Commutative Algebra

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar

May 19, 2025

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 1 / 12

Rings and Modules of Fractions

1 The formation of rings of fractions and the associated process of localization are perhaps
the most important technical tools in commutative algebra.
2 This chapter gives the definitions and simple properties of the formation of fractions.
3 The procedure by which one constructs the rational field Q from the ring of integers Z
extends easily to any integral domain A and produces the field of fractions of A. The
construction consists in taking all ordered pairs (a, s) where a, s ∈ A and s ̸= 0, and
setting an equivalence relation between such pairs:

(a, s) ≡ (b, t) ⇔ at − bs = 0
This works only if A is an integral domain, because the verification that the relation is
transitive involves canceling, i.e. the fact that A has no zero-divisor ̸= 0. However, it can
be generalized as follows:

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 2 / 12

Multiplicative Sets

Definition
A subset S of a ring A is said to be multiplicatively closed, or for short a multiplicative set, if
it contains the unit element and the product of any two elements from S belongs to S. That
is, the following two conditions are satisfied
i) 1 ∈ S;
ii) If s, t ∈ S, then st ∈ S.

Examples of Multiplicative Sets

1 The set of all powers a of an element in A; that is, the set S = {an | n ∈ N ∪ {0}},
obviously is multiplicatively closed.
2 The complement S = A\p of any prime ideal p in A is multiplicatively closed;
3 An occasionally useful multiplicatively set is the set S = 1 + a where a is an ideal in A.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 3 / 12

Construction

Cartesian product A × S, first factor representing possible enumerators, second factor

denominators.
Introduce an equivalence relation on A × S : (a, u) ∼ (b, t) if there exists s ∈ S such that
s(at − bu) = 0. Reflexive and symmetric: obvious. Transitive: Suppose (a, u) ∼ (b, t)
and (b, t) ∼ (c, v ) and s(at − bu) = s ′ (bv − ct) = 0. Then

ss ′ t(av − cu) = ss ′ tav − ss ′ tcu

= ss ′ tav − ss ′ buv + ss ′ buv − ss ′ tcu
= s ′ v (s(at − bu)) + su s ′ (bv − tc) = 0

where ss ′ t ∈ S.
Let S −1 A be the set of equivalence classes A × S/ ∼, and denote by a/s or as −1 the
class of the pair (a, s).

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 4 / 12

Construction continue

Give a ring structure to S −1 A

a/s + b/t = (at + bs)/st, a/s · b/t = ab/st.

Sum and product are well defined; (a, s) ∼ (a′ , s ′ ); i.e. u (as ′ − a′ s) = 0 for some u ∈ S.
We find

s ′ t(at + bs) − st a′ t + bs ′ = t 2 s ′ a − a′ s

which is killed by u.
The localization map ıS is nothing but the canonical map ıS : A → S −1 A that sends an
element a in A to the class of the pair (a, 1); that is, a is mapped to the fraction a/1.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 5 / 12

Universal property

Proposition
All elements in S −1 A are of the form a/s. It holds true that ıS (a) = 0 if and only if a is killed
by some element from S; i.e. if and only if there is an s ∈ S such that sa = 0.

Proof. By definition, every element in S −1 A is an equivalence class a/s. The zero element in
S −1 A is represented by the pair (0, 1) and ıS (a) by the pair (a, 1). Hence ıS (a) = 0 if and only
if s · (a · 1 − 0 · 1) = 0 for an s ∈ S; that is, if and only if s · a = 0 for an s ∈ S.

Universal property
Let A be a ring and S ⊂ A a multiplicative subset. Assume given a ring map ϕ : A → B that
sends S into the group of units in B. Then there is a unique map of rings ψ : S −1 A → B so
that ϕ = ψ ◦ ıS .

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 6 / 12

Remark.
The ring S −1 A and the homomorphism f : A → S −1 A have the following properties:
1 s ∈ S ⇒ f (s) is a unit in S −1 A;
2 f (a) = 0 ⇒ as = 0 for some s ∈ S;
3 Every element of S −1 A is of the form f (a)f (s)−1 for some a ∈ A and some s ∈ S.

Proposition.
If g : A → B is a ring homomorphism such that,
1 s ∈ S ⇒ g (s) is a unit in B;
2 g (a) = 0 ⇒ as = 0 for some s ∈ S;
3 Every element of B is of the form g (a)g (s)−1
Then there is a unique isomorphism h : S −1 A → B such that g = h ◦ f .

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 7 / 12

Examples

1 Let p be a prime ideal of A. Then S = A − p is multiplicatively closed (in fact A − p is

multiplicatively closed ⇔ p is prime). We write Ap for S −1 A in this case. The elements
a/s with a ∈ p form an ideal m in Ap . If b/t ∈ / m, then b ∈
/ p, hence b ∈ S and therefore
b/t is a unit in Ap . It follows that if a is an ideal in Ap and a ̸⊂ m, then a contains a unit
and is therefore the whole ring. Hence m is the only maximal ideal in Ap ; in other words,
Ap is a local ring.
The process of passing from A to Ap is called localization at p.
2 S −1 A is the zero ring ⇔ 0 ∈ S.
3 Let f ∈ A and let S = {f n }n≥0 . We write Af for S −1 A in this case.
4 Let a be any ideal in A, and let S = 1 + a = set of all 1 + x where x ∈ a. Clearly S is
multiplicatively closed.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 8 / 12

Modules of fraction or localization of a module

The construction of S −1 A can be carried through with an A-module M in place of the

ring A. Define a relation ≡ on M × S as follows:

(m, s) ≡ m′ , s ′ ⇔ ∃t ∈ S such that t sm′ − s ′ m = 0.

As before, this is an equivalence relation. Let m/s denote the equivalence class of the pair
(m, s), let S −1 M denote the set of such fractions, and make S −1 M into an S −1 A−
module with the obvious definitions of addition and scalar multiplication.
As in example 1) and 3) above, we write Mp instead of S −1 M when S = A − p (p prime)
and Mf when S = {f n }n≥0 .
Let u : M → N be an A-module homomorphism. Then it gives rise to an S −1 A-module
homomorphism S −1 u : S −1 M → S −1 N, namely S −1 u maps m/s to u(m)/s. Let
v : M → P be another

A-module
homomorphism.Then ,we have
−1 −1
S (ν ◦ u) = S ν ◦ S u . −1

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 9 / 12

Proposition.
The operation S −1 is exact, i.e.,
f g S −1 f S −1 g
M′ − → M ′′ exact =⇒ S −1 M ′ −−−→ S −1 M −−−→ S −1 M ′′ exact.
→M−

Corollary.
Formation of fractions commutes with the formation of finite sums, finite intersections and
quotients. Precisely, if N, P are submodules of an A-module M, then
1 S −1 (N + P) = S −1 N + S −1 P.
2 S −1 (N ∩ P) = S −1 N ∩ S −1 P.
3 The S −1 A-modules S −1 (M/N) and S −1 (M)/S −1 (N) are isomorphic.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 10 / 12

Local property

Definition (Local property)

A property P of a ring A (or of an A-module M ) is said to be a local poperty if the following
is true:
A (or M ) has P ⇔ Ap (or Mp ) has P, for each prime ideal p of A. The following propositions
give examples of local properties:

Proposition.
Let M be an A-module. Then the following are equivalent:
1 M = 0;
2 Mp = 0 for all prime ideals p of A;
3 Mm = 0 for all maximal ideals m of A.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 11 / 12

Proposition.
Let ϕ : M → N be an A-homomorphism. Then the following are equivalent:
1 ϕ is injective;
2 ϕp : Mp → Np is injective for each prime ideal p;
3 ϕm : Mm → Nm is injective for each maximal ideal m.
Similarly with injective replaced by surjective throughout.

Proof. (1) ⇒ (2): 0 → M → N is exact, hence 0 → Mp → Np is exact, i.e., ϕp is injective.

(2) ⇒ (3) because a maximal ideal is prime.
i
(3) ⇒ (1). Let M ′ = Ker(ϕ), then the sequence 0 → M ′ →
− M → N is exact, hence 0 →
i
Mm′ −→
m
Mm → Nm is exact and therefore Mm′ = Ker (ϕm ) = 0 since ϕm is injective. Hence
′
M = 0 , hence ϕ is injective.

Subhasis,Joydeep,Subhankar Commutative Algebra May 19, 2025 12 / 12