GARISSA UNIVERSITY.

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION.

History of Education

CODE: EDF 221

 The objectives of this course are to:

1. Understand and appreciate the importance of History of Education in your professional and
daily practice
2. Enhance your capacity to understand the importance of education in the development of
Society since time immemorial.
3. Establish the linkage between educational theory and practice in national and global systems
with emphasis on Africa.
4. Understand and appreciate the challenges in education in Post Colonial Africa.
5. Adopt practical strategies and measures aimed at addressing national and international issues
in education. State the major educational issues during the Renaissance, Protest and Reform
periods.
6. Explain the aims, nature and influence of the Christian system of education.
7. Examine the underlying goals and influence of Islamic education.
8. Explain the origin, aims and objectives of the major colonial policies in education on Africa.
9. Explain the positive and negative effects of the colonial education policies on Africa.
10. Examine the underlying goals and objectives of education in Post-Colonial Africa.
11. Identify and explain the major challenges in education in Africa and the strategies adopted to
address them since independence.
12. Explain the achievements and shortcomings in education in Post-Colonial Africa.
13. Define Indigenous Education and explain its aims, organisation, methods and relevance to
African societies.
14. Explain the major theories and practices in education in Ancient Egypt and Greece.
15. Examine the influence of Ancient Greece and Egypt on traditional and modern educational
practice.
Introduction
History of Education is of fundamental importance to a professional teacher. The study deals
primarily with the past events and developments in education. However, this should not be looked at
in isolation. This is because the past is closely linked to the present and the later influences the
future. When you study the past, you are able to understand the process of education and how it
evolved up to the present. In this way, the present not only becomes clear but also helps to illuminate
the future. Note that the education arena is a broad one, It encompasses philosophical, sociological,
comparative, administrative, curricular and other issues. Each of these may have a historical
dimension or perspective.

Definitions
History
History can be defined as the record of all past human experience. It shows how various people are
and how they came to be. It deals with: - Social, Economic, Political, Scientific, Technological
events which have shaped, fashioned and given rise to mankind. History is to a people what memory
is to the individual. A people with no knowledge of their past are a victim of collective amnesia,
groping blindly into the future without guide-posts of precedence to shape their course. Individuals,
communities, societies could scarcely exist if all knowledge of the past were wiped out. It is by a
sense of history that communities establish their identity, orientate themselves and understand their
relationship both to the past and to other communities and societies. Without a knowledge of history,
we, and our communities, would be utterly adrift on an endless and featureless sea of time. History
familiarizes us with customs, though processes, and standards different from our own, tells us about
humanity and its various environments and then helps to know and understand our fellow human
beings. The knowledge of our past gives us greater freedom in the control of our present. I
constitutes a valuable training of the mind. Assisting critical judgement and the orderly presentation
of argument. Without history, people may not be able to understand the problems of the present and

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will be without the basic knowledge essential for coping intelligently with the future. History is an
account or a record of past events, the stories of men and women, heroes, king and queens, statesmen
and crooks who lived in the past, in this and other lands.

History is the account of past events investigated, analyzed and interpreted in order to
discover generalizations that are helpful in understanding the present and to a limited extent, in
anticipating the future. History is not mere story-telling. A story could be fantasy, based on imagery
and imaginations. Herodotus, a Greek, has been called the father of history because it was he who
started to write stories on the Peloponnesian war, moving from camp to camp to gather his materials.
He wrote down what he was told, without comments and judgment. But stories do not become
history until the writer has put in his comment and judgment.

Education
Education has many definitions. It can be defined as:
1. The process of developing human abilities, potentialities and behavior.
2. An organized and sustained instruction meant to transmit a variety of knowledge, skills,
understanding and attitudes necessary for the daily activities of life.
3. a social process in which an individual attains social competence and growth within selected,
chosen and controlled institutionalized setting.
4. What parents, teachers and schools do, or in other words, the activity of educating the young.
5. What goes on in the child, or the process of being educated;
6. The result, or what the child acquires, or has in the end, namely ‘an education;
7. The discipline that studies, that is, the discipline that studies (1), (2) and (3). The field that
reflects on all of the above to build up a body of knowledge is education; roughly, what is
studied and taught in schools of Education.
Aims of Education in Developing Countries
Over the years countries classified as developing are those that are not as technologically advanced
as in Europe, United States of America and the Soviet Union. Among developing countries are those
in Africa, Latin America and Asia. Generally speaking people in the developing countries are known
to be poor and largely illiterate. They lack medical facilities, especially, when compared with other
countries known as technologically advanced. It is obvious then that the aims of education in these
countries will be how to eradicate these problems. These aims could include:
1. Learning to live according to the old traditions of the people (society)
2. Learning the traditions of other countries in order to imbibe their religion, their culture, their
social life, e.g. clothing, language, hair-do’s and so on
3. Learning to live modern life of technologically advanced countries.
In developing countries, educational aims are:
 To promote national unity and international understanding.
 To remove social inequalities, poverty, violent crimes, hunger, disease, squalor, illiteracy,
ignorance, superstition, pride and fear.
 To provide individual happiness and pleasure, self-realization, public morality and aesthetic
development.
 To train for good citizenship, health improvement, vocational competence, industrial and
commercial developments, and adult literacy.
 To produce adequate manpower for economic development, so that there could be less
dependence on expatriates.

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  To create a society with high moral standards.
 To eradicate the problem of economic and technological dependence on the advanced
countries of the world.
 To provide public enlightenment and civilized behaviour.

History of Education
History of Education can be defined as the study of the past educational developments especially of
educational systems, theories and institutions within the general context of social, economic,
political, cultural, scientific and technological change. This term, therefore, refers to the account,
record or stories of all educational activities in the past, across the ages, and changes or
developments that have occurred in the process of educating or bringing up children both in formal
institutions of learning and otherwise all over the world. This term, therefore, refers to the account,
record or stories of all educational activities in the past, across the ages, and changes or
developments that have occurred in the process of educating or bringing up children both in formal
institutions of learning and otherwise all over the world.

Scope of History of Education

History of Education, in this context, is therefore the study of :-
 Our past and present educational Institutions
 Educational theories
 Educational Policies and practices and their historical evolution.
 Substance and direction of current education systems
 Successes and failures of various education systems over the years
 The relation between education theory and practice.

Why study History of Education?

The study of History of education will help to understand how the past events shaped the present
education systems, theories and related phenomenon in the area of teacher education in particular and
education in general.

Secondly, it will enable you to appreciate the importance of education to mankind since time
immemorial across the generations. By so doing, you will be able to critically examine the
fundamental part which education plays in the transformation of society. Note that as a teacher, you
are a change agent. Thus, your role in the process of change will be further highlighted.

Besides it also will prepare you to ably examine present trends and dynamics in education, draw
practical lessons from the past, avoid possible mistakes, and initiate more viable plans for the benefit
of Society.

Other benefits of studying History of education include;

 Study of the past has crucial relevance to the imputing quality of action in the present.
 There is a brief that intelligent study of the history of education can have an impact bearing
on the way of which teachers or teachers to be conduct their personal and professional
activities.
 It changes teachers perception of the teaching profession, especially given that teaching has
been a noble profession.
 History of Education can cultivate in strengthening personal and professional competence of
teachers.
 Educations can discern various choices that were instrumental in shaping human purposes in
the past.
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 Through critical examination of past action, the educator can illuminate the possibilities and
alternatives of decision making in the present.
 Helps educationists to draw comparison of ideas between several types of peoples.
 Helps educationists to formulate richer patterns and more comprehensive principles in the
management of education.
 Helps to critically look at present education theories and practices.
 It is valuable in developing our powers of thinking.
 It excites our curiosity and the spirit of inquiry.
 It disciplines our faculty of reasoning
 It cultivates the art of self expression and communication.
 It is fundamental in developing those attitudes of the mind that distinguish an educated
person.
 Historical study of education helps one give shape, form, organization, sequence,
interrelationships’ and significance to ideas and events.
 It enables us to understand what our educational institutions and process are and what they
are not.
 It enables us to understand the major trends in the development of education (formal and non-
formal) in various parts of the world.
 It enables us to appreciate the major skills and influence in the education development in our
country.
 It gives us an insight into the philosophical ideas behind certain innovations in educational
systems.
 It enables us to make use of the educational philosophies of earlier scholars in the
development and selection of our educational policies and practices.
 It helps us to know the processes involved in the development of our educational systems.
 It enables us to know the problems of education in our country, and how to solve them.
 It enables us to plan for the future.
 It enables us to contribute our own quota to the development and progress of our country.
Early Man and Education
Man has existed in some form on this planet for between half and one million years. From the
beginning, mankind was concerned with the struggle for survival. Early civilization emerged when
man begun to control nature and manipulate the environment to satisfy everyday needs. With the
discovery of fire, water use and making of iron tools, man left the prehistoric, helpless and
submissive state and started producing food rather than gathering wild fruits. He domesticated
animals and plants, initiating the age of agriculture. This agriculture revolution changed every aspect
of man’s life.

The ability of symbolic signal and gestural representation set in and enabled him to communicate.
Pictorial and ideographic writings replaced the oral communication of the sacred tradition and laws.
The heavy demands on the human memory, led to the inventions of writing which meant greater
preservation of knowledge, hence civilization.

Civilization began some five thousand years ago, it arose from responses to the physical and social
environment or out of a combination of the two. Early civilizations tended to surface in water valleys
and hence river line civilizations eg along rivers Nile, Euphrates etc. Eastern Africa is considered
cradle of man and civilization due to the journey of hominid skulls at both Olduvai Gorge in
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Tanzania, Olergassaile along Magadi road and more recently, the discoveries along the shores of
Lake Turkana in Kenya.

Education and Civilisation

Education and civilization have three distinct features which rank man higher than the other
animals;-

 The powers of distinct speech

 Coherent thought
 Invention of implements, articles, tools
Early man’s educational aims were geared towards immediate communal security and survival. This
education was utilitarian. Boys were trained in hunting, fishing and instrument making. Girls were
trained in caring for the young:- Preparing food, Cloth-making and Utensil manufacture. This
physical training ensured that basic needs of food, shelter and clothing were met. Ritual, animistic
practices, fetishes, and taboos formed the spiritual elements of early man’s education. Early man’s
education was transmitted by the older family members. Men taught boys male duties and women
did the same for girls.

Indigenous education in Africa

Indigenous education combines the two words. Simply put, it refers to traditional education. It can
also be defined as a process by which an existing society transmitted learnt culture, knowledge,
skills and values from one individual to another, one generation to another. Note that this education
came before one got exposed to formal education.
Consider what you were taught by the parents, relatives, peers, etc before you went to school. The
teaching and learning process in the traditional sense was informal. It did not involve elaborate
preparations similar to that of the school system.
What then is formal education? You may have discovered that formal education can be defined as is
a structured, systematic and organised system of teaching and learning. In the modern context, it is
offered mainly in specific places (schools, colleges, universities, etc) under specialized instructors,
under institutionalized setting.

Aims /Objectives of African indigenous education

 To produce an informed and knowledgeable person
 To impart skilled for productive purposes in society
 To integrate the person into the society in order to preserve its identity
 To preserve the cultural heritage of the group
 To produce a mass of soldiers to protect the community from external aggressors
 To foster unity of the group, etc.
Organisation
Note that this refers not only to who conducted it but also where. You may have discovered that it
was carried out in the homestead or wherever activities occurred. For example teaching took place in
the garden, grazing grounds, in the communal places sometimes far away from home. In the old
days, the fire place was specially used in Africa to pass on knowledge, skills and values.
According to Ssekamwa (1997), there were teachers who gave basic knowledge and skills and those
who were more specialized and resourceful. The parents played a major role in teaching their
children. They were supplemented by elders, peers and those who were considered resourceful.

Content
You may be aware that in the traditional society, what was learnt depended on what was available
and desirable and the learning situation was never the same (Ocitti, 1993). Though the societies
varied in their Social, Economic and political settings, they shared the following:
- The culture of the group e.g. of the family, clan, tribe, etc

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- Environmental education covering the physical features of the area, names of plants and animals,
their functions, and so on
- Skills especially of a manual nature that enabled the learners to perform certain tasks for their own
good and that of the community in which they lived
- Social values such as respect, love, unity, cooperation, etc
- Gentility and humility which required exhibiting manners of a civilized conduct and behaviour
- Leadership skills which shaped a person’s role in society, based on sex, age or status
- Religion also featured on the curriculum and was vital for the spiritual and moral fibre of the
learner and the whole community
- History of the group where the learner were expected to know and appreciate the ancestry of the
group, the past fortunes or misfortunes, among others.

Methods of delivery
In a nut shell, these were outstanding:
- Use of oral forms of literature such as story telling, proverbs, riddles, poems, songs, and so on. On
the whole, oral literature gave the learner not only the desired message, but also equipped the
individual with communication skills, among other values.
- The mini lecture was used where short messages were verbally given to the learner who was
expected to listen, observe and later do as instructed. The process was repeated whenever need arose.
- Observation and imitation were commonly used. The young for instance learnt a lot by coping from
the adults, peers, and so on.
- Cultural functions were also used. They included ceremonies of happiness and sorrow. They
exposed to the learner hidden traditional practices and beliefs.
- Games and plays were also important. While they were more popular for the young, the adults also
participated in them. They helped in shaping desirable social values and enhancing the physical
fitness of the individual.
- Active participation was crucial in ones life. This was the case especially in the transmission of
skills. The learner engaged actively in communal work or family tasks, and in the process, learnt by
doing.
- Apprenticeship, which was more elaborate, was also used to expose the learner to specialised
knowledge, skills and values. The instructor trained the person for a relatively lengthy period. Such
instructors had special skills e.g. in Crafts, Arts, Medicine, etc.
- Rewards and Punishments were used as mechanisms to enforce discipline.

Significance of indigenous education

Using your experiences and what you have read on your own, you may have established the
important role indigenous education played (and still plays) in society. This is due to its strong
attributes, namely:
- It was relevant to the peoples’ needs
- Functional and practical in terms of training
- Democratic, that is, education for every body
- Affordable in terms of cost
- Integrative as it prepared the individual to fit into society
- Productive as learners produced in the process of training
- Conducive to the learner who were mainly taught by close persons around them
- Life-long and thus rewarding
- It had no drop outs, repeaters etc.
Shortcomings.
 The knowledge, skills and values were so localised and could not be applied or appreciated
outside a given community.

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  It was so rigid or conservative and consequently, resistant to change. Consequently, new
ideas innovations were not readily embraced. This stunted creativity and intellectual
development.
 Though it was education for all, it had elements of gender bias. In Africa for instance, most
communities had assigned roles for the male and female and discouraged members of one sex
against doing what was regarded as prerogatives of the opposite sex.
 Other criticisms include the informal nature of indigenous education. It was not programmed
or structured. Thus, uniformity in terms of content delivery and learning varied so much
among the members of a given group.

Egyptian Education
Unlike most African societies, Egypt had a relatively advanced formal education system. The
Egyptians for instance evolved a series of symbols (Hieroglyphs) for writing and reading. This was a
pictographic language developed over 5000 years ago and used until the 450 AD. It had elements
similar to those of the modern alphabet.

This development of Egyptian writing was the first of its kind in History. For this and other reasons,
it is often believed that Egypt was one of the societies where civilisation started before it spread to
other parts of the word.
The Egyptians were polytheist people or worshippers of many gods. They considered their pharaoh
as god and king. The Egyptians only studied subjects that could be applied to their daily lives. They
were mentally reluctant and obstinate about furthering their education.

Pharaohs
Egypt was ruled by “Pharaohs” pharaohs meant “Great House” or “Royal House”. Egyptians were
considered as extremely religious. Pharaoh was regarded as god on earth, the earthly sun and the
godly king.
 All land belonged to pharaoh
 Sacrifices were offered to him as to other gods
 On death of pharaohs temples were put up to their memory.
 The total number of Egyptians Gods were placed in excess of 2,000.
Egyptian gods
Ra – Sun God
Osiris – God of the Nile and Judge of the dead

Egyptian society was stratified into

 Upper Class -- Royal family, nobles, priests
 Middle Class --Professionals & Scribes
 Low class -- Serfs and slaves
Egyptian priests were very powerful in society hence influenced the type of education to be offered.
Egyptian children were closely involved in tasks done by the adults and gradually imitated the grown
up behavior. Consequently, they acquired practical skills and knowledge from the elders. They were
also equipped with moral attitudes and views of life. This basic education was given to the learner in
the bosom of their families.
The training and up bringing of the girls was specially a responsibility of the mothers, while that of
the boys was taken care of by the father.

Note that for the girls, the education was so basic and shorter compared to that of the boys who
usually were given supplementary training in specific line of training. As such, Girls in Egypt did not
go to school but stayed at home to help with domestic chores such as cooking, weaving among other
activities.

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Boys from poor families, too missed school education but they would be taught from the temples by
the Priests.
You ought to note that the Egyptians attached much importance and value to the spiritual upbringing
of the children. Their beliefs in supernatural beings shaped the moral character of the individual. This
was considered good for the harmony and orderliness of the society.

Aims of Egyptian education

 Perpetuating social stability and status Quo

 Producing professions in the agricultural sector especially irrigation, flood control networks
which made Egypt leading producer in the world of Barley, Wheat, Millet, etc.
 Furthered religious view of the world. Through education they achieved their polytheistic
ideas.

Elementary and secondary schools

Boys were informally trained by their fathers or masters in skills other than reading, writing and
arithmetic. Such education was home-centered (home schools) with parents instructing their
children. Through apprenticeship and oral tradition the master learned to fit in their status in life.
They became the future metal workers, potters, weavers etc. Girls received training in domestic arts.
Slaves were not offered any education.
Elementary schools were first set up between 3000 – 2000 B.C. they were established to offer
training in vocations rather than literacy writing which was restricted to the clergy and their sons who
were exposed to reading and writing.
Out of utilitarian reasons, the nobles, military, civil servants had commercial classes in court,
military and departmental schools respectively.

Courses of instruction included:-

 Reading
 Writing
 Arithmetic
 Story telling
 Swimming
 Dancing
 Mannerisms
 Social, political moral education

Elementary School was between 4 yrs – 14 yrs

Boys started school at 4 years

 School days was short
 Boys left at mid-day
 Mastering symbols and signs of writing peculiar to their respective social classes, professions
or vocations formed the bulk of the curriculum
 Elementary science
 Arithmetic
 Geometry
 Astronomy
 Music
 Egyptian education did not emphasize higher level thinking and problem solving Laziness
was punished

Methods of Instruction

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 Dictation
 Memorization
 Copying of texts
 Repetition to observation especially P.E.
Some content
 School discipline was harsh and ruthless
 Good manners
 Uprightness
 Physical fitness through swimming
 Wrestling
 Archery
 Cleanliness was emphasized.

Secondary Education

 Took place at the same premises as the elementary school

 Writing featured prominently
 Was continuation of elementary schooling

Higher and Professional Education

Higher and professional learning took place in temples, temples colleges or universities. Higher
Education was meant to instruct both the priests and professionals. It was thus restricted to these
families. Priesthood and medicine courses were in high demand in Egypt. Scribes underwent
rigorous instruction in order to master the skills of scriveners (scriveners were graded from serving
as mere secretaries and book keepers to judges, advocates and advisers to pharaohs.

Education and Egyptian Civilization

The Egyptian educational system was remarkably successful in achieving its aims for more than
3000 years. Egyptian educational achievements to the course of civilization are considerable. They
include:-
 Art
 Literature
 Architecture
 Mathematics
 Medicine
 Writing
 Paintings and Sculpture

Egyptian arithmetic systems was handicapped with respect to fractions and rotational system, but still
carried out complicated surveying, pyramid construction and even computed 12 month calendar.
Egyptians were advanced in medicine. They developed and refined skills in mummifying bodies and
preserving them for centuries.

Reading and Writing

Unlike most African societies, therefore, Egypt had a relatively advanced formal education system.
The Egyptians for instance evolved a series of symbols (Hieroglyphs) for writing and reading. This
was a pictographic language developed over 5000 years ago and used until the 450 AD. It had
elements similar to those of the modern alphabet.
This development of Egyptian writing was the first of its kind in History. For this and other reasons,
it is often believed that Egypt was one of the societies where civilisation started before it spread to
other parts of the word.

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Sciences and Mathematics
Ancient Egypt is also remembered for its remarkable innovations in Science and Medicine. It is
probable, that the first civilization to practice Scientific Art was Egypt. The word “Chemistry” for
instance is derived from the old name of Egypt, namely, “Alchemy.”
Note that Egypt excelled in applied Mathematics as well. Through this, the Egyptian Scientists of the
time made remarkable advancement in Astronomy, Engineering and other related fields.

Education in Ancient India

Between 2,500 and 1,500 B.C, the Indus civilization arose having borrowed elements from the
Euphrates – Tigris civilization. Agricultural activities promoted the Indus theocracies. The Indus
civilization existed from 1,300 B.C. to AD 450. During this period, major religions arose in India.
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, were the main religions that came up and these religions had
differing views on education. They thus affected education development in India.

Indian education was inseparable from the culture of the people. What was counted as education was
spelt out in the holy texts of each religion. At elementary level education was geared to vacations and
was practical including instruction in religious observances. Higher education was highly regarded,
education being granted a high position as a means towards salvation parishads offered education to
Brahmans (Brahmans Colleges).

Forest colleges attracted distinguished scholars and emphasized contemplation. Temple colleges
drilled students in religious knowledge while court schools concentrated on secular matters. Through
memorization and initiations, the learners grasped their customs.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION

The ancient education system has been a source of inspiration to all educational systems of the
world. The ingredients, which our present system, lacks, and which were the predominant facets of
our ancient system relate to admission policies (upnayan), monitorial system, low teacher pupil ratio,
healthy teaching surroundings, free schooling and college education, sympathetic treatment, role of
punishment in discipline, regulation governing student life.

1. Developing the wholesome personality:

The primary aim of any system of education should be development of a whole some personality.
The Brahmanic system of education stood on former grounds of lofty ideals because its primary aim
was development of personality and character. Moral strength and moral excellence were developed
to the fullest extent, which we lack so utterly. The moral stature of our educated people is deplorably
low. Moral values are at stake ―The old values, which 3 held society together are disappearing and
as there in no effective programme to replace them by a new sense of responsibility. Innumerable
signs of social disorganisation are evident everywhere and are continually on the increase. These
include strikes increasing lawlessness, and a disregard for public property corruption in public life
―The social moral and spiritual values which our ancient system developed in the educand have
been totally lost sight of.

2. Making formal and Informal Educations Responsible :

Imparting and receiving of education was as sacred as anything can be, for example, education
started and ended with certain prescribed religious rituals like upnayan and samvartan. The disciple
was to devote himself whole heartedly to the cause of learning while he remained with his teacher.
Not every boy was required to enter studentship it was still a custom to receive education at the
hands of his father. How many of the parents look after their children now in this respect. The
ancient system gave an equal important to informal education as it did to the formal one.

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3. Starting Academic sessions solemnly:
In most cases the boy went to a teacher for studentship. The maximum age of entrance into school
was different for different castes. The period of schooling was long, at least 12 years for one Veda.
The academic sessions started with a special ceremony ―upkarman‘ on the Guru Purnima (Full
month of Shravana) and as solemnly closed on Rohini (Fullmoon month of pausha) with ‗utsarjan‘.
The whole session was punctuated with holidays especially on new moon full moon days of the
month.

4. Adjusting School Hours:

The school in the Ancient Education System, lasted for 7 to 8 hours a day. In fair weather classes
were held in the open under shady groves. In the rainy season schools ran in a set of apartment.
Temple colleges of the past had been of great renown for having spacious buildings for classroom,
hostels and residential quarters for teachers. Gurukuls and Ashrams were generally situated on the
river banks or on the lake. The whole atmosphere was quiet, calm and peaceful. It must be noted that
schools and colleges were not kept for away from human habitation.

5. Close Contact:
Never in the history of education you will find such a close contact between the teacher and the
taught. The teacher was the spiritual father, he was is to nurse, when the pupil fell sick, he was to
feed, clothe and teach his student as he fed, clothed and taught his son. The student also regarded the
teachers as he regarded his parents, king & god. Both were united by communion of life. In fact they
communed together. 4

6. Emphasising Discipline:
The student had to observe strict regulations. Instruction was important, but was even more
significant than teaching was discipline – discipline inculcated through strict obedience to laws and
regulations of student life, discipline that was rooted in morality and religion A student was required
to give up lust, anger, greed, vanity, conceit and over joy. It was ordered to him not to gamble,
gossip, lie, backbite, hurt feelings of others, dance, sing, look or talk or touch the other sex and kill
animals. It was demanded of every student whether rich of poor that he should lead a simple life in
the Gurukul or in the Ashram.

7. Low – Teacher pupil Ratio:

In all schools and colleges the pupil – teacher ratio was too low. Individual attention was maximum.
The number of students in a school was kept very small. But when, under certain conditions the
enrolment increased, the teacher sought the co-operation of more advanced and senior boys who
were appointed as monitors (Pittiacharya). In the absence of teacher entire work was entrusted to
them.

8. Respecting Childs Personality:

Punishment had practically no place in the school system. Puplis received very sympathetic,
treatment from their teachers. Their personality was respected Teachers were required to use sweet
and gentle speech in dealing with pupil.

9. Providing Free Education

Education was free. It was free because no student was required to pay any fees. It was free also
because no outside agency could interfere in the matters of education. There was perfect autonomy.
No external authority no external beneficiary, no politics was permitted to enter the school or college
system. A student had to pay nothing in return for education he recieved in a Gurukul or Ashram.
Access to good education depended not on wealth but on talent. The student was expected, if desired
but never compelled to offer a field, cow, horse or even vegetables to his teacher according to his

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financial position in the society. Education could not be bought one could go up the Ladder as his
abilities permitted.

SALIENT FEATURES OF ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION

Ancient Indian education was primarily the education of the Vedas. The source springs of education
were Brahmans, 5
Upanishads and Dharma Sutras. Amar Kosha, the writings of Aryabhatta, Panini, Katyayana,
Kautilya, Patanjali, the medical treatises of Charaka and Susruta were other elements of Brahmanic
literature. The Brahmanic education has been a source of inspiration for determining educational
aims and objectives to future generations. Dr. A. S. Altekar says that the Brahmanic education aimed
at ‗Infusion of a spirit of piety and religiousness, formation of character, development of personality,
inculcation of civil and social sense, promotion of social efficacy, & preservation and spread of
national culture.

1. Infusion of Spiritual & Religious Values:

The primary aim of ancient education was instilling into the minds, of pupils a spirit of being pious
and religious for glory of God and good of man. The pursuit of knowledge was a pursuit of religious
values. The life of the pupil was full of ritual acts. Prayers were common every pupil was required to
perform religious ceremonies duly. He had to participate in all religious festivals. Education without
religions instructions was not education at all. It was believed that a keener appreciation of spiritual
values could be fostered only through a strict observance if religious rites.

2. Character Development
In no period of the History of India, was so much stress laid on character building as in the Vedic
period Vyas Samhita states, ―The result of education is good character and good behaviour. A
conquest does not make a hero nor studies a wise – woman. He who has conquered his senses is the
real hero. He who practices virtue in really wise.‖ Wisdom consisted in the practice of moral values.
Control of senses and practice of virtues made one a man of character. Moral excellence could come
only through praticising moral values. Example was better than precept. The teacher and the taught
were ideals of morality, for both practiced it all through their lives.

3. Development of Civic Responsibilities and Social Values:

The inculcation of civic virtues and social values was an equally important objective of education in
India. The Brahmachari after his education in the Gurukulas went back to the society to serve the rich
and the poor, to relieve the diseased and the distressed. He was required to be hospitable to the guests
and charitable to the needy. After a certain period of studies he was required to become a
householder and to perpetuate his race and transmit his culture to his own off springs.

4. Personality Development:
The Guru in the ancient times realized that the development of personality is the sole aim of
education. Human personality was regarded as the supreme work of God. The qualities of self-
esteem, self confidence, self restraint and self respect were the personality traits that the educator
tried to incukate in his pupils through example.
5. Preserving and Diffusing National Culture:

Vedic culture was kept intact and transmitted through word of mouth to succeeding generations.
Every individual was required to commit to memory at least a portion of the sacred scriptures.
Everyone was required to serve as a medium of transmission. The members of the priestly class
learnt the whole of Vedic Literature by heart & passed it on. The ancient Indian education system
was also successful in Preserring and spreading its culture and literature even without the help of art
of writing it was only because of the destruction of temples and monastries by invaders that literature

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was lost. The cultural unity that exists even today in the vast- sub continent in due to the successful
preservation and spread of culture and the credit goes to Ancient Education System.

Hinduism and Education

The Upanishads contain teachings about the gods (Three main gods are, Brahma, Creator, Lord of
Universe) Vishnu – Preserver, Siva – Destroyer. It’s a complicated religion; it is polytheistic in
worship and action, but monotheistic in theory. It’s platonic in that real things are regarded as
illusions while the invisible never deteriorates. Salvation amounts to getting out of this sinful
materialistic world and being absorbed into god, Brahma. Thus the right education should lead one to
freedom from earthly desires. Sanskrit is the language of Hindu learning and scriptures, Vedas. The
Vedas show that Aryan society was stratified. The caste system was recorded in the lairs of menu,
prescribing the duties of each caste.
Hinduism Originated with the Aryans
• Vedas were the scriptures
– Oldest scriptures still in active use
• Beliefs
– Brahman was the ultimate reality or god
• Reveals itself in millions of earthly shapes
• Ties everything in nature together
(e.g. humans and insects)
– Focused on achieving oneness with Brahman
• Yoga was supposed to help lead to the union by leaving behind earthly life and
having a mind at rest
– Reincarnation
• Soul is reborn after death
– Karma
• Person’s actions determine how he will be reborn in the next life
– Dharma
• Divine law that rules karma
• Requires all people to do their duty (e.g. a woman’s dharma says she has to
obey her father, her husband, and her sons when widowed)

The castes included

1. Brahmas – Intellectuals rulers, teachers, priests
2. Kshatriyas – Warlords, warriors, administrators
3. Vaisyas – Farmers, herders, money handlers, treacle men
4. Sudras – menial servants, servers the 1st three castes.
5. A fifth category falls outside the varna system and consists of those known as “untouchables”
or Dalits.

India's ancient caste system was abolished legally in the 1960s, but it still exists socially today. Dalit
men, women, and children numbering in the tens of millions work as agricultural laborers for a few
kilograms of rice or 38 to 88 cents a day. At the end of day they return to a hut in their Dalit colony
with no electricity, kilometers away from the nearest water source, and segregated from all non-
Dalits, known as caste Hindus.
This segregation in religious and social life made equality of opportunity, even in education to be
impossible. Sudras and women hardly received any education. The caste system is over 2000 years
old.
• A caste is a social class .
• A person is considered a member of the caste into which he or she is born and remains within
that caste until death
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 • Differences in status are traditionally justified by karma, a belief that one’s place in life is
determined by one’s deeds in previous lifetimes.

Buddhism and Education

About 500 B.C. there was a re-emergence of civilization in the Indian peninsula. The ganges valley
kingdoms amalgamated resulting in the nucleus of an Indian culture. Hinduism became an
inadequate source of solace to the rich independent minded city dwellers resulting in new religion in
addition to a reformation in new religion in Buddhism was one of the new rising religions. By 200
B.C. it had spread to other parts of Asia. Gautama Siddharta (563 B.C. – 480 B.C.) called by his
followers the “Bhuddha”, the enlightened one, was the founder of Buddhism.
He was the Son of a privileged ruling family and Married a princess and began his family. He
became aware of pain of illness, death, and the effects of age in his late twenties and gave up
everything to seek the cure for human suffering and to find the true meaning of life. He achieved
enlightenment while sitting in meditation under a tree. His message is based on Four Noble Truths
and use of the Middle, or Eightfold Path, to achieve nirvana. He forbade his followers from
worshipping him or his image after his death after his death, monasteries were established to promote
his teachings and provide housing and training for monks.
At 29, Buddha was dissatisfied with status quo and sought answers why there was suffering in the
world. After six years of intense reflection, he got a revelation of the right path. The Buddha is said
to be in the past, present and the future. The true way “The Noble” eight fold path consists of:
1. right views,
2. right aspirations,
3. right speech,
4. right conduct,
5. right livelihood,
6. right effort,
7. right mindfulness and
8. right contemplation.
The main focus of Buddhist education was to produce a person who could free himself from self
centeredness, one who could become deeply concerned about others. Education therefore was to be
for everybody, all castes included and therefore nondiscriminatory.

His Beliefs were

– Reincarnation
– Rejected social castes based on previous reincarnations
– All living things should be treated with loving kindness
• Buddhism appealed to the lower classes because of their ability to achieve
nirvana and because of its simplicity
– Denied the reality of the material world
– Physical surroundings were illusions
– Pain, poverty, and sorrow were caused by our attachment to things of the world
• These things go away when people let go of their worldly cares
• Achieving nirvana was the ultimate goal. This is the State of ultimate reality
and represents the end of self and a reunion with the great world soul.
Contributions of ancient India Empire
• Literature
• Vedas
• Ramayana
• Bhagavad Gita
• Architecture
• Used pillars, stupas, and rock chambers for religious purposes
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 • Science and mathematics
• Created the number system that we still use today
• Charted the movements of the stars
• First to use algebra
• Introduced the concept of zero and the decimal system
Chinese Philosophy, Religion, Education
Chinese philosophy centres on ethics and has a basically moral perspective. Shang Ti is the supreme
god among millions of gods. Good is rewarded by Shang Ti and evil punished. One’s behavior on
earth, or in a previous existence, governs a person’s next life position after rebirth in the eternal cycle
of life and death. Kung Fi-Tse, master Kung (550 B.C.) is the greatest Chinese humanist philosopher,
sage and prophet. Latinized form of his name is Confucius. This great Chinese philosopher
espoused teachings on
 Ethics
 Music
 Poetry
 Traditional rituals
Confucius did not write much although he edited a book called, the Book of Songs. A friend of his
recorded his conversations, The Analects which became a classic, posthumously appealing for social
reform. Confucianism was therefore a system of political and social teaching, a social and civic
philosophy, rather than a religion. He emphasized that people were to practice virtues by acting
virtuously, the golden rule being; - “What I do not wish others to do to me that also I wish not to do
to them”.

Taoism is another significant Chinese religious. Taoism – “The Path to reason” is a religious
philosophy developed by Lao-Tse (old philosopher) 604 B.C. – 517 B.C. Taoism stresses three great
virtues.
 Humility
 Frugality
 Contentment
Taoism maintains that one must not pursue change, interfere with the natural course of things,
participate in government or belong to private societies. Buddhism found its way into china in the
first century after Christ but with little impact.
China therefore was land of three religions:-
 Confucianism
 Taoism
 Buddhism

These are three different ways of life, Confucianism was dominant though. Education in china was
therefore mainly influenced by Confucianism. The aim of Chinese education was to maintain status
quo through, Cramming the memory with ideas on change. Change was to be slow and gradual.
Chinese education had affinity for instrumental morality as taught in Confucianism.

Education, according to Confucius, was to uphold the family and the state as institutions. Education
therefore was the perpetuation of the family and the state. In Confucianism, sons were instructed to
care for their parents, observing ancestral cults. Tien was seen as some sort of universal guiding
spirit, Confucius insisted that ceremonies regarding funerals and ancestral cults were to be done
correctly. Confucius sought a perfect society where the ideal governments in which rulers were to be
worthy examples of being just, establishing and efficient government machinery.

Confucianism is regarded as the foundation of communism in china, with a message and an appeal
for the poor. To become good one had to help others. China had not developed national educational
system, school fees was charged to boys in upper classes. The teachings were undertaken in teachers

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houses, patron’ s houses, pagodas and temples. School day extended from sunrise to five with school
sessions running year round.

The study of Chinese classics formed the body of their formal education. Others were:

 Boxing
 Health
 Exercises
 Cleanliness
 Archery
Education attempted to develop a student’s intellectual, moral, and aesthetic senses. In many cultures
military needs are the reasons for developing a physical training programme. This was not the case
for China, which has many natural barriers including the great wall (built 200 BC). Although it
should be noted much fighting went on internally.

There was an early version of soccer, polo, archery and wrestling. Much of China’s exercise forms
are based on oneness with their surroundings. This is shown in many of the martial art forms. These
forms of exercise enhance the philosophy of moderation in view of keeping an unchanging society.
The education system was geared to producing civil servants for government jobs.

Teaching profession was highly regarded and respected. Teachers were expected to be sincere,
mannerful and morally upright so as to be role models.

The Chinese examination system did not break down until 1905 when bribery and family
connections wrecked it. The examinations were graded in three parts:

1. County level: Preliminary examinations stressing on

Writing and Literature (B.A.)
2. Provinces: Intermediate exam demanding knowledge of the
five classics and four books (M.A.)
3. In the Capital City (Ph.D.): Emphasizing Philosophical and ethical ideas.

Chinese teachers employed Confucius method of instruction which was similar to Socratic one. This
method of instruction stressed the need for thinking “Learning without thought is labour lost, and
thought without learning is perilous. Although a man may be able to recite three thousand odes, if he
knows not now to act, of what use is his learning?”

Teachers were to respect their students and teach them according to their uniqueness. Life centered
and enquiry oriented methods were also employed in addition to the teacher fostering humane
relationship with students. Regrettably, those who came after Confucius reverted to the rote learning
methods of time immemorial
 Memorization
 imitation
 Accompanying harsh, ruthless and firm discipline
Chinese education was aimed at selecting and training people for public service, thus it put an
emphasis on the molding of a person’s character and the inculcation of ethical and moral values.

Differences between classical India and China:

• China focused on politics and education for producing civil servants and on the social
structures that supported Confucianism

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 • India focused on religion and social structures that supported Hinduism
• India developed an enduring religion
Similarities between classical India and China:
• Both were agricultural societies where most people were peasant farmers
• Families clustered together in villages for help and protection
• Patriarchal family units
• Women were inferior (but fared better in India)
• Built great cities
• Daily life
• Life centered around the family
• Three generations often lived under one roof
• Males were superior
• Patriarchal
• Usually, only males were educated
• Suttee – Required a wife to throw herself on her dead husband’s funeral pyre
• Marriage
• Upper-class young men were not supposed to marry until they had completed
education
• Arranged marriages were common for young girls
• Divorce usually wasn’t allowed
• Children
• Expected to take care of parents when they got old

Greek Education
Unlike the older civilization which grew up in fertile river valleys, the Greek civilization was an
offshoot of the not so fertile, rugged and mountainous of the Greek peninsular with its numerous
steep valleys and an irregular coastline with many islands.

Education in Ancient Greece

The Greeks were scattered on a number of Islands where they lived in states like Athens, Sparta,
Cathage, Syracuse, among others. It was here that Greek civilisation thrived based on Politics,
Economics, Philosophy and Education.

Society in Greece was composed of classes, the privileged and the unprivileged. Apart from the
rulers (Monarchs), there was the leisure class (nobles), the free born, commoners and the slaves.
These classes determined one’s position in society and the type of education one was exposed to.
The Greek gods were much more down-to-earth and much less awesome than the remote gods of the
East. Because they were endowed with human qualities and often represented aspects of the physical
world--such as the sun, the moon, and the sea--they were closer to man and to the world he lived in.
The Greeks, therefore, could find spiritual satisfaction in the ordinary, everyday world. They could
develop a secular life free from the domination of a priesthood that exacted homage to gods remote
from everyday life. The goal of education in the Greek city-states was to prepare the child for adult
activities as a citizen. The nature of the city-states varied greatly, and this was also true of the
education they considered appropriate. The goal of education in Sparta, an authoritarian, military
city-state, was to produce soldier-citizens. On the other hand, the goal of education in Athens, a
democratic city-state, was to produce citizens trained in the arts of both peace and war.

The age of Philosophers

Ancient Greece gave birth to Philosophers (great thinkers) and scientists who influenced the society
and other parts of the world. Prominent names include Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Archimedes, among
others.

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The conditions in Greece at the time were not stable. The City States were at war, society was
divided and the subordinates were rebellious against their masters. Among the Philosophers, Plato
came out most prominently in advocating for changes in society through reforms in education.

Nature of education
At the time, education in the city states of Greece was informal, carried out at home or in the
communities. However, education in the states varied, depending on what the state considered
appropriate. Greece was sparsely populated apart from a few city states.

The Greeks – Hellens were an Indo-European people. It was the Romans who called them Greeks,
otherwise they called themselves “Hellens”

Main Grouping City

Toarians Athens

Dorians Sparta, Corinth

Aeoliaris Thebes

This system made a provision for only male citizens could;

 hold office,
 received court protection,
 owned land
 attended public assemblies or “ecclesia”,
 Participate in religious ceremonies, festivals and rites.
Education and training were confined to male youths of proper birth (This excluded slaves and their
children). The father was charged with responsibility of teaching religions ceremonies to his family.

During the several Greek festivals the following games were played.
 Literary contests
 Drama
 Poetical recitation
 Music
 Athletics
 Field events
Education in Greece
Education offered by the Greeks involved tribal traditions, customs and moral instruction of father –
son orientation. Their education was not as religious, as that of the Egyptians, Indians and Chinese.
Theirs was more civil-oriented where priests had no recognized standing and special line with
learning.

Greek education sought to produce perfect citizens, individual excellence, worth and public
usefulness was its aims and therefore included gymnastics for body strength and beauty and music
for the nourishment of the soul. Greek education fell into two eras Old and New.
Old Era
 Discipline – military oriented
 Represented by Spartan education
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 This included
 Gymnastics
 Music

New Era
It added mathematics, Geometry Astronomy and Philosophy. Mathematics was regarded as an
introduction to philosophy. Pythagoras (580 – 560 B.C.) was the earliest Greek School founder.
The Greek gods
1. Zeus- the chief is god of the elements and of moral law and order.
2. Poseidon- god of the sea and the watery elements.
3. Hades- god of the lower world, the place of the dead.
4. Hestia- goddess of the hearth and the home.
5. Hera- goddess of women an marriage, and queen of the heaven.
6. Ares- god of war.
7. Athena- goddess of civic duties, wise in industries of peace and arts of war.
8. Apollo- the god of manly youth and beauty, poetry, music, oracles, and healing.
9. Aphrodite- the goddess of love, both earthly and heavenly.
10. Hermes- the messenger of the gods, giver of increase to herds, guardian of boundaries and of
roads, and their commerce. He was god of science and invention, of eloquence, cunning,
trickery,theft, of luck and treasure trove, and conductor of the dead to Hades.
11. Artemis- the huntress of the gods and goddess of wild things and wild nature.
12. Hephaestus- the blacksmith.

Spartan Education
Dwelling in the middle of a hostile conquered people, the aim of Spartan education was to produce
soldiers and warriors. Sparta therefore built up a powerful military machine to fight internally and
externally. Obedience and loyalty to Sparta was the very cornerstone of their survival mechanism,
and Sparta demanded one whole focus on military training.
It was purely a military city-state that exercised totalitarianism over its subjects. The state claimed
full-authority over their subjects’ lives. The Spartans devoted their whole time and attention to the art
of warfare.
Virtues of Spartan education:-
 Modest
 Reviving
 Cunning
 Enduring
 Hardy
 Strong
 Social
 Self Control
Reading and writing were not emphasized although they were taught. Military efficiency was
emphasized and education was aimed at maintaining the status quo. Spartan masters concentrated on
the art of war with rigidity, severity and strictness characterizing the Spartan education. At birth,
infants were inspected by the state. They were exposed to ice and snow in the mountains so that
misfits would die and sometimes misfits were given over to slaves. At home, mothers and slaves
were responsible for family education.
This consisted of:
 Games
 Stories
 Singing

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 Strictness
 Correct behaviors
 Obedience
When the boys reached age eight, they were taken from their mothers and put into public barracks.
 In the barracks they ate small course rations for dietic discipline
 Had scant clothing
 Hard bed
 Bathed in cold water
 Were beaten by elders
 Everybody had a tutor (elders)
They studied;
 military drills
 Swimming
 Hunting
 Running
 Military Music
 Severe discipline
 Leaping
 Boxing
 Wrestling
Sparta boys spent their days marching, exercising, and fighting. They undertook these activities in
all weathers, wearing only light tunics and no shoes. At night they slept without blankets on hard
benches. Diet consisted of little more than a bowl of coarse black porridge. Such training produced
tough, resourceful soldiers.
Spartan girls also led hardy lives. They received some military training and they also ran, wrestled,
and played sports. Like boys, girls were taught to put service to Sparta above everything else –even
love of family. As adults, Spartan women had considerable freedom, especially in running the
family estates when their husbands were on active military service. Such freedom surprised men
from other Greek city-states. This was particularly true of Athens, where women were expected to
remain out of sight and quietly raise children.
At 18 years of age, the boys became cadet citizens and were relieved of menial tasks in order to
begin professional studies in warfare. There is a story about a Spartan boy who, in order to conceal a
fox which he had stolen, hid it beneath his cloak and allowed the fox to gnaw him rather than let the
theft be revealed. He died of the wounds. If he had been discovered, the disgrace would not have
been in the stealing, but in allowing it to be detected. The boy's action illustrates the main purpose of
the Spartan educational system, which was to produce men capable of showing such bravery as
soldiers. Military strength was felt to be necessary to Sparta for their very survival.
Athenian Education
Their education was generally broad, liberal and elitist. The training of the body was linked to the
training of the mind so as to achieve physical and intellectual excellence. Athens implemented a
democratic and free society. Democracy is one of the lasting legacies that the Athenians gave the
world. Because of this the Athenians developed their potentials and talents to the fullest. The
educated was enabled to perceive the vital connections between the various branches of knowledge.
Athenians shunned manual work and looked down upon the use of hands.
Athenians education sought to foster science and humanities, but Athenians were however weak on
scientific applications despite the fact that many of the theories that have shaped scientific progress
were developed by them. In the field of mathematics, however, they both theorized and put
mathematical ideas to daily use. Athenian teachers were self-employed living on fees paid by their
private students. The schools masters position in the Athenian society was low except for those who
taught in higher educational institutions. It was even abusive to call someone a teacher.
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Athenian democracy was for free and for male Athenians only. Education for men was highly
valued. Only boys of wealthy families attended schools. The term academy comes from Athens.
At birth, the infant was examined and the father decided whether it was to be disposed or spared.
The baby then underwent recognition and acceptance in tribal ceremonies. Bo the boys and girls
grew together at home till the age of seven when they were taken care of by their nurses and mothers,
who insisted upon good behaviors and self control.
Girls received, little education at home learning household arts with music forming part of the girls
home-based education. There was no formal schooling for Athenians girls. At seven years of age,
the Athenian boys had two kinds of training schools:-

Gymnastics or wrestling School. For physical training exercises and Music School. For Music
training. It is possible that attendance of these schools was either alternated on a daily basis or that
part of the day was spent at one training school and the rest at the other. The school day ran daily
except for the ninety festival and state holidays, from dawn to dusk. Discipline at school and home
was severe. Corporal punishment being liberally given.
Grammatist – was the primary teacher who taught them:-
Reading
Writing
Music
Counting
Literative

Grammaticus – was the secondary teacher taught them physical training. So it is possible that the
Athenian boys had at least 2 teachers. The progressive Athenian education surpassed all other Greek
ones. It produced individualistic and democratic spirited persons. Athenians youth were prepared
for peace and war. The Athenians education, with its simple curriculum consisting of practical music,
religion, literature, government and physical education produced a liberal, cultured and intelligent
society.

Other considerations of Greece education;

- Each City state had a separate education system.
- Sparta, which was militant and aggressive, put emphasis on physical education, discipline and self
denial
- Military training was compulsory for the boys from around the age of seven
- The boys were subjected to rigorous training to instill in them endurance and a strong character
- Reading and writing were discouraged for the soldiers
- Girls in Sparta too, had school education but with a specific training
- In Athens, girls primarily had domestic education
- The purpose of education was to produce peaceful but strong citizens at the same time
- Boys from poorer families often dropped out formal education
- Formal education evolved gradually, when learners attached themselves to specific teachers
- The State initially left education to the parents, who educated their children as they saw fit
Greek Philosophers

Socrates
• Socrates was a philosopher of Ancient Greece.
• A philosopher is someone who tries to explain the nature of life.
• Socrates taught by asking questions. This method of questioning is still called the Socratic
method
Plato
 Plato was a student of Socrates.
• He started a school called The Academy.

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 • Plato’s writing took the form of a dialogue between teacher and student.
Aristotle
 Aristotle was another Greek philosopher and student of Plato.
• He wrote about science, art, law, poetry, and government.
Roman Education
The military conquest of Greece by Rome in 146 BC resulted in the cultural conquest of Rome by
Greece. As the Roman poet Horace said, "Captive Greece took captive her rude conqueror and
brought the arts to Latium." Actually, Greek influence on Roman education had begun about a
century before the conquest. Originally, most if not all of the Roman boy's education took place at
home. If the father himself were educated, the boy would learn to read and would learn Roman law,
history, and customs. The father also saw to his son's physical training. When the boy was older, he
sometimes prepared himself for public life by a kind of apprenticeship to one of the orators of the
time. He thus learned the arts of oratory firsthand by listening to the debates in the Senate and in the
public forum. The element introduced into Roman education by the Greeks was book learning.
When they were 6 or 7 years old, boys (and sometimes girls) of all classes could be sent by their
parents to the ludus publicus, the elementary school, where they studied reading, writing, and
counting. At age 12 or 13, the boys of the upper classes attended a "grammar" school where they
learned Latin or Greek or both and studied grammar and literature. Grammar consisted of the study
of declensions and conjugations and the analysis of verbal forms. Both Greek and Latin literature
were studied. The teacher would read the work and then lecture on it, while the students took notes
that they later memorized. At age 16, the boys who wanted training for public service went on to
study public speaking at the rhetoric schools.
The graded arrangement of schools established in Rome by the middle of the 1st century BC
ultimately spread throughout the Roman Empire. It continued until the fall of the empire in the 5th
century AD.
Although deeply influenced by Greek education, Roman education was nonetheless quite different.
For most Greeks, the end of education was to produce a good citizen, and a good citizen meant a
well-rounded individual. The goal of Roman education was the same, but for the Romans a good
citizen meant an effective speaker. The result was that they disregarded such nonutilitarian Greek
studies as science, philosophy, music, dancing, and gymnastics, basing their education instead on
literature and oratory. Even their study of literature, with its overemphasis on the technicalities of
grammar and its underemphasis on content, had the purpose of producing good orators.
When the Roman Republic became an empire, in 31 BC, the school studies lost even their practical
value. For then it was not the orator in the Senate but the emperor who had the power.
Because of the emphasis on the technical study of language and literature and because the language
and literature studied represented the culture of a foreign people, Roman education was remote from
the real world and the interests of the schoolboys. Vigorous discipline was therefore necessary to
motivate them to study. And the Roman boys were not the last to suffer in this situation. When the
empire fell, the education that was originally intended to train orators for the Roman Senate became
the model for European education and dominated it until the 20th century.
The Romans also left the legacy of their language. For nearly a thousand years after the fall of the
empire, Latin continued to be the language spoken in commerce, public service, education, and the
Roman Catholic church. Most books written in Europe until about the year 1200 were written in
Latin.

In 400 B.C. Roman was one of several small Latin city- states that existed on the Italian peninsular.
Later the rural land owning patricians established an oligarchic Republic of Rome. They elected a
300 member Senate which made policies. These policies were enforced by two elected consuls who
could counter check each other decisions.

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Plebeians were lower socio-economically to the patricians, they were dissatisfied with the patricians
and threatened to exceed from Rome. This made the Partisans to concede to their demands and
allowed them to nominate representatives to the governing assembly.
The aim of Roman education was utilitarian, not theory but application, not learning by practice. For
these and more they were able to conquer most civilizations. The Romans did not only excel in
warfare and politics but in fields of education and the sciences.
Early Roman Education-Education during these times was regarded being largely moral and
disciplines was rigorous and severe. The mother trained her daughters to carryout household chores
and religious duties. Hellenized Rome- When the Romans finally conquered Greece

Early Roman Education

Like many agricultural societies, life in early Rome was supported by religious, social, economic and
political virtues that stressed traditional belief and value systems.

The young Roman learned to respect the valued traditions and perpetuate them for purposed of
guaranteeing a stable future. A boy of a patrician, for example learned to become a landowner,
dutiful citizen guardian of cultural heritage. The main educational agency was the home, and the
father was among the leading educators. Intellectual training at home did not go beyond reading and
writing, the earliest stages of number work, as well as physical and moral training.

It was the customs of the Roman boy to accompany his father in his daily routine and learn from
what his father did. The poor citizens were not able to provide effective training for their children as
was given in the home of the wealthy. When Roman Empire began to grow strong militarily, they
depended on slaves as it became tradition to employ them as teacher of the children.

Roman civilization paid particular attention to law. Romans citizens were keenly conscious of their
rights and duties relating to property and inheritance. The Roman Educational System Elementary
School- The school of the litterator, or teacher of letters. Grammar School- The aim of the school
was to equip students with the mastery of expression in reading, writing, and speaking, Rhetorical
School- prepared a young boy for public service. This was the predecessor of our modern day
colleges and universities.
Roman curriculum included:-
 Reading
 Writing
 Arithmetic
 Physical training
 Javelin throwing
 Sword play
 Horse riding
 Weaponry

Influential Thinkers of Roman Education

Cicero
His writings provided the ideal education for the middle ages. Marcus Tullius Cicero January 3, 106
BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as Tully, was a Roman philosopher, statesman,
lawyer, orator, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal
family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose
stylists.
He introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin
philosophical vocabulary (with neologisms such as humanitas, qualitas, quantitas, and essentia)

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distinguishing himself as a linguist, translator, and philosopher. Though he was an impressive orator
and successful lawyer, Cicero thought his political career was his most important achievement.
Probably the most notable example of his influence is St. Augustine’s claim that it was Cicero’s
Hortensius (an exhortation to philosophy, the text of which is unfortunately lost) that turned him
away from his sinful life and towards philosophy and ultimately to God. Augustine later adopted
Cicero’s definition of a commonwealth and used it in his argument that Christianity was not
responsible for the destruction of Rome by the barbarians.
CICERO devoted the fourth book of his de Re publica to an elaborate contrast between Greek
and Roman political ideals

Quintilian ad 35 – 95
He stressed on memory and used it as a motivation. He also used rewards instead of corporal
punishment.
 He recommended the use of plays and games
 He was one of the Most influential outstanding scholars produced by Rome
 Was a teacher of Rhetoric and an educator of orators
 grew up with a systematic educational plan to provide education to Roman boys
 He recognized significant stages of human development that hold important implications for
educational practice.
 Although his identification of these stages is basic compared to present day standards, it
reveals that he was a keen student of educational psychology.
 According to Quintilian, the child is impulsive from birth until his immediate need for
satisfaction of his needs and desires. Because of this, parents should be very careful in
selecting proper nurses, pedagogues, maids and companions for their children since these
persons exercise molding influence on the child.
 Quintilian admonished fathers to conceive the highest hopes for their sons from the moment
of their birth.
 The nurse plays crucial role in child development
 Quintilian emphasized that a child should be exposed to correct speech from earliest time
 Even parents who do not have enough education should endeavor to give their children best
education possible.
 He opposed private tutoring because he felt it had a negative effect on moral education of the
children. He preferred broad daylight schools.
 He believed a good teacher should have large classes; small classes were sign of inadequacy
and waste of resources.
 He said boys in school learn more from what others are taught e.g. they hear merits praised
and faults corrected and can profit when a colleague is reprimanded.
 He explained that new experiences are assimilated against the background of previous
experiences gained – Apperception. He advised teachers to start their instructions at a point
which coincides with a student’s achievement level. This is the teaching from k own to
unknown.
 He was sensitive to the stresses and strains of serious learning. He recognized recreation to be
an important component in giving students some form to regain vigor and zeal.
 Quintilian is therefore an important figure in the history of educational ideas both to the
Roman education and the subsequent generation of teachers to this day.

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Greek Influence on Romans Education
Romans educational patterns were changed by the cultural dynamics that were unleashed as Rome
moved from a relatively isolated and small agricultural city-state to a vast empire with overseas
colonies.
Most Roman teachers found interest in learning Greek. This was intensified by many Greek slaves
in Roman households. This led to a growing class of teacher known as writing masters, Litteratores
who were often slaves or freed men working in the Roman homes. These were followed by
grammatic who taught Roman children to read, write and speak Greek. Greek represented language
of civilization and culture among the Romans. This is quite ironical given that the Romans were the
colonizers but preferred to take on board the culture, language and education system of a colonized
people, the Greeks.

In the course of establishing and administering an empire, the Romans came under the influence of
Greek culture, which provided a model for a formal educational system. They patterned their own
educational institutions on the Greek school and curriculum. It can be said therefore, that the Roman
education, being an imitation of the Greek system of education. The Greeks therefore made a
significant contribution to education.

Due to militarism and legalism as justification of their military conquests and cruelty, the Roman
Empire period saw stagnation in science and technology, hence their failure to produce many
outstanding educators.
Stages in the new Roman system of education
There were three stages in the new Roman system of education.

1. Elementary stage for boys 7years – 12 years – Ludus teacher – Ludi magister
2. Secondary stage 12 year – 17 years
3. Higher Education 17 years – 18 years of more professional type in preparation for a public
career.

Elementary school – Ludus

 Ludus means play in Latin or place of practice
 These schools emphasized strenuous discipline and corporal punishment was heavily used.
 Instituting developing the skills of reading, writing , and arithmetic
 Emphasis was on acquiring literacy
 Boys who attended Ludus were accompanied by a slave or pedagogue preferably a Greek
who could act as a tutor.
 These were private schools with no state supervision.

Secondary Education
 This was a Greek grammar school
 Under direction of Grammaticus, the Roman boys studied Greek grammar, composition,
Poetry, and History
 There was also the Latin grammar school which taught the grammar of the roman vernacular.
 Roman boys were supposed to attend both of these schools.

Higher Education
 The Roman Youth attended the Rhetorical schools. These were concerned with the education
of the orator.
 They combined both the Greek conception of the liberally educated man and the Roman
emphasis or practicality

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 Rhetoric learning was important to the Roman because they believed speaking abilities
helped the politician to gain control of the crowd, influence voting in the senate and inspire
military troops.
 The Roman conception of education is best exemplified in the person of the orator. The
orator seemed to be a role model of the educated man who had Greek roots.
 Socrates, one of the most prominent of the Greek rhetorians, had an impact on Roman
educational theory and practice through his programme of rhetorical education.

Purpose of University Education

The purpose of university education at the time were to
 Learning to Do
 Learning to Learn
 Learning to Relate
 Learning to Be
Distinction Between school and university;
The following are some key distinctions that can be made between schooling and university
knowledge.
Schooling Knowledge University Knowledge
Teacher responsible you are responsible for
for your own learning your own learning

Leisurely Pace Fast Pace

Reproducing Facts Critical Thinking
Study Subjects Study Disciplines
Learn Language Learning to Discourse into a
‘Specialist’ Community
Education during Renaissance and Reform periods
Renaissance
The word Renaissance means rebirth in French. The Renaissance was a period of artistic and
cultural achievement in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. It was characterized by a
number of distinctive ideas about life, specifically secularism, individualism, humanism, and
materialism. The spirit of the Renaissance influenced European society for generations, making the
Renaissance truly a golden age in European history.
If the Renaissance was a rebirth of culture, you might think that the period before the Renaissance
was one of gloom and darkness. Actually, historians have shown that the Medieval Era, or Middle
Ages, did produce art, architecture, literature, and other ideas in law, languages, and economics that
influenced Europe in the fourteenth century and provided the foundation for the Renaissance.
However, during the Middle Ages, writers and philosophers viewed society as a preparation for the
afterlife. Renaissance writers were interested in the present or secular world.
Renaissance was a period famous for rebirth of knowledge in education, culture, art, business and
other sectors of life. It was characterized by enormous creativity and productivity both in Arts and
Sciences. Stretching approximately from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, the Renaissance
impacted on education in several ways.
First, many people sent their children to school. This scaled up the level of literacy and awareness,
hence the term “Renaissance” The children were expected to talk, dress and behave like adults.
However, they had no rights. It was common for poor parents to sell off their children to get income
for livelihood!
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Thus, the “rebirth of knowledge” had its own setback and contradictions. Note further that a boys’
education was more extensive than that of the girl child. The boys were taught by the governor or
tutor at home. Arithmetic was valued because it was the gateway to business life. The boys also
learnt Latin and Philosophy. They were exposed to harsh conditions and training to become potential
warriors.
While the upper class valued and had access to formal education, what was given to them depended
on a person’s sex and social status. However, peasants and the lower classes were not given formal
education. Compare this to the situation in Greece and Egypt. Note that Artisans, like in the
traditional African societies, were trained through apprenticeship.
The period elevated the classics to a higher position on the curriculum. It became a tradition that
those who excelled in classical work were believed to be the most educated. Thus they commanded a
prestigious position in academic circles during the period. Consequently, many classical secondary
schools were set up across Europe.
The curriculum, which until then was predominantly religious, shifted towards secular education.
This change reduced the religious element in the schools and consequently, that of the churches.
Note however, that the Renaissance preserved some of the ancient traditions in education. One of
these was the higher status accorded to the secondary teachers than those in the elementary sector of
education.
The essence of the Renaissance, which began in Italy in the 14th century and spread to northern
European countries in the 15th and 16th centuries, was a revolt against the narrowness and
otherworldliness of the Middle Ages. For inspiration the early Renaissance humanists turned to the
ideals expressed in the literature of ancient Greece. Like the Greeks, they wanted education to
develop man's intellectual, spiritual, and physical powers for the enrichment of life.
The actual content of the humanists' "liberal education" was not much different from that of medieval
education. To the seven liberal arts, the humanists added history and physical games and exercises.
Humanist education was primarily enlivened by the addition of Greek to the curriculum and an
emphasis on the content of Greek and Roman literature. After nearly a thousand years grammar at
last was studied not as an end in itself but because it gave access to the vital content of literature. In
keeping with their renewed interest in and respect for nature, the humanists also gradually purged
astronomy of many of the distortions of astrology.
Along with the changed attitudes toward the goals and the content of education, in a few innovative
schools, came the first signs of a change in attitude toward educational methods. Rather than bitter
medicine to be forced down the students' throats, education was to be exciting, pleasant, and fun.
The school that most closely embodied these early Renaissance ideals was founded in Mantua, Italy,
in 1423 by Vittorino da Feltre. Even the name of his school, Casa Giocosa (Happy House), broke
with the medieval tradition of cheerless institutions in which grammar--along with Holy Writ--was
flogged into the learner's memory.
The school served children from age six to youths in their mid-twenties. The pupils studied history,
philosophy, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy, but the basis of the curriculum was the
study of Greek and Roman literature. Physical development was encouraged through exercise and
games.
The humanist ideal did not affect the lower classes, who remained as ignorant as they had been in the
Middle Ages. Its impact was appreciable, however, on the secondary education that was provided for
the upper classes. This is not to say that there was a proliferation of Happy Houses. Unlike
Vittorino's school, the other Latin grammar schools that introduced Greek and Roman literature into
the curriculum soon shifted the emphasis--as the Romans had done--from the study of the content of
the literature to the form of the language. The physical development so important to the early
humanist ideal of the well-rounded man found no place in the curriculum. Instead of the joy of
learning, there was harsh, repressive discipline.

Differences between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

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 Middle Ages Renaissance

Purpose of art Glorify God Glorify the individual

Politics Local/feudal lords ruled Kings in England, France,

and Spain centralized
power
Society Church as center of activity Secular/material world
becomes a vital
part of life
Religion Focus of one’s life Important but not most
dominant

Education Church promoted it to Stressed teaching of history,

prepare arts, ethics, and public
students for religious life speaking

Reformation
Reformation was a period during the sixteenth century when attempts were made to bring about
religious reforms in the Church. At the centre were personalities and institutions such as Martin
Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and the ruling family of England. It resulted into the
fracturing of the Church into the Roman Catholic and other numerous Protestant denominations.

Among the major effects of reform on education, the following were out standing. First, it promoted
the ideal of universal education regardless of one’s sex, race or social class. Note that Plato, one of
the Greek Philosophers, had advocated for this during his times. The period reversed some of the
changes initiated during the Renaissance. In terms of the curriculum for instance, religion was placed
back at the centre but the classics were not removed and continued to be emphasized in the schools.
Tax supported schools were established as well as compulsory education laws. The campaign for
women’s education was also inspired as a way of enforcing the ideals of universal education and
spreading literacy during the period. There was very little change for the poor women because the
lower class, who was the majority, was denied the right to education. Only those who belonged to the
middle and upper classes got some semblance of formal education. Even then, they were taught to be
silent and obedient to the men. Besides, women were mainly taught those skills that could make them
useful housewives.
The Reformation
The degeneration in practice of the early humanists' educational goals and methods continued during
the 16th-century Reformation and its aftermath. The religious conflict that dominated men's thoughts
also dominated the "humanistic" curriculum of the Protestant secondary schools. The Protestants'
need to defend their new religion resulted in the further sacrifice of "pagan" content and more
emphasis on drill in the mechanics of the Greek and Latin languages. In actual practice, then, the
humanistic ideal deteriorated into the narrowness and otherworldliness that the original humanists
had opposed.
The Protestants emphasized the need for universal education and established elementary vernacular
schools in Germany where the children of the poor could learn reading, writing, and religion. This
innovation was to have far-reaching effects on education in the Western world.

The influence of Christianity in Education

During the Reformation the Church broke up into the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations.
Since then, Christianity developed a number of doctrines. The Catholics, Anglicans, Pentecostals,
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Seventh Day Adventists, among others all profess to the Christian faith, but belong to different
religious groups.
What they share in common is their belief in Jesus Christ and his teachings. Perhaps you are aware
that Christianity has its roots in the present day Middle East where the work of the Church started
from before it spread to Europe, North and South America, Africa, and other parts of the world.
In Africa, Christianity was mainly introduced by voluntary groups from Western Europe. They came
from Portugal, Spain, France, Britain, Germany, Italy and other states at different times before,
during and after the colonisation of Africa. For example, there were groups such as the Church
Missionary Society (CMS), the White Fathers, the Mill Hill Fathers, Verona, among others.
Wherever it spread, Christianity in many areas became closely associated with the promotion of
formal education. This was also the case in Africa.

Aims of Christian formal education

Why then did the church become so close to another institution, the school? As you may have
discovered, formal education was seen as a means to an end. In other words, it could be used to
further the activities and interests of the church. Christian groups used formal education to achieve
the following objectives, among others:
Objectives of Christian education
- Spread the Gospel of Christianity through the schools
- Promote literacy among the masses to enable them read the Christian and other relevant literature
- Strengthen the Christian doctrines among the converts
- Discourage the natives against what were believed to be ‘pagan’ or satanic practices
- Train additional manpower necessary for the strengthening of the mission
- Make the church self supporting through technical and practical expertise
- Train a few leaders who would be supportive and protective to the church
- Soften the hearts and minds of the people and ensure obedience and loyalty to the church
- Prepare the masses for wider world in which they would live.
Major practices in education in Africa
Note that the Christian groups in Africa were preoccupied with several activities in the area of formal
education. They established schools of different grades. In many areas they were the first to venture
into this field. In such cases they pioneered formal education in those communities. This entailed
mobilising the resources necessary for education, training and paying the teachers, developing the
curriculum, among others. They also sensitised the masses and encouraged them to embrace formal
education.
Obstacles to Christian missionary work in education
Between 50-75 words list down some of the potential challenges they faced in the process of
introducing and developing formal education in Africa. Compare your findings with the list below:
- Resistance and hostility from the local communities
- Denominational conflicts among the Christian groups themselves
- Hostile weather conditions
- Strange and dangerous diseases such as malaria and sleeping sickness
- Shortage of finance and other material resources
- Inadequate manpower to facilitate their work
- Difficult terrain and other hardships in transport and communication, etc
Note that the above challenges delayed the Christian groups in their mission, not only of
evangelisation but also in the promotion of education.
The effects of Christian education on Africa
Positive effects
 In terms of impact, their work was significant in shaping the social and economic
development of many states in Africa.
 They promoted literacy and other related skills in the areas where they operated.
 They also did a lot in teacher education,

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  They funded education,
 They provided vocational education,
 They produced the manpower in different areas of specialisation.

Negative effects
 Christianity planted seeds of religious antagonism in areas where religious groups competed
for influence.
 They discriminated among the teachers and pupils which means the schools promoted
denominationalism, hatred and disunity in different parts of Africa.
 Christian doctrines denounced some of the traditional beliefs and practices and by so doing
destroyed even the good that prevailed in Africa.
 They introduced an education system that was largely theoretical rather than practical.

Islamic education
Islamic education is closely related to the teaching and learning of Islam as a religion. Prophet
Mohammed founded Islam and is the father of the Muslim community in Africa and other parts of
the world.
Islamic education had its roots in the period when Islam was established alongside the creation of the
Arab Empire (750-250 A.D). This empire spread its influence as far as India, parts of Italy and Spain
in Europe, Morocco in Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. Baghdad in Iraq
became the capital of the Arab empire and was the centre of Islamic education during the period. One
of the cardinal goals of Islamic education was to spread the frontiers of Islam by winning more
converts to the doctrine as proclaimed in the Holy Book, the Koran. For those who were already
believers, it aimed at strengthening their beliefs in the faith and produce strong adherents to the
principles and practices of the Islamic faith. In other words, education was meant to promote moral
and spiritual values among the learners.
Islamic education also focused on the training of the intellect, that is, one’s ability to reason. It was
also designed to impart skills and lifelong learning from the cradle to the grave and was therefore
considered to be crucial for all people regardless of age or social status.In addition, Islamic education
emphasized the need to foster unity among members of a given society. It particularly attached great
importance on the cultivation of good relations between the learner and the teacher. These could be
specialized individuals, parents or other members under whom the learner got spiritual and secular
instruction.
In terms of the curriculum, Islamic education during the great days of the Arab Empire put emphasis
on the study of the Koran, the Holy book. The traditions of Prophet Mohammed (Hadith) were also
taught. Other areas that featured on the Islamic curriculum were Arabic Literature, Logic, Rhetoric,
Mathematics, Science, among others.
Islamic education promoted Arabs to a race of Scholars, Scientists, Architects, and Historians and so
on. Notable among them was Caliph al Mamun who founded the “House of Wisdom” in Baghdad,
Iraq in 830 A.D. It became an outstanding Academy of higher learning. These scholars translated
into Arabic the major Greek texts and manuscripts. In this way, some of the great works were
preserved for future generations and reference.
In a way, Islamic education of ancient times had a significant effect on the modern education
systems. It contributed to great advances in several disciplines in the area of Religion, Science, and
Humanities among others. Specifically, Islamic scholars contributed tremendously to the
development of modern ideas in Astronomy, Philosophy, Botany and other Science subjects. Notable
scholars included Al-Ghazzali, Ibn-Rushid, among others.
Islamic education is also credited with the foundation of one of the earliest Universities at Cordova in
Spain. Similarly, it is this rich Islamic heritage that gave birth to Al-Azhar in Cairo in A.D. 970. It
became one of the most famous Universities in Egypt and beyond.
As such, Islamic education is closely related to the promotion of formal education in many societies,
including Africa. Apart from teaching religion (Islam), the Islamic educationists and groups built

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schools which became instrumental in the spread of literacy, numeracy and other aspects. This in
turn poured forth women and men who had not only a spiritual outlook towards life but were also
equipped with abundant knowledge and skills for their own good and that of society.

On the negative side, note that Islamic education, like Christianity, planted seeds of religious
antagonism in many areas. They too, discriminated among the teachers and pupils which means the
schools promoted denominationalism, hatred and disunity in different parts of Africa. It also
denounced some of the traditional beliefs and practices that prevailed in Africa.

Besides, Islamic education was largely puritanic in emphasis. Thus, much of its content has fallen
short of addressing the basic needs of societies in Africa.

Colonial Education in Africa

Background of Colonial Education in Africa
Africa was colonised by the European powers. The motives behind this revolved around the Political,
Economic and Social interests of the colonising powers. Education, which belongs to the Social
sector, was regarded as a vital component of the colonial policy in general.
Aims and objectives of colonial education
Colonial powers were not always on good terms with each other. In fact, their colonisation of Africa
was dictated by rivalry, fears and conflict. They also had variations in their political, social and
economic systems, both at home and in the colonies. These differences were also reflected in
education.
In spite of the above, their colonial education policies they shared similar aims and objectives.
- Promote literacy among the masses to enable them read and write
- Discourage the natives against what were believed to be backward beliefs, and practices
- Train additional manpower necessary for the strengthening of the colony
- Train a few leaders who would be supportive and protective to the state
- Soften the hearts and minds of the people and ensure obedience and loyalty to the state
- Produce a small group of artisans, clerks and progressive farmers
However, the Colonial governments did not aim at educating the majority of the subjects. Nor did
they train highly qualified men and women. They wanted to minimize on costs and avert the possible
danger of arousing nationalism among the masses. For instance in Benin, it was feared that educated
people would become discontented and unwilling to work on the land.

As such, one of the objectives of colonial education was to divide and weaken the subjects by
making them subordinate to their rulers. They also used the education system to promote a sense of
inferiority among the colonised people. Education therefore was a means to an end, meant to
facilitate the ultimate goal of political domination, economic imperialism and social subjugation. The
British for instance needed people with certain specialised skills and training and this could be got
mainly through the local education system. However, this was supplemented by a few whites.

Main features of the colonial education policies

The characteristics of the colonial education policies in Africa relate closely to the aims and
objectives. The policies had some variations depending on the colonial power and regimes that
governed the African states. The following is a summary of the main education policy issues;
The education policies were initially not clearly defined. This was the case during the early years of
colonial rule when the colonising powers were still preoccupied with the conquest of Africa and the
establishment of law and order.
The colonial governments encouraged voluntary agencies to invest in education. That explains why
the Christian missionaries were at the forefront of promoting formal education in many states in
Africa. In the British colonies, for instance, this took a form of a partnership between the state and

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the Church. It was also for a similar reason that the British Government adopted a policy of running
education through the Missions. Apart from the Christian agencies, other groups were also allowed to
venture into the field of education. The cases in point included the Asian communities (in areas
where they existed) and even the natives. These established “private” schools alongside the public
and mission schools. In this way, alternative education institutions were established.
In terms of finance, the colonial policy involved support to the Missions by giving Grants-in-aid to
them. The money was meant to subsidise the activities of the missionaries in education. That money
was increased gradually as the colonial economy became more vibrant. Furthermore, the colonial
governments in many parts of Africa donated land to the missionary groups. It also exempted them
from the payment of taxes. This gesture of goodwill reinforced their material needs in education.
The colonial policy involved the establishment of schools and institutions, training of teachers, and in
some cases the payment of their salaries. This was the case in the British territories in East, West and
Central Africa.

To enforce their policies in education, the colonies also established education laws. The laws were
also meant to regulate the education systems, ensure order and standardise the education systems in
terms of infrastructure, the curriculum, professionalism, among others.

Education Commissions were also set up from time to time. They were used to examine the
education system in the colonies and suggest ways of addressing pertinent issues in education as
defined in their terms of reference. For example, the British sent the Phelps-Stokes Education
Commission to Africa during the early years of the second decade (1920s). In the French territories,
there were attempts to use education as an avenue to assimilate the subjects. However, note that the
education policies were on the whole geared towards the creation of a small group of elites.
Consequently, the schools built by the colonial governments were few.

In terms of the curriculum, the colonial governments imposed their curricular on the colonies. They
also discouraged the provision of higher education to the African subjects for fear of arousing
awareness and nationalism among the elite natives.

Impact of colonial education policies on Africa

On a positive note, the colonial policies established an enabling environment for the promotion of
education. The voluntary agencies, namely the Christian missionaries, were given a strong and loud
voice in education. Their influence is still felt to date through the spiritual and moral guidance they
offer in their schools.
The Muslim founded schools were equally influential in the communities where they were
established. Similarly, the involvement of private groups in education created alternative forms of
education that broadened education opportunities in the various African states. The passing of
education laws regulated the process of setting up schools, their operation, academic and physical
standards and so on. It also facilitated the funding of education as well as the production of
manpower in different areas of specialisation. Note that the trained men and women became
instrumental in the management of education and other sectors of society.
On the negative side though, the Colonial education policy restricted the education of the natives
qualitatively. The small number of schools produced a class of elites and school leavers that could
not satisfy the manpower needs of their countries. The education of the girl child was generally
neglected. This partly explains the gender imbalance in education in most African countries.
In terms of quality, the colonial policy failed to tailor the curriculum to the needs and demands of the
society. Consequently, the curricula inherited by the African states were generally irrelevant, western
in outlook and theoretical. It is for this reason that Vocational and Practical education were also
virtually underdeveloped.
The result was the creation of school leavers who lacked functional skills. They preferred white-
collar jobs and became job-seekers rather than job-makers.

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The policy of running education through the Missions reinforced religious antagonism and
denominationalism education. Consequently the unity of some communities was compromised in
areas where religious groups competed for influence. This in turn disrupted the political and social
fabric in Africa.

Education in Africa since independence

Aims and objectives of education in independent Africa
 Use education as a pillar to consolidate the national sovereignty of the Societies.
 Desire to foster unity among the masses. This was envisaged at the national, continental and
the international levels.
 Education in post colonial Africa was geared towards eradicating ignorance, disease and
poverty. It is for this reason that the African states cherished the promotion of literacy among
the masses. It was believed that this could facilitate rapid social and economic development
in their countries.
 In addition was the desire to produce a wider human resource capable of transforming society
and safeguarding the national ideals and beliefs. This included the traditional or cultural
uniqueness of the various communities in Africa.
 Use education to promote production within the communities. One of the outstanding
advocates of this was Julius Kambarage Nyerere, a teacher and former President of Tanzania.

Challenges in education in Africa since independence

The first was colonial legacy. The African countries inherited education systems that were modeled
on those of the colonial masters. For instance, the systems were British, French, Portuguese, Spanish
or Italian in outlook. This meant that the African curricula were also western in outlook. This meant
that part of the content was not tailored to suit the needs and challenges of the time. Africa was faced
with the challenge of addressing this.
Few natives were educated and so illiteracy was widespread.
The human resource was also small, unskilled and not adequately prepared to sustain the political,
economic and social activities in their countries. This severe shortage of the human resource was
occasioned by the departure of many whites and, in some cases, the Asians from the colonies shortly
before and after independence. Note that these people had occupied key positions in the teaching
service, the civil service and other sectors of the society.
The departure of some of the whites and Asians was prompted by the fear of possible violence and
harassment by the independent Governments and communities as well as racism. This was because
they were not prepared to serve under African led governments.
The schools and education facilities were few, unable to cope with the growing demand for
education. In most African countries, the birth rate was high, thus complicating the process of
planning and delivery of educational services to the masses. While job opportunities were readily
available soon after independence, there were very few educated natives to exploit the opportunities
at the time.
Disunity also existed in Africa due to religious, political, racial, ethnic and other differences among
the people. You should recall for instance that in the areas where Christian groups competed for
influence, denominationalism in education had divided the masses. In multi-racial societies, racism
was also rampant. The cases in point include South Africa in the post-Apartheid era. Education was
expected to promote rather than frustrate the unity of masses across the broad spectrum in Africa.
This was not the case in some states.
Apart from the human resource, finance and other material resources necessary for education were
not adequate. Note that political independence did not bring along economic independence. Yet,
there were many competing needs with other sectors of the economy. It was therefore upon the
African states to develop capacity to mobilise the funds and vital inputs for investment in education.
Besides the above, the education systems were producing graduates and other school leavers who
lacked functional knowledge, skills and values. The curriculum was largely theoretical and literary. It

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was not strong enough to produce highly qualified men and women. It was therefore a serious
challenge to tailor the content to the needs of the young states in Africa. There also existed imbalance
in education based on gender where the girl-child was grossly disadvantaged. In all, Africa had a
challenge of ensuring quality, access and equity in education.

Strategies aimed at promoting education in Post-Colonial Africa

African countries are not at the same level of development. Similarly, their approach to the Political,
economic and social issues also vary.
This is true of the education sector as well. In spite of the above, the states in Africa operate within
the larger framework at regional, continental and the global levels. They have also been guided to
adopt continental and global initiatives and innovations in education.
As such, apart from the domestic issues, the states in post-colonial Africa are closely bound to the
African Union (formerly the Organisation of African Unity), the United Nations Organisation
(UNO), among other international bodies and agencies. It is therefore important for you to note that
the strategies made by the African states to address the educational issues are not only national but
also global in context.
Inspired by their political freedom and the thirst to achieve the post-colonial development agenda,
the states in Africa came up with a number of strategies. Sometimes they used legislative measures to
effect changes in the existing education systems. For example in Uganda, the 1964 education Act
was passed soon after independence. Consequently, the grant-aided schools which hitherto belonged
to religious groups were nationalised by the state. The voluntary agencies also lost some of their
powers in the recruitment and posting of the teachers and the admission of pupils. In this way, the
denominationalism in education was tremendously checked.

Apart from the move to uproot denominationalism, the African countries, notably those with a
significant mix of races, passed radical laws against racial segregation in Schools. This is the case in
Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, Namibia, among others. Education Commissions were also set up to
review the education systems. The recommendations of such commissions provided the framework
for reform. In this way, the curriculum and other aspects of the education system became stronger or
more relevant to the needs and challenges of the time. In spite of reforms in the curriculum, the
progress made in the promotion of vocational and practical education in post colonial Africa is slow
and insignificant. You need to recall that the human resource in Africa also needed to be addressed.
It was for this reason that the Governments encouraged the training of more teachers and other
professionals. A lot of investment was injected into the training of teachers for instance, through pre-
service and in-service programmes.
To address the financial gaps in education, African states invested more money and other resources.
The funds were generated from internal revenue and external sources. The latter took the form of
loans and grants. That aid came from bi-lateral and multilateral sources. Examples include the World
Bank, IMF, UNESCO, and friendly nations in Europe, USA, and Asia among others.
Also note that the States were under pressure to broaden education opportunities. To this end, more
schools were built and existing facilities expanded. Much of the finance allocated to the education
sector was committed to the task of increasing access in education. Closely related to the above was
the democratisation of education. This strategy saw the introduction of Universal Primary Education
(UPE) in a number of states in Africa in the recent past. Some have gone a step further to initiate
Universal Secondary Education and other measures at the tertiary level.
Democratisation of education also involved initiating special programmes for marginalized groups.
The cases in point include the Girl-child, learners with Special education needs, and other
disadvantaged people. Thus, in some African states, a lot has been done to promote the education of
the girls through funding, advocacy, affirmative action, etc. Similarly, some states have integrated
Special Needs Education into the curriculum and are already training teachers in that area.
In a bid to promote Science and Technology, many African countries have invested heavily in these
areas. Policies have been adopted aimed at encouraging boys and girls to venture into Information

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and Communications Technology. In a few countries, Science-based subjects have been made
compulsory.
Education in Kenya
Historical records from the travels of Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann reveal that
Kenyans had access to education as far back as 1728 with a Swahili manuscript Utendi wa Tambuka,
(the book of Heraclius) attesting to the fact. The CMS missionaries interacted with locals in the
coastal town of Mombasa and set up one of the earliest mission schools in the country at Rabai in
1846.
With the expansion of the railway from Mombasa to Uganda, the Missionaries expanded their work
into Kenya's interior. An attempt to set up a school and mission at Yatta in 1894 was resisted by the
Kamba tribe. The missionaries then penetrated into western Kenya and set up schools and various
missions. The first school in western Kenya was established at Kaimosi in 1902. During the colonial
era, the number of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of
them were privileged to proceed abroad for further education.
The earliest schools in Kenya
1. School at Rabai near Mombasa - established 1846
2. Friends School Kaimosi, now Kaimosi Friends Primary School, established 1903
3. Maseno School established 1906.
4. Jamhuri High School, established 1906
5. Tumutumu Mission School, now Tumutumu Girls’ High School established in 1908.
6. European Girls' School, now Kenya High School established 1908.
7. Thogoto School, now Thogoto Teachers’ Training College established 1910.
8. Kaimosi Girls High School, established 1920
9. Kaimosi Boys High School, established 1921
10. Mang'u High School, established 1925.
11. Alliance School, now Alliance High School (Kenya) established in 1926.
12. St. Mary's School Yala, established in 1927.
13. Highlands High School, now Moi Girls' High School - Eldoret established in 1928.
14. Kisii School - established in 1932

Education Commissions in Kenya before Independence

There are a number of commissions that were set up by colonial governments to provide direction in
as far as education was concerned. Some of those commissions were as follows
Fraser Commission 1909
Professor J.N. Fraser was an educationist from Bombay who was commissioned by the government
to carry out a survey of education within the British Protectorate. Particularly, he was to advise on
the organization African Education on racial groups. Prof Fraser came up with the following
recommendations.
 Recommended an industrial code to be used by missionaries to train apprentices leading to
government examination.
 Limited teaching of English for groups training for church work.
 Formation of a department of education
 Government grant of £5 was given to each apprentice and £2 for tool kit.
The Fraser Commission gave the following results
 Establishment of department of education in 1911 and appointment of J.R. Orr as the first
director.
 Government controlled aspects of education and by passing examinations one would access
grants.
 Attempts to open secular schools
 Apprehensions by missionaries because they did not approve of secular schools
However, there arose the question of which agency was best suited for undertaking education for
Africans. There was mixed feelings because Africans wanted secular education provided for the

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government while the missionaries felt that it was their divine right to run education and propagate
religion.

Education Commission for the East African Protectorate 1919

The issues raised as a result of the Fraser were addressed by the Education Commission for the East
Africa Protectorate of 1919. The following were some of the recommendations.
 Civilizing Africans was basically found in Christianity
 Regular, moral and religious instruction in Africans schools
 Governments to support missionaries by provision of grants foe education.
 Policy of payment of grants be abolished
 Grants be general and should be remitted to institutions and not to individuals
 Government secular schools should not be established
 Vernacular was proposed for use at lower levels but at levels use of English for practical and
patriotic purposes.
Most of the recommendations were implemented. The colonial government abolished payment by
results and introduced a system of grants-in aids which was not tied to examinations. Education was
in the hands of missionaries and they quickly included Christian moral and religious instruction in
the curriculum.
However there was opposition from Africans because they realized that it was not sufficient. They
wanted academic education which would bridge the racial gap. The European secular education
proponents also opposed the system because they foresaw the church to advocate only evangelization
needs but not the important African needs.
Phelp-Stokes Commission 1924
The outcome of the opposition to mission education was the appointment of the Phelp-Stokes
Commission of 1924. It was mandated to identify educational programme needs; the local, economic
and social health needs and the extent to which they were being met. The following were some of the
cardinal recommendations of the Phelp-Stokes Commission.
 Education must be related to the needs of the people.
 Appointment of central committee to run education on racial lines.
 Improved teacher education but based it on relevant teaching aids and African folklore
 Led to establishment of Jeanes School in Kabete in 1924. J.W.C Doughall one of the
commissioners as the 1st Principal.
 Marked end of Christian dominance
The following are the issues that arose from implementation of Phelp-Stokes recommendations First,
Africans were opposed to the Jeanes School and other schools because admitted students were
expected to have some previous training in teaching and were assigned to supervise and train village
school teachers in the local schools. They wanted academic education. Missionaries were opposed to
the secular approach to education since they perceived it to be against their evangelism needs for the
Africans.
Education Ordinance of 1931
o Repealed the education ordinance of 1924 (Phelp-Stokes recommendations)
o Replaced central committees with advisory committees
o Empowered the government to appoint advisory committees to advice the Director of
Education
o Appointment of Advisory Councils for Africans, European, Asian and Arab education
Education Ordinance Of 1934
 This ordinance established District Education Boards (DEBs) to rectify the deficiencies of
central committees
 DEBs were mandated with the duties of approving and allocating grants
 Oversee establishment of elementary and sub-elementary schools
 Supervise the general management and development of the above mentioned schools

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Despite the enactment of the ordinances, most African schools were opened and controlled by
Missionaries. By the end of 1939, Kenya had 4 mission run sec schools: Alliance (1926), Kabaa-
Mangu (1930), Maseno (1938) and Yala (1939) (Wmahiu et al 1992)

Beecher Education Committee 1949

The Beecher Report had 148 recommendations. Below are some of the notable recommendations.
 4-4-4 system of education. Primary-4, Intermediate-4, Secondary-4 after which there will be
examination after every stage.
 Officially recognized role of missionaries as agents of the government on provision of
education.
 Europeans to take up teacher training to free Africans to work elsewhere
 Makerere College trained teachers to be assistant masters
 Proposed the establishment of additional 16 secondary schools
Arising from the recommendation of additional secondary schools, the graph below captures the
evidence of the improvement that was seen by 1960. However, education was meant to westernize
Africans by replacing African traditional values with European ones. The 4-4-4 system of education
was implemented. Also, the missions were given more power over the day to day of running
education.

The Binns Education Report 1952

The Binns report opposed development of many small scattered teacher training colleges with few
trainees who amounted to wastage in facility utilization. The Binns Report also recommended that
Teacher training colleges be coordinated to improve quality of teacher education. The Binns Report
further proposed that each territory to coordinate teacher training colleges in their area of jurisdiction
to be able to inject specific needs of the consuming society.
The Binns report made far reaching recommendations which influenced teacher education. For
example, in 1957, the government set up the Eastern Teacher Delegacy headquartered at Kagumo; In
1959, the Western Teacher Delagacy, was established at Siriba. They merged in 1964 to form the
KIE. In essence, The Kenya Institute of educations origin is also be attributed to the Binns Education
Report. The Binns Report has other implications but the most notable for demand and supply of
education in Kenya was on teacher education
The year 1963
By 1963, the education system in Kenya was patterned on the British model, largely influenced by
English public schools, the Church of England, the English University and the English educational
legislation (Lucas 1959). Together with its accompanying components, education was meant to
westernize Africans by replacing African traditional values with European ones.
The colonial policy makers had relegated education to acquisition of knowledge which would enable
Africans to be efficient shamba boys. By the time Beecher Education Report was put in place 1949,
Africans had realized that recommendations given were on racial lines. This is why data below of
primary school enrolment showed a lot of disparities in 1963.

Education was run on racial lines. After 1960 a few Asian and African students gained admission
into European schools. In the main, the provision of education favoured the minority Asian and
European racial groups. Africans received the least in terms of educational capital and services. This
is best illustrated in the chart above.
The statistics were worse for secondary schools in 1963.

As far as post secondary education was concerned, at independence, there were only 335 Kenyans at
University level within East Africa (Otiende 1992)

Need For Change

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During the 1960s, many countries of the third world which has been colonized by the European
powers attained political independence. These new independent countries started re-examining their
socio-economic systems that they inherited from colonial masters. Education was one institution that
was being subjected to rigorous scrutiny since it was a foregone conclusion that the demand and
supply of education was the foremost step in achieving socio-economic growth. The African states
had an urgent demand for personnel. They wanted to get people to fill in vacant posts left by their
colonial masters.
In addition, the United Nations (UN) education policy for the third world countries urged expansion
of education to promote economic growth and socio-economic development towards realization of
this broad trend of educational expansion. The main aim was to supply skilled manpower. The
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and UNESCO jointly sponsored the
conference of African states on the development of education in Africa. This conference was held in
Addis Ababa in May 1961, with Kenya as one of the 39 participating nations. The processes of
supply and demand of education in independent African states on its way to meet the very many
needs of the African society
At independence, the new republic of Kenya had an opportunity to design a relevant education
system to satisfy the demand and supply of education. The government therefore appointed its first
national education commission on 19th December 1963, just a week after independence. The
commission was chaired by Prof. S. H. Ominde.

Education Commissions in Kenya after Independence

The Ominde Education Commission 1963
Mandate
i. To appropriately express the aspirations and cultural values of an independent African
Country (Kenya)
ii. Take account of the need for trained manpower for economic development and for other
activities in the life of the nation (Kenya).
iii. To take advantage of the initiative and service of regional, local authorities and voluntary
bodies.
iv. Contribute to the unity of Kenya.
v. Respect the educational needs and capabilities of children.
vi. Have due regard for the resources, both in money and in personnel that are likely to become
available for educational services.
vii. Provide for the principal educational requirement of adults.
The Ominde commission sought to reform the education system to make it more responsive to the
needs of independent Kenya, such as developing and supply of indigenous manpower to replace the
whites who were leaving the country. Also, the report discouraged continuation of admission to
schools along racial lines. The report recommended a curriculum to foster national unity, national
and cultural integration, and, address social and regional inequalities. In addition, it stressed on the
need to train human capital for national development. The report also emphasized on the need to
expand secondary education. The report finally recommended Free Primary Education.
Sessional paper no.10 of 1965 formally adopted the Ominde Report as a basis for educational
development. The Sessional Paper which was titled: African Socialism and its application in Kenya
identified the following three urgent interventions which was the basic demand for and supply of
education.
 Eradication of poverty
 Eradication of illiteracy
 Eradication of diseases.

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By making such a clear statement of purpose of education in Kenya and spelling out the national and
social goals of the country’s educational policy, the Ominde commission broke new ground.
Education became a vehicle for changing attitudes and relationships and enhancing social equality
among the various races, tribes and religious groups in Kenya.
Though the commission admitted challenges that could arise from the effect of modernizations, it
still recommended that education system should foster the nations own historic instincts and moral
standards so as to reduce the impact of western type of individualized education. The curricula were
to be reformed to bring in communal sharing and co-operative aspects of African traditional life
rather than the competitive European culture. Whether this has been achieved by 2010 is still
debatable.
The inadequacy of colonial education for the third world nations had been realized at international
forum even before Kenya like many other African states felt duty bound to follow resolutions,
guidelines and plans of the Addis Ababa (1961) and Tananarive (1962) conferences. The Ominde
report relied heavily on the recommendations above and by extension the Griffith report (1962) and
Hunter report (1962).
However, the Ominde Commission has been criticized for not being specific on the basic issues in
education. It did not go far enough to restructure the colonial education system or offer projection of
future educational expansion (Anderson, 1970). Despite the criticisms, it must appreciated that the
commission did a commendable job in breaking new ground in Kenya’s education history, placing
education at the centre of economic development, social change and national unity (Sheffield 1973).
Part of the limitation of professor Ominde Education Commission was due to lack of sufficient data
as was discussed earlier on in this paper. Due to many challenges facing education in Kenya other
commissions came after the Ominde Commission to address emerging issues.

Gachathi Report 1976

The Gachathi Report also known as the report of the National Committee on Education Objectives
and Policies (NCEOP) was chaired by the then education permanent secretary Mr. Peter Gachathi.
The report advocated the establishment of TSC field units, Teachers Service Commission. The
demand for management of teachers was addressed. Finally the Gachathi Report recommended the
following to be the mandate of TSC.
 Register teachers
 Recruit teachers
 Remunerate teachers
 Transfer teachers
 Discipline teachers
 Terminate employment of teachers who break rules.
 Advice the minister for education on educational matters related to teachers.
 Develop a code of regulation for teachers.
Others were;
 Extension of primary education from seven to nine years
 Abolition of the last two years of secondary education.
 Free [primary education in upper primary from standard five to seven to achieve the U.P.E
(universal primary school)
 Kiswahili to be made a compulsory subject
 Taking over harambee schools by the government.
 Establishment of semi-autonomous institutions e.g. commission for higher education (CHE)
in 1985 and Kenya national examination council (KNEC) in 1980.

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Also, the Gachathi report expressed concern over the tendency of education to prepare learners for
white collar jobs. Further, the report recommended abolition of fees from standard V to standard VII.
Fee for standard I to standard III were abolished in 1994. In addition, the commission proposed a 9-
year primary school curriculum with emphasis vocational training. This was intended to make
education at this level terminal for those who did not proceed learning.
The report also stressed on the importance of national unity, economic and cultural aspirations of the
Kenyan people. Finally, the Gachathi report laid emphasis on Early Childhood Development
Education (ECDE) and therefore led to the establishment of National Centre for Childhood
Education (NACECE) at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE).
He further articulated the Ominde report by redefining national objectives/ goals of education as
follows:
Education shall foster;
a) National unity
b) National development
c) Social equality
d) Individual development and self-fulfillment
e) Development and respect for cultural heritage
f) International consciousness

The Mackay Report (1981)

On analyzing the demand and supply of education in Kenya, it is cardinal to view the Mackay Report
which was the most controversial. The main term of the Mackay commission was to look into the
logistics of establishing a second university in Kenya. The Mackay team went ahead and
recommended radical changes in the structure of the education system.
The report made the following proposals which were eventually implemented.
First, the report proposed the establishment of Moi University, which became the second university
in Kenya. Secondly, the report recommended the scrapping of the A level segment and introduction
of 8-4-4 system. Also, the report proposed the establishment of the Commission of Higher Education
(CHE). In addition, the Mackay team recommended the expansion of post secondary training
institutions. This report clearly overrode its set boundary. Although it did just that, it had full
political goodwill and hence all its recommendations were fully implemented.
One pertinent issue came out of this report. It clearly puts in perspective that education is a political
tool.

He further recommended the following;

 Decongesting the 844 curriculum and reducing KCPE and KCSE to 5 and 7 respectively.
 Removal of industrial subjects to tertiary level
 Scrapping the 844 and replacing it with the 7-4-2-3- system.
 Establishment and expansion of day schools.
 Discontinuation of ranking of schools based on KCPE and KCSE results.
 Provision of science equipments, chemicals and other T/L (instructional materials) by the
government.

Report of the task force on student’s indiscipline and students’ unrest in secondary schools-
(the wangai report of 2001)

It was set up in 2001 by the then minister of education, science and technology to address student
indiscipline and unrest in secondary schools following the Bombolulu and kyanguli incidences
where lives of students were lost. It was chaired by Naomi –wangai – the then director of
education.
Her recommendation were as follows’

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  The ministry of education bans holidays, weekends and after school tuition for all primary
and secondary school students.
 The ministry of education proscribes provincial, districts and zonal mock examinations. Only
school based mocks ere to be done by primary school standard 8 and form fours during
second term.
 KNEC stopped ranking of school according to performance in KCPE and KCSE.
 Credit accumulation system at secondary school level to be instituted to allow a student
dropping out before completion of form four to resume his or her studies.
 The school management to seek support of the local community, provincial administration
and the entire school community to eliminate the problem of drugs from the school.
 The review of education act be concluded without further delay and harmonized with other
relevant status and legal instruments.
Despite all the commissions and committees’ recommendations, the education system in Africa is yet
to come out of the woods to meet the citizen’s expectations, aspirations and general socio –
economic needs. A lot need to be done. Our education system appears to be oriented and there is a lot
of wastage. Our completion rates are very poor.
 Broaden the scope of the curriculum to produce round graduates
 Emphasize practical subjects in the curriculum.
These recommendations were met with reaction by the public viewing it as foreign.
Politically driven rather than professionally inspired
Inadequate consultation was made especially on the availability of resources, both physical and
human necessary to support the new curriculum to support the new curriculum before
implementation.
Piloting to assess the strengths and weakness of the curriculum were not done
The curriculum was congested and hence unpopular with students and teachers.
It seemed to glorify examination at the expense of quality education.

The Kamunge Report (1988)

This is the report of the Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the
next decade and beyond. Mr. James Mwangi Kamunge a renowned education consultant chaired the
working party.
The report was instituted to come up with policies to address education financing, quality and
relevance.
The working party focused on improving education financing, quality and relevance. The following
were the recommendations of the Kamunge team.
 Strengthening of vocational and technical education to both the country’s manpower
 Need for cost sharing especially in higher education.
 Abolition of student allowances in tertiary institutions, including universities.
The above recommendations led to the publication of Sessional Paper no. 6 of 1988 or Education and
Training for the next Decade and beyond. The paper laid emphasis on cost sharing.
A lot of argument has been advanced on the catastrophic effect of the recommendations of Kamunge
report but what is worth noting is that demand and supply of education is cyclic and new policies can
be formulated to improve on previous demands.

The Koech Report (2000)

The commission of inquiry into education system of Kenya was appointed by President Moi in 1998
to recommend ways of enabling the education system facilitate national unity, social responsibility,
accelerate industrial and technological development and lifelong learning.
The Koech report came up with the following recommendations:
 Total Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET). This was to be an all inclusive,
accommodative, qualitative and lifelong education.

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  Expanded free basic education from early childhood to secondary level.
 Reintroduction of pre-university segment in education system and expansion of opportunities
in post secondary education.
 Introduction of a unit-learning programme in post secondary, institutions that allow credit
transfer from one level of institution to another.
 Review of the Education Act.
 Review of school curriculum to make it manageable to learners and teachers.
 Strengthening of alternative and continuous learning.

Sessional Paper No.1 Of 2005

The sessional paper no. 1 of 2005 an a policy framework for education, training and research is the
most recent policy document on education. It provides new directions on provision of education and
training at all levels.
In the document, the government outlined strategies that seek to improve access, quality equity and
completion rates.
The paper underlines the government’s commitment to achieving Universal Primary Education
(UPE) by 2015 which is key strategy towards attaining the overall goal of EFA by 2015. Universal
Primary Education (UPE) is intended to ensure children eligible for primary schooling have
opportunity to enrol and remain in school, to learn and acquire quality basic education.
The documents implementation has resulted in an increased enrolment of children from 5.9 million
in 2002 to 7.6million in 2007. Another 300,000 primary school children are enrolled in non-formal
learning centres. However, statistics are not clear on the children who are not in school because of
one reason or the other.
The document also puts emphasis on quality of education all levels and calls for regular reviews of
curriculum to improve its relevance and incorporate emerging issues among other goals. The
sessional paper however acknowledges that primary education still faces many challenges among
others. It says that many eligible children were still out of school; congestion was common in school;
while many were poorly managed leading to a lot of wastage. This paper underscores the importance
of adult, continuing and non-formal education. Currently, the government is providing support to
some non-formal schools that comply with the ministry of education requirements and
accountability.
Despite this well crafted policy, there is still inadequate capacity to cater for growing demand of
school leavers seeking university education. Further, there is mismatch between skills acquired by
university graduates and demand of industry. Moreover, so many students were enrolled in art based
courses as opposed to sciences. Under the plan, the government will promote the expansion of
university education.
The above policy formulation process in the Kenya case has led us to where we are in the year 2011.
However there are many challenges worth noting.

Key points of the Sessional Paper no. 1 of 2005 were as follows:

 Underlines government commitment to achieving UPE.
 Improve all sectors of education demand and supply.
 Emphasis on quality education at all levels
 Importance of adult, continuing and non-formal education
 Attaining EFA by 2015
 Improvement of ECDE in Kenya
 Overhaul of TIVET (Technical, Industrial, Vocational, and Entrepreneurship Training)
 Teacher development and utilization
 Information and communication technology
 Research and development
 Financing and Partnership in education
 ACE, ODL,TIVET,NACECE, EXPANSION HELB

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Pre and Post Colonial Education
Kenya began a campaign for free Primary Education after independence in 1963. Since then, her
system of education has undergone transformation twice. Before independence elementary education
was based on the colonial system of education. In 1967, Kenya, together with Uganda and Tanzania,
formed the East African Community. The three countries adopted a single system of education, the
7-4-2-3, which consisted of 7 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education, 2 years of
high school and 3–5 years of university education. Under the system, which was similar to the British
system of education, children began their elementary (primary) education at the age of 7 and
completed at the age of 13 after sitting for a regional examination known as the East African
Certificate of Primary Education - EACPE. After primary education those who passed very well
proceeded to secondary school which ended four years later with the writing of the East African
Certificate of Education examination - EACE. The highest level of education that qualified one to
attend university was attained after two years of high school at that time distinct from secondary
school with students sitting for the East African Advanced Certificate of Education - EAACE.
With the collapse of the East African Community in 1977, Kenya continued with the same system of
Education but changed the examination names from their regional identity to a national identity. The
East African Certificate of Primary Education became the Certificate of Primary education - CPE,
the East African Certificate of Education became the Kenya Certificate of Education - KCE and the
East African Advanced Certificate of Education became the Kenya Advanced Certificate of
Education - KACE. Introduction of the 8-4-4 system of education, which adopted eight years of
primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university education. With the
introduction of the 8-4-4 system CPE became KCPE - Kenya Certificate of Primary Education while
KCE became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education - KCSE.
Since 1985, public education in Kenya has been based on an 8-4-4 system, with eight years of
primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college or university.
Some private schools however, offer a system of education similar to the British system of education
with ordinary level exams, "O-levels" taken at the end of 4 years of secondary school and advanced
levels "A-levels", taken after two years of high school. Out of all children in Kenya about 85 percent
attend primary school. 75 percent of those who complete primary education proceed to secondary
schools and 60 percent of those who complete secondary school proceed to higher institutions of
education which include business and vocational institutions, national polytechnics, public and
private universities within the country. Over 950,000 Kenyans have furthered their education abroad
with a majority of graduates from India, UK, Canada, the US, Russia and Uganda.

Educational Quality
Educational quality has recently received a lot of attention in Kenya. The government's main
document in this effort, the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme for 2005–2010, established
the National Assessment Centre (NAC) to monitor learning achievement. In 2010, the NAC released
the results of its first assessment.
Key Facts about education in Kenya based on the results of the Uwezo 2009 assessment:
1. Literacy levels are low, and are substantially lower in certain regions. Girls tend to perform
better in reading English and Kiswahili, while boys tend to perform better in math.
2. Literacy levels are lower in public schools than private schools.
3. Most children can solve real world, “ethno-mathematics” problems, while fewer can solve
similar math problems in an abstract, pencil and paper format.
4. 5% of children are not enrolled in school, but the problem is far worse in particular regions.
5. About half of children are enrolled in pre-school.
6. Many children are older than expected for their class level, including 40% of children in class
2, and 60% of children in class 7.

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 7. North Eastern Province and arid districts in Rift Valley and Eastern Provinces have
particularly low performance; and many older children, especially girls, are not attending
school.
8. Many families pay for extra tuition, which focuses heavily on drilling and exam preparation.
9. Schools struggle to plan their budgets because they receive funds at unpredictable times.
10. Children, whose mothers are educated, particularly beyond primary school, tend to have
much higher rates of literacy and numeracy.
11. About 15% of students are absent on a given day, with much higher absenteeism in certain
districts.
12. There is a severe shortage of teachers, estimated at 4 teachers per school.
Great Philosophers on Education

ST. AUGUSTINE
Saint Augustine is perhaps one of the greatest Christian writers of all time. He was the son of
Patricius, a pagan and Monica, a Christian. He was born in Tagaste in North Africa. He was educated
in the Latin Grammar School located on Madaura and the School of Rhetoric in Carthage. He would
go on to hold several prominent teaching positions which would lead him to Rome.
As he entered into Rome, his life would begin an awesome transformation from someone living
outside of the faith to someone who would become one of its most prominent teachers. For
Augustine, the gift of education was one not to be taken for granted. He professed that truth and
goodness exist only in God. It is both eternal and unchanging. Augustine loved wisdom. It is a gift
from God. There must exist within education a love of learning.
Saint Augustine taught that the content of a child's education must include all fields of study in order
that the student learn to appreciate the contents of Sacred Scripture.
He had a profound effect on the system of education. He believed that the young should be
encouraged to partake of hard thinking and to value their own intellectual powers. He desired that all
students become critical thinkers.
Lastly, Saint Augustine professed that there could exist within education no racial divide. He
strongly believed in the unity of the human race. He believed that everyone is called to the one
dignity, one destiny, the one Communion of peace. He cut across the social framework of the time.
In summary, a school in the image of Saint Augustine's view of education is communal, friendly,
seeking truth and engaged in the current issues facing the students and the world. One would be
correct to say that Saint Augustine would be happy with our motto of "Faith-Family-Future."
What was the influence of Augustine on education? Several ideas became dear to Augustine and
assume a special place with him.
(i) He believes in sheer hard thinking in young people. Students should learn to value their own
intellectual powers. "It is easy to be ignorant," he says, "learning always requires effort." School
instruction alone is insufficient, for that merely gives knowledge from the outside of things. Students
need to be critical thinkers, and to question everything with a serious purpose. They should in fact
become their own teachers. Augustine says, "Reach to truth yourself."
(ii) Education is a quest for divine truth and a happiness that endures beyond space and time. Hence
study must be directed to that inner understanding and confidence which come when faith is stirred.
He says, "Search for God in a way you will be certain to find Him; you will find peace."
(iii) The search of the intellect for knowledge must be matched by learning how to love with the
heart. Heart and mind work together.
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(iv) Love belongs in the relationship of teacher and pupil. Love is necessary to awaken love; it
educates the heart. Love seals the work of the teacher.
(iv) Education takes place in a community because, Augustine says, "You only know by loving." A
person is only truly know through friendship.
Augustine teaches that we become free through mutual participation in one another's lives; we do not
make ourselves free. "The person who will not have peace with others will not have it at all." So he
gathers into community not for uniformity or blind coordination but for knowledge through
loving.And he is aware that in community we achieve more than we could alone or in isolation.
(vi) Finally, Augustine sees no value in social or racial divisions among people. Instead, he is deeply
conscious of the unity of the human race. Everyone, he believes, is called to the one dignity, the one
destiny, the one Communion of peace.
In revolutionary language he cut across the social framework of his time.In the face of the Roman
consciousness of power and rigid class divisions (and the use of slaves), Augustine put forward an
ideal that is respect of every person.
For contemporary education to be faithful to Augustine, it must resist social division and excessive
economic differences among members of the human family. Its social emphasis must be the
liberation of all in human society from any lack of justice that they face. Augustine believed the
human community has a unity, a unity in Christ. He could see Christ as present and suffering in any
suffering member of humanity.
In summary, the relevant educational ideas of Augustine focus on: the power of the human mind, the
search for God, education of the heart, love of teacher for pupil, knowing by loving (and therefore
community), all persons sharing the same individual and social dignity.
These beliefs constitute the ideals and challenges of Augustinian education. Augustine knew well
what oppresses in life, and what liberates.
Comenius
Comenius was born March 28, 1592, and was orphaned early, because his parents died of a plague in
1604. Educated at the universities of Herborn and Heidelberg, Comenius began working as a pastor
and parochial school principal in 1618, the year the Thirty Years war began. After the defeat of the
Protestant armies in the Battle of White Mountain – one of the most disastrous events in Czech
history – he barely escaped with his wife while the enemy soldiers burned down his house.
Later, his young wife and two small children died of plague. For seven years he lived the life of a
fugitive in his town land, hiding in deserted huts, in caves, even in hollow trees. Early in 1628, he
joined one of the small groups of Protestants who fled their native Moravia to await better times in
neighboring Poland. He never saw his homeland again.
For 42 years of his long and sorrowful life he had roamed the countries of Europe as a homeless
refugee. He was always poor. His life was characterized by constant moving, despair, and turmoil
(this was part of the reason why his second wife became ill). His second wife died too, leaving him
with four children to care for. However, he composed many works on education and became famous
all throughout Europe through his writings. He published some of the first picture books for children,
as well as write a work around pansophic principles that gained him world fame.
What does “pansophic” actually refer to? Comenius believed there was only one truth. The light of
reason must submit in obedience to the will of God. This is Comenius’ fundamental, pedagogical and
pansophic priciple. From the persecutions and hardships he suffered in his life, he came to develop a
philosophy, called Pansophism. This philosophy emphasized political unity, religious reconciliation,
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and cooperation in education. The philosophy of pansophism related education to everyday life and
called for a systematic relationship to be developed for all knowledge. He advocated teaching in the
common vernacular language of students rather than in Latin, and the establishment of the universal
system of education with opportunities that included women and people of all nations.
Pansophism which means “all knowledge”, attempted to incorporate theology, philosophy and
education into one. Spiritual, philosophical and scientific learning is integrated. He believed that
learning spiritual and emotional growths were all woven together. The philosophy of pansophism
presented the goal of education as the development of universal knowledge among all people,
including women and children, and all nations. Comenius envisaged educated people as those who
sought knowledge from all sources in order to become more like God in whose image they were
made omniscient and universally compassionate.
Pansophism contained a strong argument for international education. He believed that all knowledge
comes from God and that human beings can come to know each other and ultimately God, through
the universal knowledge. He believed that the religious and national hostilities that caused such
violence to his people, the Brethren, and the other people of Europe were caused by ignorance. A
product either not knowing or of being falsely indoctrinated, ignorance led to bigotry, discrimination,
and intolerance the root causes of war and bloodshed. Complete knowledge, such as that which
Comenius believed possible, would dispel ignorance, bring people closer to each other, cause them to
respect ultimately and bring them to know God.
Basic Pansophic Principle of Comenius
1. An absolutely new vision of the whole, of the entire world is required.
2. A picture of the world should be viewed as unity, in its inherent organization and reality.
3. It will result in the “Universalis Sapientia” or universal knowledge that is interconnected by a
unity of its laws acting throughout all disciplines deductible from every one of them.
4. “Universal Knowledge” will make what is possible to clarify in future individual and opposed
truths, and simultaneously, unite all views within a common objective.
5. “Pansophia” will extend all over the world, opening boundless opportunities for cognition and
perfection.
6. When their reality is understood as a unique living organism, all its components reveal their true
meaning and reality itself reveals its laws to people, they will come to universal harmony.
7. Man should apprehend all that and create harmony in him.
8. Man will acquire a universal key and guideline to further cognition and discoveries.
9. “Pansophia” is a true vision and understanding of the world, it should become accessible door for
all people of the earth in their native languages.
10. If man lives in truth and performs his part in the universal harmony, then all people would come
to a concord, to peace.
For Comenius, the ultimate purpose of human life is to become united with God and to obtain eternal
bliss in life after death, with life here on Earth being the preparation for life after death. For this
purpose, everyone should know all things, become a person who can control things and himself, and
become like the image of God.

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He advocated necessity of three kinds of education; intellectual, moral, and religious education.
Comenius considered that the talent to realize the goals of education is naturally inherent in people,
and it is the role of education to bring out this natural gift, that is “nature”.
Comenius said that fundamentally, parents are responsible for their children’s education, but should
they become unable to do it, schools replace them. To him, the image of the ideal person was that of
a pansophist, a person who has learned all knowledge concerning God, nature, and human beings.
Comenius believed in the creation of a new worldwide social order that would contain peacemaking
and peacekeeping institutions. To create the cultural context for his new social order, the leaders of
the church and the state needed to transform schools into agencies of human enlightenment that
would open minds and hearts rather than close them through indoctrination. Comenius argued that
teachers should respect children’s human dignity rather than coerce them physically or
psychologically. Teachers should be kinder to the children instead of being harsh. He also argued
that teachers should develop instructional methods by which children could actively use their sense
of learning.
Schools that were transformed into places of enlightened and humane learning would cultivate an
ecumenical vision of the “peaceable kingdom” where all could live in mutual respect. Comenius saw
children through Christ’s eyes, which are precious gifts from God to be cherished rather than
annoyances to be suppressed. Children will be the joint heirs of Christ just as much as their Christian
parents are. Someday they will rule the Kingdom of God and judge the very devils. Therefore,
children are to be treated as if they are more precious than gold. They should be showered with love.
Material should be adapted to their ability to learn. Since a combination of words and pictures is
more powerful than either alone, the two should be united in children’s texts. Curricula should move
from simple to more complex with repetition and review so that the learner will gain mastery.
Never should children be punished for failing but rather be helped and encouraged. The subjects
taught should have practical use. Where possible, demonstration and direct observation should be the
norm.
According to Comenius, there should be four grades in an educational system which is equivalent to
preschool, grade school, high school and college. He hopes that through education, mankind might
be changed for the better.
Principles of Teaching Introduced by Comenius
1. Older children should stay longer in school, while younger ones stay in school only for a short
period of time.
2. All classes of the same level should have the same textbooks, teachers, and tests or examination.
3. Morning hours should be devoted for intellectual subjects, while the afternoon hours should be
spent on subjects that promote physical and aesthetic development.
4. All subjects should be thoroughly mastered.
5. Education should be in accordance with the child’s natural interest.
6. The level of teaching should be suited to the child’s understanding.
7. Effective learning is done through the use of vernacular.
Maria Montessori

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Maria Montessori lived from 1870 to 1952. She was the first woman to attend medical school in Italy
and the first female Doctor of Medicine there. Through her work with handicapped and socially
deprived children, she developed her unique educational method known as the Montessori Method.
As a result of her further study, observation and experimentation, she found the principles of her
method to be applicable to all children. She has had an impact on the field of education in general
and the way we understand and teach children today.
The main premises of Montessori education are: Children are to be respected as different from adults
and as individuals who differ from each other. Children possess an unusual sensitivity and
intellectual ability to absorb and learn from their environment that is unlike that of the adult both in
quality and capacity. The most important years of children’s growth are the first six years of life
when unconscious learning is gradually brought to the conscious level.
Children have a deep love and need for purposeful work. They work, however, not as an adult for the
completion of a job, but the sake of an activity itself. It is this activity which enables them to
accomplish their most important goal: the development of their individual selves - their mental,
physical and psychological powers. Benefits of the Montessori Method Maria Montessori saw much
need for reform in the educational system of her day, just as we see the same need for reform in our
educational system today. Her goal was to develop the whole personality of the child and her system
is based on a strong belief in the spontaneous working of the human intellect. Her three primary
principles are observation, individual liberty and preparation of the environment. These principles
and their various practical expressions with children are gradually becoming part of our educational
system. Modern kindergarten classrooms use the child-sized furniture and didactic materials first
introduced by Montessori. Such current concepts as individualized learning and readiness programs,
manipulative learning, un-graded classes, combined age groups, team teaching and open classrooms
reflect many of her early insights. Parents of young children in the 21st century want to feel safe and
secure in leaving their children in an environment that provides for all of their academic, social and
emotional needs. A Montessori environment does meet all of these needs, but it also teaches children
an "I can do it" attitude that will ensure their future success in all aspects of their life. Here are some
characteristics and benefits of the Montessori Method: Age span of children within the classroom -
Older children teaching younger children, sense of community and builds self esteem. Self correcting
materials within the environment - Children learn through their own errors to make the correct
decision versus having the teacher point it out to them. Individual learning takes place within the
environment - Montessori recognizes that each child learns at a different pace and allows that growth
to take place. Children are quiet by choice and out of respect for others within the environment - The
Montessori classroom allows children to return to the "inner peace" that is a natural part of their
personalities. There is an emphasis on concrete learning rather than on abstract learning - Children
need to experience concepts in concrete "hands-on" ways It is a child-centred environment - All the
materials are easily within the child's reach and placed on shelves at their levels. The tables and
chairs are small enough for the children to sit comfortably while the pictures and decorations are
placed at the children's eye level. The children work for the joy of working and the sense of
discovery - Children are either natural leaders or followers both delighting in learning new tasks.
Their interests lie in the process of the work itself rather than in the end result.
The environment provides a natural sense of discipline - The "ground rules" or expectations of the
child are clearly stated and are enforced by the children and the teachers. The environment is
"prepared" for the children - Everything used in the room has a specific place on a shelf. Children are
orderly by nature and having the room set this way allows them to grow in a very positive way. The
teacher plays a very unobtrusive role in the classroom - The children are not motivated by the
teacher, but by the need for self development.
The items found on the shelves in the classroom are "materials" rather than "toys." The children
"work with the materials" rather than "play with the toys." This allows the children to gain the most

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benefit from the environment by giving them a sense of worth - the same sense of worth adults
experience as they go to their jobs and do their "work."
Erasmus
Erasmus was born without a name in mysterious, if not shameful, circumstances—his father was a
priest who had seduced the daughter of a doctor of Zevenbergen called Geert—and his destiny
continued to be exceptional. He was born in Rotterdam in 1467 (or 1469, 1466 or 1468 depending on
the source) and, a few decades later, was to win fame for his town, which in this latter part of the
fifteenth century was only a little fishing village, by adding its name to his.

1. Erasmus advocated a return to the sources: the Bible to learn a holy life, and the Greek and Roman
Classics for culture. To Erasmus, the Bible and the Classics were two sides of the same coin, and he
thus strove for a combination of Christianity and humanism. This is reflected in Erasmus’ definition
of education, in which the forming of an upright moral character was first, and humanistic goals
(responsibility, career and life skills) followed

2. To Erasmus, education was necessary, lest barbarism replace civilization. "Remember that a man
without education has no humanity at all; that man’s life is a fleeting thing; that youth is an easy
prey to sin; that adulthood is afflicted with numerous cares; and that old age, which few are
permitted to reach, is barren and sterile. [...] you will not allow your child [...] to waste any portion
of his existence during which he may gather resources that will greatly benefit his entire life and
keep it from evil." To Erasmus, education nurtures our very being and sets us apart from other
creatures: people act from reason, and animals from instinct. Therefore, reason must be developed by
education. Also, learning is expected to overcome the hardship of life. Erasmus preferred to focus on
the value learning has to this earthly life, and not to eternal life.

3. While Luther took his starting point in the depravity of man, Erasmus started with the goodness of
the teacher and the student. Erasmus believed that a child’s mind must be instructed before it gets
corrupted. The child’s mind is receptive, pliable, and capable to take on any form, even (if well-
fashioned by proper education) a god-like nature. To Erasmus, the seeds for life were implanted in us
‘by nature’, and teachers only need to put in a good effort to make it sprout and grow: Erasmus
believed that teachers were more important than school systems, as the Bible also speaks more about
teachers than about a school system. With a reference to Matthew 17:5, Erasmus posed Jesus as the
best model for all teachers, in whom they should see the example of patience, gentleness, and
encouragement. Erasmus made the teachings of Christ the objective of all learning, and even infants
must be taught the gospel. Yet, Erasmus did not stress Christ’s atonement for our sins.

4. To Erasmus, classical antiquity showed the best method for teaching. He believed that old Greek
and Roman intellectual and cultural ideals could be integrated with Christian ideals. A careful
selection of pagan writings can even help to live a holy life

5. Regarding the goal of Christian education, Erasmus wanted to pursue learned piety. He was
influenced by the renaissance in his belief that the Christian faith could not be understood without
appropriating the culture and philosophy of antiquity. To him, piety comes from both civilization and
the Bible. True happiness comes from studying achievements of the present and the past, with the
Bible as the most important achievement, but the others are not at all excluded.

Julius Kambarage Nyerere

Julius Kambarage Nyerere, the former and founding president of the united republic of Tanzania, is
known not only as one of the world’s most respected statesmen and an articulate spokesman of
African liberation and African dignity but also as an educator and an original and creative
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educational thinker. He was born in 1922 near Musoma, Tanzania. After his primary and secondary
education, Nyerere proceeded to Makerere college Uganda, where he obtained a diploma in
education in 1945, after Makerere, he returned to Tanzania and taught at St.Mary’s school until 1949,
when he was awarded a scholarship to Edinburgh university from where he graduated with a master
of arts degree in 1952. Upon his return home he began to take an active part in Tanganyika politics.
In 1954, he founded TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) and was subsequently elected
Member of Parliament during Tanganyika’s first election in 1959, he became the first chief minister
of the country 1 year later and was sworn in as prime minister of Tanganyika in May 1961. During
the first presidential election in 1962, Nyerere won the elections and become the first African
president. He continued to be re-elected as president until mid 1980s when he retired from the
presidency as well as active politics. He however, continued to actively participate in regional and
global issues until his death on October, 14th 1999.
Apart from his involvement in politics, Nyerere was an articulate theorist of education whose views
deserve explication. Nyerere’s views on education can be located within the nationalistic ideological
view of education in Africa. Characteristic of this position is the view that education has to reflect
and sustain national priorities, aims and aspirations. In addition, it has to translate the national
ideology into curriculum In line with the above view, Nyerere’s publications articulate education for
independent Tanzania and by extension, for Africa. Such publications include: education for self-
reliance (1967), education never ends (1969/70), our education must be for liberation (1974) and
adult education and development (1976).
A basic theme that runs through all these writings is that of education for self-reliance. Nyerere first
articulated this idea in 1967. Later, he reflected upon this view and modified it into education for
liberation. he espoused Ujamaa as the basis of social and economic development. By Ujamaa,
Nyerere meant three things: Work by everyone, fair sharing of resources collectively produced and
respect for human dignity. Essentially, indigenous African communalism was to be adopted and
adapted to post independent Tanzania. In addition, Nyerere advocated for the adoption of indigenous
values such as respect for the wisdom of the elders.
In education for self-reliance (1967), Nyerere comprehensively presents the need for a radical
definition of organization and content of education in Tanzania. The need arises from his diagnosis
of the major pitfalls of inherited colonial education. Essentially, colonial educationwas founded upon
the principle of capitalism. As such, colonial education entailed several features. First, it tend- ed to
promote a class of elites, thus encouraging inequality and class structure. Second, it divorced its
participants from society and discouraged them from unconditional service to the community. Third,
it tended to be formal, stressing book learning and dispensing traditional informal knowledge and
wisdom. Finally, it tended to be unproductive, discouraging students and pupils from hard work. Post
independent education in Tanzania simply imbibed the colonial aims and curricula, and thus
enhanced its subsequent ideals.
For instance, post independent Tanzania embraced sociallism or Ujamaa, as its socio- political and
economic theory. The theory of socialism stood for three things; work by everyone and exploitation
by none, fair sharing of resources which are produced by joint efforts, equality and respect for human
dignity. This being the case education was of necessity to serve the purposes of independent
Tanzania, by encouraging the growth of the projected socialist values (Hinzen and Hundsdorfer,
1979).
Nyerere’s envisaged condition for “self-reliance” puts society at the apex of concern. Anything that
could promote the common good was regarded as of ultimate value. He placed a high value on the
co-operative instincts of human beings.
Self-reliance in this case is the attaining of economic and cultural independence at a corporate level.
This condition is likely to ensure that Tanzania will look to itself, in economic and cultural matters. It
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is apparent that the “self’ depicted here is that of the mass of society, rather than representative of
any concrete individual. It is an impersonal rather than personal life.
Nyerere’s post 1967 educational ideas depict a shift or departure from the view of ‘self’ as a
collective mass of society. Instead, Nyerere (1974) tends to advance the view that education should
be for liberation.
A juxtaposition of this latter purpose of education with the initial definition suffices to demonstrate
the shift of view. Initially, Nyerere (1967) viewed the purpose of education as being, to transmit from
one generation to the next the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the society and to prepare the
young people for their future membership in the society and active participation in its maintenance of
development Initially, education was viewed as a means to transmit culture and fit individuals into
society. The individual is thus subordinate to society. In the latter view of “education for liberation”
the individual is given prominence. This does not imply that Nyerere abandons the initial values
invested in the society, rather, Nyerere seems to have come to terms with the society individual
polarity or else he would drown into a myopic state of mystifying the human condition.
At this point, Nyerere realized that to assign absolute value to society would reduce man in society to
an object, whereas to grant the individual person ultimate value would contradict existential reality.
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas sees the parents as the primary educators. The Permanence of Marriage and the Parents as
Educators. Thomas considers education or upbringing while discussing sexual or marital ethics. The
reason why simple fornication is a sin according to divine law, and why marriage is natural.

The conclusion is that the raising of children requires both parents, and this is a major reason, or the
major reason, why marriage should be a permanent society. What Thomas does not mention, but may
be inferred from his argument, is that the imparting of instruction does not cease as soon as the
offspring become independent. Grandparents continue to play a role in instruction, both with regard
to their adult children and their grandchildren. This is easily ignored today, because we think of
technical and scientific knowledge as primary, and the elderly are obsolete along with their science
and know-how. However, prudential knowledge is never obsolete.

Evolutionary explanations are largely teleological explanations, at least in their conclusions, and his
conclusion is that "as a woman ages, she can do more to increase the number of people bearing her
genes by devoting herself to her existing children and grandchildren than by producing yet another
child." The permanence of the family starts with the bond of man and wife, but grows into the bonds
of the extended family, which is a broader forum for nurture and education.

Thomas recognizes both the family and the state as natural societies. The state makes up for what the
family cannot provide. However, the state should not take over the functions that the family can
perform well enough by itself.

Thomas takes from the writings of Aristotle (especially the opening remarks of Aristotle's Politics)
the distinction between natural and conventional (artificial) societies. A natural society is one that
must come into being because of the necessities of nature. A conventional society also arises out of
real needs and desires, but it may or may not exist. There are two natural societies. First there is the
society of the family, starting with the society of man and wife, and expanding to include children.
Next there is political society, the state. Between the two there are many intermediate stages, as
Aristotle shows how the state develops from families. We might find clans, tribes, and federations of
tribes in the process.

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Conventional societies include companies, banks, clubs, associations, and schools. While we cannot
conceive of a viable society where there is no trade, we could conceive of one where trade was done
without banks as we know them. Every developed society would have to provide specialized
education, but the form of educational institutions can vary.

Man by nature depends on society. Man is a social or political animal. As a solitary individual he
cannot provide for himself. First, every man depends upon his parents for his coming into being, his
nurturing and upbringing. Family members also provide mutual help in the necessities of life, as
when one brother helps another.

While the family members provide each other with the necessities of life, a greater society is needed
if men are not merely to live, but to live well. This larger community is the political community, or
state. The community can provide many material things that a family alone could not provide, but
also provides moral goods. For example, when juvenile delinquents no longer follow their parents'
advice and are out of control, they may be controlled by the power of the state.

Although Thomas sees advantages in having one individual rule the state, he still maintains the
importance of individual liberty. One man is not ordered by his nature to another man as a means to
an end. And so the subjects should not be ordered to the good of the ruler, but rather the ruler should
be the servant of his subjects, acting for their good. A despotic regime is one where the ruler treats
his subjects as slaves, who have no power to make their own decisions, whereas a political regime is
one where men live under the rule of their leader, but still have some power of their own.

The best relation of state to individual lies in the middle, between radical individualism (social
atomism) and totalitarianism (where the unity of the state overrides all individual action). The state is
a society of societies, including families and other societies without absorbing them. The proper
relation of the state to its constituent bodies is described as the principle of subsidiarity:

"that no higher organization should take over work that a lower organization should do satisfactorily.
The higher does not exist to absorb or extinguish the lower but to supplement and extend it.
Otherwise the rights given by nature to the individual and to the famkily, and man's freedom to
organize for lesser pursuits within the state, are rendered meaningless. On the other hand, the state
should provide a favorable environment in which individuals, families and voluntary associations can
fulfill their functions when they fail to function as they ought or cannot harmonize their activies for
the common good.

The rights of parents in the education of their children is important and must be

Since all learning requires the light of reason, and since we are endowed with this light by God, so it
is God alone who teaches us from within, and He is the principal teacher. Nevertheless, the human
teacher teaches just as surely as the medical doctor heals, by helping nature.

Plato (424/423 BC - 348/347 BC)

Plato's educational philosophy was grounded in his vision of the ideal Republic, wherein
the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. He advocated removing
children from their mothers' care and raising them as wards of the state, with great care being taken
to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so
that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be holistic,

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including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form
of endeavor.
Plato believed that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born in
any social class. He builds on this by insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state
so that they may be qualified to assume the role of a ruling class. What this establishes is essentially
a system of selective public education premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the
population are, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy
governance.
Plato's writings contain some of the following ideas: Elementary education would be confined to the
guardian class till the age of 18, followed by two years ofcompulsory military training and then
by higher education for those who qualified. While elementary education made the soul responsive to
the environment, higher education helped the soul to search for truth which illuminated it. Both boys
and girls receive the same kind of education. Elementary education consisted of music and
gymnastics, designed to train and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the individual and create a
harmonious person.
At the age of 20, a selection was made. The best one would take an advanced course in mathematics,
geometry, astronomy and harmonics. The first course in the scheme of higher education would last
for ten years. It would be for those who had a flair for science. At the age of 30 there would be
another selection; those who qualified would study dialectics
and metaphysics, logic and philosophy for the next five years. They would study the idea of good
and first principles of being. After accepting junior positions in the army for 15 years, a man would
have completed his theoretical and practical education by the age of 50.
Plato was the earliest most important Greek Philosopher and educational thinker. Plato thinks
education as a key for a society and he stress on education, for this purpose he want to go to the
extreme level even removing children from their mothers and rise them by the state, he want to
identify the skills of the children and give them proper education for that particular skill which they
have so they could be become a suitable member of the society and fulfil their duty in society. Plato
want to a search for intelligent and gifted children in the whole society, Plato's don’t belief that talent
belong to a limited class therefore he stress on education for all so the talented children get the
chance to shine.

Plato contributed a lot in the form of ideas and it inspired his follower to find new ways for education
and training of the children. In fact Plato himself did not contribute directly to science and
mathematics but he stress on these subjects, his philosophy of education influenced the developments
of these subjects in centuries to come.
In the philosophy of Plato we can see some signs of the philosophy of Socrates; However Plato
covered the major aspects of philosophy discussed today.

Plato was born in an upper class family in Athens; he was interested in political career, but after the
death of his teacher Socrates Plato pursues his teacher philosophy. For the purpose of education Plato
travel to Egypt and Italy, there he learnt mathematics. After returning home he established an
Academy, to teach moral values to the elite youth of Athens to make them better leaders of the
society.

Plato shows his ability of writing in different fields; ethics, music, drama, poetry, metaphysics,
dance, architecture which are the ideal forms of Government. Contribution of Plato in scientific
subject is little but his ideas on education inspired his followers to explore new dimension in
education.

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Plato writes in his book "Let us describe the education of our men. What then is the education to be?
Perhaps we could hardly find a better than that which the experience of the past has already
discovered, which consists, I believe, in gymnastic, for the body, and music for the mind."
Plato not only consider better education for men but also believe on strong body and sound mind, for
body he recommend sports and for sound mind music.

Plato ”No man should bring children into the world, who is unwilling to persevere to the end in their
nature and education.”

EDUCATIONAL THEORIES OF PLATO

Education for All
Plato want every boy and girl educated to it limit.

State Education
Education should be provided by the state not by parents.

Organization and Curriculum

Plato curriculum was consist of gymnastic and music, where in gymnastic include physical training
and music used in broad term for dram, history, oratory and music in real term, he define different
stages for the organization and curriculum;
1. Elementary School

Co-education at elementary level and teach them mathematics, poetry, music and literature till the
age of eighteen years.
2. Military Training

After elementary education two years of Physical education should be given to them and select best
of them for higher education; to prepare for the future guardians of the state.
3. Higher Education

Higher education should be given from twenty to thirty-five years of age, he well study the subjects
at this stage mathematics, literature and philosophy. Later on he would be opponent at a minor
administrative position to get experience for the future more important governing positions.

“The object of education is to turn the eye which the soul already possesses to the light. The whole
function of education is not to put knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the best things that are
latent in the soul, and to do so by directing it to the right objects. The problem of education, then, is
to give it the right surrounding.” -(Plato’s Republic, Book vii, 518)

Nothing was more important to Plato in human life as education. He considers education the greatest
thing in human life as he mention in his book “the one great thing”.
Plato’s Theory of education was an indispensable necessity for mankind. It was a positive remedy for
the problems and operation of justice in an ideal state.

Women Education

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Plato also emphases on women education, he consider the same kind of education for women.
Women should the same physical and educational training; they should know the art of war. The
main aim of Plato was that each member of the society should undertake his work and
responsibilities.

Plato believed that women are equal to men and that, although some women are physically smaller or
weak, some women are physically equal to men therefore those women who are physically strong
should be allowed to learn the same skills that men do. In his book Republic Plato describes how
male and female receive the same education and be given the same duties in society as given to the
male member. These people are the ones who will be in charge his republic which would be an ideal
society, where philosophers are kings. In other words, who know what is good for the people and for
the mankind and take their decisions based on that knowledge.
Teaching Methods
Plato recommended play method at elementary level; student should learn by doing. And when he
reached the higher level of education, his reason would be trained in the processes of thinking and
abstracting.
Plato wants motivation and interest in learning. He is against the use of force in education.
"Knowledge which is acquired under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind."
In another place he writes "Do not then train youths by force and harshness, but direct them to it by
what amuses their minds so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of
the genius of each." – Plato
Plato writes in his Republic
“Bodily exercise, when compulsory, does no harm to the body; but knowledge which is acquired
under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind”
Plato “The most effective kind of education is that a child should play amongst lovely things.”

Plato wants a place where children love to go and stay there and they play with things which enhance
their education by playing.
Plato gives importance to nursery education, he thinks nursery education plays a vital role in the
education of man, it help to build his moral character and state of mind "The most important part of
education is proper training in the nursery." –plato
Plato think It will be hard to discover a better [method of education] than that which the experience
of so many ages has already discovered, and this may be summed up as consisting in gymnastics for
the body, and _music_ for the soul... For this reason is a musical education so essential; since it
causes Rhythm and Harmony to penetrate most intimately into the soul, taking the strongest hold
upon it, filling it with _beauty_ and making the man _beautiful-minded_.

The above quotation of Plato show, how he sees education, he wants the total development of a man,
mind body and soul by using every possible mean. That why in another place Plato writes;
"But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrong when they say that they can
put a knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like sight into blind eyes.
They undoubtedly say this, he replied.
Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already; and
that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the
instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the world of

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becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest
and best of being, or in other words, of the good." -Plato's Allegory of the Cave & Exploring Plato's

Plato’s Aims of Education

 To develop leader among the future rulers.
 To develop hard and competent workers.
 To produce leaders with military skill among the warriors.
 To produce future Civil Servants of the state.
 The highest goal of education, Plato believed, is the knowledge of Good; to nurture a man to
a better human being it is not merely an awareness of particular benefits and pleasures.
Stages of Education
Plato describes different stages of education in his republic. According to Plato the education of child
should be start at the age of seven year and before this stage the child should stay with their mother
or elders and learn moral education from them.
After the age of six years both girls and boys should be separated and boys should play with boys
and girls with girls and they should be taught the use of different arms to both sexes. This stage goes
up to the age of seventeen years. During these years they should teach them music and early
education. After the age of seventeen years the youth should be brought to battle filed to learn real
life experiences.
The four stage start at the age of twenty five to thirty years and in this age they get the training of
Mathematical calculation and last for another ten years, after the completion the selected one’s are
admitted in the study of dialect.
During fifth stage they study dialect for another five years and after that, at the sixth stage one is
ready to become a ruler and philosopher and the one enter in practical life.

Aristotle’s Views on Education

Education. The importance of education in the philosophy of Aristotle was great, since the
individual man could learn to use his reason to arrive at virtue, happiness, and political harmony only
through the process of education.
1. Aim of education. The purpose of education is to produce a good man. Man is not good by nature.
He must learn to control his animal activities through the use of reason. Only when man behaves by
habit and reason, according to his nature as a rational being, is he capable of happiness. Education
must aim at the development of the full potentialities of each man. It must seek the development of
man's intellectual capacities to their fullest extent. It must aim also at developing each individual's
body to its highest level of health and strength. But Aristotle considers that
education is essential for the complete self-realization of man. The supreme good to which all
aspire is happiness. But for Aristotle the happy man is neither a noble savage, nor man in his
natural state, but the educated man. The happy man, the good man, is a virtuous man, but virtue
is acquired precisely through education. Ethics and education merge one into the other.

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2. Education of women. Women were considered inferior to men. The nature of women suggested
that their proper function was fulfilled exclusively in the home. Women would not be educated with
men. They would receive training in gymnastics and domestic arts to enable them to manage
households, to bear and raise children, and to please and be obedient to their husbands.
3. Education of men. Since citizenship would extend only to the aristocracy, which included rulers,
soldiers, and priests, education would be given exclusively to this group. The farmer, laborer,
merchant, and slave would be trained in whatever specific skills were required of them. Training in
industrial arts or vocational skills is not education. Education is that which liberates man, enabling
him to live his leisured existence according to his full potentialities. Education is therefore a practical
means to the end of achieving the acme of man's nature.
4. The content of education. Education must not serve any mean or vocational activity. These
activities are the functions of slaves. The subject material must train the future rulers in the use of
reason. Future rulers must learn obedience and responsibility before they rule. We may infer from the
curriculum of the Academy that the following subjects would be taught:
a. Basics. These would include reading, writing and mathematics (not for purposes of trade, but as a
preparation for the intellectual abstractions of higher mathematics).
b. Natural Sciences. Aristotle emphasized the natural sciences of astronomy, biology, physiology,
zoology, chemistry and physics.
c. Physical Education. The training of the body is important to the physical well-being of every
citizen.
d. Humanities. Rhetoric, grammar, poetry, politics and philosophy would be important subjects.
During the early education of the child, Aristotle would have the state legislature censor the material
which would be read by children.
5. The method of education. Aristotle placed habit high in the learning process. Man learns by
nature, by habit, and by reason. Consequently, the teacher would organize materials according to the
laws of reason. Repetitive drill would be used to reinforce what was understood by reason.an
elementary knowledge of reading and writing. Arithmetic was never developed to a sophisticated
extent because of the awkward method of writing numerals.

Plato's View on Moral Ethics

Ethics is the most important branch of philosophy. Plato especially gives attention to the moral and
ethical education of the men, later on Plato gradually widened the scope of his investigations by
reflecting not only on the social and political conditions of morality, but also on the logical and
metaphysical presuppositions of a successful moral theory.

Plato presents his ideas for an ideal society in his Republic and he provided detail about the
curriculum and system of education. According to Plato the ideal society who cares for their youth
and the guardian would be responsible for the moral education of their children.
It is only through a proper education and through the pursuit of philosophy that human beings can
free themselves from the chains of their senses, desires, ambitions (such as wealth and power) and
passions and that they can accede, progressively, passing from one level of enlightenment to the next,
to true knowledge and, ultimately, to the vision of the Final Good.
The ideal Platonic educator or teacher is the antithesis of the Sophist. The passages in Plato’s
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works in which Socrates criticizes or disputes with the Sophists are legion. It was, as Karl
Jaspers puts it, the battle of philosophy against non-philosophy. The Sophists in Plato’s time
were itinerant teachers of higher education. They rented rooms and there gave lessons for an
often quite substantial fee to the scions of the aristocracy, who normally completed their
elementary studies in private schools at or about the age of 16. Plato himself almost certainly
attended the courses of eminent Sophists such as Gorgias and Protagoras.
The Sophists taught the widest range of subjects; but they were best known as teachers
of rhetoric, the art of manipulating the masses. The oratorical art, explains Gorgias in the
dialogue which bears his name, is ‘The power to convince by your words the judges in court,
the senators in Council, the people in the Assembly, or in any other gathering of a citizen
body’
Socrates refuses to be taken for a teacher of the Sophist sort. He believed that in order
to be qualified to teach one must know the subject taught. One must know how to make shoes
before teaching another the shoemaking art, and to be able to train a physician one must be
acquainted with the various diseases and their cures.
The Socratic method is to be distinguished therefore from the traditional method of teaching, in
which teachers seek to transmit their knowledge to their pupils, who are expected to assimilate it on
the whole passively. The Socratic method is an interactive method in which teacher and pupil co-
operate in the pursuit of knowledge through dialogue. A series of questions and answers involve the
two parties in the same cognitive pursuit (Plato occasionally uses images taken from the hunt).
This is yet another reason—a methodological one—why Socrates does not want to be
described as one who possessed knowledge.
Accordingly, in Plato’s mind, philosophy and education are one and the same discipline. The
Socratic method of teaching has often been characterized as a ‘maieutic’ method, or one in
which the teacher assumes the role of a midwife. A deciphering of this method is contained in
Meno. There, Plato’s Socrates argues that ‘there is no such thing as teaching, only
recollection’ and maintains that teachers should play the role of midwife in order
to deliver their pupils of the knowledge they unconsciously possess.
The academy
When Plato founded the Academy around 385 B.C. he was just over 40 years old. He set up
his establishment on gardened premises not far from Athens. The Academy is often described
as the first university in history—which is not exactly true. It resembled the medieval
universitas more than the modern university. It was a centre of study and research, but nothing is
known of the details of its organization. It was more of a scientific community than a school. The
Academy was probably modelled after the Pythagorean communities Plato had
visited in Magna Graecia.
Educational policy in the ideal state
Plato developed his concept of educational policy in his two largest works, the Republic and
the Laws. In the Republic Plato developed his concept of the ideal state, which embodied
justice. It was a sort of Utopia. (For Plato, however, the world of ideas, because permanent, is
more ‘real’ than the world of facts, which is in a state of constant flux!) Rousseau believed
that ‘Plato’s Republic [...] is the best treatise on education ever written’ (Émile, Book I). In
the Laws Plato drew up a highly detailed system of laws for a proposed colonial city-state.
While the themes of these two Dialogues would seem to be almost identical, there are
considerable differences between them. The differences, however, do not touch upon
educational issues. The Republic is a pure theory of the ideal state, whereas the Laws is a
practical application to a hypothetical concrete case.
In the Republic the inhabitants are divided into three distinct classes: slaves who are
the subjects of special provisions in the Laws, craftsmen and merchants (generally alien
without rights of citizenship) and, lastly, ‘guardians’, who are responsible for the security and
administration of the state. The guardian class is itself divided into two groups: the

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‘auxiliaries’ and the ‘perfect’ guardians, or regents—the first, in principle the youngest, having
responsibility for internal and external security (including the police and the army), while the second
group, the ‘sages’, watch over the smooth functioning and harmony of the state. At the head of the
state is a ‘philosopher-king’ (such as Archytas of Tarentum)—an idea that is taken up again in The
statesman but is abandoned in the Laws, in which a ‘nocturnal council’ assumes the responsibilities
of the highest authority.
One of the tasks of education in the Platonic state is to preserve the status quo. All innovation is
taboo. Contrary to most modern educational principles, education must stand guard against all
change and all forms of subversion.
Despite his extreme conservatism, however, Plato had some highly innovative ideas. For example, he
espoused equality of the sexes at a time when women, with the exception of
courtesans, were relegated to the household. In the Platonic state girls, like boys, do their
gymnastics in the nude and are expected to go to war clad in the same armour as the men.
They share the boys’ education, with no discrimination between them.
Moreover, Plato prescribes compulsory education for all, that is for all members of the guardian
class. This idea, however, was not to receive application until much later, at the time of the French
Revolution.
Compulsory schooling goes far beyond an elementary education; yet Plato has very little to say about
the education of craftsworkers and merchants, which consists of no more than a simple
apprenticeship, and slaves received no mention at all.
Plato, indeed, was the first to formulate a complete education system, covering every aspect from its
administration to a detailed curriculum. In the Laws Plato describes how education should be
organized and administered. The whole education system should be headed by a ‘Supervisor of
Education’, ‘far the most important of the highest offices in the State’, who would supervise all
aspects of education for children of both sexes. He should be ‘a man of not less than 50 years, and
the father of a legitimate family, preferably of both sexes’
The education of the guardians—a lifelong education that stretches from before birth to retirement
age—is described in detail in the Republic (especially Books II-V and VII) and in the Laws
(especially Books I, II and VII). In the Laws, however, the programme of studies is abbreviated.
Having abandoned the idea of the philosopher-king, Plato did not dwell any further on the teaching
of philosophy, as he had done in the Republic.
Physical education begins before birth. Pregnant women are advised to walk around and move about
as much as possible, for ‘every sort of shaking and stirring [communicates]
health and beauty, to say nothing of robustness’ to the unborn infant.
Pre-school education is the responsibility of parents (whereas in the Republic infants are raised
collectively and do not know who their parents are!), who are enjoined to treat them
with measured discipline, for ‘while spoiling of children makes their tempers fretful, peevish
and easily upset by mere trifles, the contrary treatment, the severe and unqualified tyranny
which makes its victims spiritless, servile, and sullen, renders them unfit for the intercourse of
domestic and civic life’.
The teaching of culture begins very early on, through the stories parents tell their children. Plato
attaches the greatest importance to the content of these stories, for first impressions shape the still
malleable minds of children and determine their character.
Consequently, such stories must pass the censors’ scrutiny. Plato places a strong and oft repeated
stress on censorship, not sparing even Homer. Next to stories, games should contribute to the
education of children. ‘He who is to be good at anything as a man must practise that thing from early
childhood, in play as well as in earnest [...] Thus, if a boy is to be a good [...] builder, he should play
[...] at building toy
houses ...’ (Laws, 643b) From the ages of 3 to 6 children should play together under the
supervision of women assigned to that task.
Children enter school at the age of 6. They first learn to read, write and count. ‘For
reading and writing three years or so, from the age of 10, are a fair allowance of a boy’s time,

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and if the handling of the lyre is begun at 13, the three following years are long enough to
spend on it. No boy, no parent shall be permitted to extend or curtail this period from fondness
or distaste for the subjects [...]’ (Laws, 809e–810a)
Together with this literary and musical education, students of the Platonic state engage
in all sorts of sports, including horse-riding and weapons training. The balance between culture
and gymnastics should be maintained as perfectly as possible (Republic, 411c et seq.).
At the age of 18, at the end of this basic education period during which they will have
undergone many contests and examinations of all sorts, young people—both boys and girls—
are required to devote themselves exclusively for a period of two to three years to physical
and military training, as the traditional ephebe did.
At the age of 21 pupils selected on the basis of their past performance go on to higher studies. It is
here that Plato’s curriculum differs fundamentally from the tradition of employing
John Locke (1632-1704)
Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he
expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an
"empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of
ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."
Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very
important and lasting consequences."He argued that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when
young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are,
put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa. In his Essay, in which is introduced both of these
concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins
and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those
frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."
"Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over
eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer
warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the
development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a
biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Rousseau, though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the
decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato
held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these
skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all
humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was
curiosity. This differed from Locke's 'tabula rasa' in that it was an active process deriving from the
child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings.
Rousseau wrote in his book Emile that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn
from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt
society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of
removing the child from society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him
through changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.
Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation
for teaching. He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they
never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion:
"I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged
as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own.

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He once said that a child should grow up without adult interference and that the child must be guided
to suffer from the experience of the natural consequences of his own acts or behaviour. When he
experiences the consequences of his own acts, he advises himself

Exercises
1. “History of Education is of fundamental importance to a professional teacher.” give reasons to
support the above statement.
2. With specific examples, explain the relevance of indigenous education to the modern African
societies.
3. Explain how Plato’s ideas in education influenced the development of modern education systems.
4. With specific examples, explain why the Muslim Community in some parts of
Africa was reluctant to embrace western education during the colonial period.
5. Account for the rise of private schools in Africa during the colonial period.
6. With specific examples, examine the importance of Education Commissions in Africa during the
colonial period.
7. “In spite of reforms in the curriculum, the progress made in the promotion of vocational and
practical education in post colonial Africa is slow and insignificant.” With specific examples, explain
this statement.

NB: Put emphasis on the following areas.

 Definition of history of education

 Importance of history of education

 Why study history of education and other benefits

 Indigenous education in Africa.

 Egyptian education

 Salient features of Indian education

 Purpose of University education

 Challenges of education in Africa since independence.

 Education Commissions in Africa after independence.

 Plato’s aims of education

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