Types of VAV

1. Constant Air Volume (CAV) (Not

technically VAV, but often compared)
 Airflow remains constant, temperature is varied by
heating or cooling the air.
 Used in small/simple spaces where zoning is not
needed.
 Not energy-efficient for variable load conditions.

2. Pressure Dependent VAV

 Airflow changes based on zone temperature and the
static pressure in the duct.
 No internal airflow sensor – damper position is
estimated.
 Cheaper but less accurate control, often leads to zone
discomfort.
3. Pressure Independent VAV (Most
common and preferred)
 Has an airflow sensor that allows it to maintain a set
airflow rate, regardless of duct pressure changes.
 Adjusts airflow based on actual demand, independent of
upstream conditions.
 Offers better comfort and energy efficiency.

4. Series Fan Powered VAV

 Has an internal fan that runs continuously.
 Primary air (from AHU) and recirculated air (from
ceiling plenum or return air) are mixed continuously.
 Often used in interior zones where constant airflow is
needed for ventilation.
 Can include a reheat coil for temperature control.

5. Parallel Fan Powered VAV

 Fan runs only during heating mode.
 In cooling mode: Only primary air from AHU is used.
 In heating mode: Damper reduces cold air, fan turns on
to draw warm return air and pass it over a reheat coil.
 Used in perimeter zones with morning or seasonal
heating needs.

6. Cooling-Only VAV
 No reheat or fan coil; provides cooling only by
modulating airflow.
  Simplest and cheapest VAV type.
 Suitable for interior zones where heating is never
needed.

7. VAV with Reheat

 Contains a heating coil (electric or hot water)
downstream of the damper.
 Used when cooling air volume is too low to maintain
temperature in heating mode.
 Common in perimeter zones where heating is
occasionally required.

Introduction to Chiller Systems in HVAC

A chiller system is a key component of many commercial and

industrial HVAC systems, used to remove heat from a
liquid (typically water or a glycol mixture) that is then used to
cool air or equipment. Chillers are essential in large
buildings like offices, hospitals, shopping malls, data centers,
and manufacturing plants.

Major Components of a Chiller System

1. Evaporator
o Chilled water absorbs heat from the building and gets

warmer.
o The refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs this heat and

evaporates.
2. Compressor
o Increases the pressure and temperature of the vaporized

refrigerant.
3. Condenser
o Rejects heat from the refrigerant to a cooling medium (air

or water), condensing it back to a liquid.

4. Expansion Valve
o Reduces pressure of the liquid refrigerant before it enters

the evaporator again.

 Programming Fundamentals of a Chiller
System (in HVAC Control)

In HVAC, chiller system programming refers to the control

logic implemented in a Building Management System
(BMS) or Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) to
automate, optimize, and protect chiller operation. This ensures
the system runs efficiently, meets cooling demand, and avoids
damage.

Programming Logic:
The programming logic within the control system might
include:
 Setpoints: Defining desired temperature and flow rate for the
chilled water.
 PID Control: Using proportional, integral, and derivative
control to maintain accurate temperature and flow.
 Sequence of Operation: Defining the steps the chiller takes to
start, stop, and adjust its operation.
 Fault Management: Monitoring for errors and initiating
appropriate actions.
 Optimization Strategies: Implementing algorithms to improve
efficiency, such as resetting chilled water temperatures or
optimizing pump performance.
Chilled Water Piping Distributions in HVAC

In chilled water systems, piping distribution affects how

water is circulated between chillers, air handlers, and cooling
loads. The two most common designs are:

1. Constant Primary System

Description:

 A single pump loop handles both the chiller and the

cooling load.
 The primary pumps run at constant speed.
 All chillers and loads are connected in series or parallel
within one loop.


Key Features:

 Simpler design and control.

 Constant flow = less complexity, but less efficient.
 All flow must go through the chillers, even at part load.

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient at low loads (chillers cycle on/off often).

 Difficult to sequence chillers efficiently.
 Limited turndown capability.

Best For:

 Small or older buildings with limited load fluctuation.

2. Constant Primary / Variable Secondary

System (Hybrid System)
Description:

 The primary loop maintains constant flow through

chillers only.
 The secondary loop uses variable-speed pumps to serve
the building cooling load.
 A decoupler (bypass) pipe separates the loops to allow
independent flow rates.
Key Features:

 Primary pumps: One per chiller, constant speed.

 Secondary pumps: Variable speed, modulate to match
building demand.
 Flow through chillers = fixed; flow to building =
variable.

Decoupler Function:

 Allows different flow rates in primary and secondary

loops.
 Flow imbalance = water will bypass either direction,
depending on load.

Advantages:

 Energy-efficient at part load.

 Better chiller staging and control.
  Reduced pump energy consumption via VFDs on
secondary pumps.

Challenges:

 Slightly more complex design.

 Requires flow sensors and control logic.

Best For:

 Medium to large buildings with variable load profiles.

 Buildings seeking energy savings and flexible
performance.

Hot Water Systems

A hot water system in HVAC is used to provide heating to
spaces in commercial, residential, and industrial buildings.
These systems use a boiler or heat exchanger to heat water,
which is then circulated through a closed-loop system of
pipes to terminal units like radiators, fan coil units (FCUs),
or air handling units (AHUs).

Key Components of a Hot Water System

Component Function
Heats water using gas, oil,
Boiler or Heat Source
electricity, or steam.
Circulates hot water through the
Hot Water Pump
system.
Piping Carries hot water to heating
 Component Function
devices and returns it to the boiler.
Heat Emitters (FCUs,
Transfer heat from water to air.
AHUs, Radiators)
Absorbs pressure changes due to
Expansion Tank
water expansion.
Control Valves & Regulate temperature and flow to
Thermostats different zones.

How It Works (Basic Cycle)

1. Boiler heats water to a set temperature (typically 140–
180°F or 60–82°C).
2. Pump sends hot water to various parts of the building.
3. Hot water flows through coils in terminal units (AHUs,
FCUs, radiators).
4. Heat is transferred to the air (via fan or natural
convection).
5. Cooled water returns to the boiler to be reheated.

Control Fundamentals
 Two-way or three-way valves regulate water flow
based on space temperature.
 Thermostats control when heating is needed.
  Some systems use variable speed pumps for energy
efficiency.

Types of Hot Water Distribution Systems

1. Single-Pipe System

 Water flows through one loop; each terminal unit taps

heat as it flows by.
 Simple but uneven heating.

2. Two-Pipe System

 One supply pipe and one return pipe.

 Parallel connections allow better heat distribution and
zoning.

3. Primary-Secondary Loop

 Primary loop circulates water from boiler.

 Secondary loops serve zones with independent control.
 Reduces flow interference and improves control.

Advantages
 Efficient for heating large buildings.
 Integrates well with zoned systems and building
automation.
  Lower operating noise compared to steam systems.

Considerations
 Needs insulated piping to reduce heat loss.
 Boilers require regular maintenance and safety checks.
 Legionella prevention if system includes domestic hot
water.

Applications
 Schools, hospitals, offices
 Apartment complexes
 Greenhouses, process heating