C

C A high-level general-purpose computer down of cellulose. In humans the caecum

language developed in 1972. It is fast and is a *vestigial organ and is poorly devel-
can be used as an alternative to assembly oped.
language, with which it shares some fea-
caesium Symbol Cs. A soft silvery-white
tures. It was superseded in the mid-1980s
metallic element belonging to *group 1
by an object-oriented version known as
(formerly IA) of the periodic table; a.n. 55;
C++, which is better suited to the design
of modular programs. r.a.m. 132.905; r.d. 1.88; m.p. 28.4°C; b.p.
678°C. It occurs in small amounts in a
cadmium Symbol Cd. A soft bluish number of minerals, the main source
metal belonging to *group 12 (formerly being carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O). It is ob-
IIB) of the periodic table; a.n. 48; r.a.m. tained by electrolysis of molten caesium
112.41; r.d. 8.65; m.p. 320.9°C; b.p. 765°C. cyanide. The natural isotope is caesium–
The element’s name is derived from the 133. There are 15 other radioactive iso-
ancient name for calamine, zinc carbon- topes. Caesium–137 (half-life 33 years) is
ate ZnCO3, and it is usually found associ- used as a gamma source. As the heaviest
ated with zinc ores, such as sphalerite alkali metal, caesium has the lowest ion-
(ZnS), but does occur as the mineral ization potential of all elements, hence
greenockite (CdS). Cadmium is usually its use in photoelectric cells, etc.
produced as an associate product when
zinc, copper, and lead ores are reduced. caesium clock An *atomic clock that
Cadmium is used in low-melting-point al- depends on the energy difference be-
loys to make solders, in Ni–Cd batteries, tween two states of the caesium–133 nu-
in bearing alloys, and in electroplating cleus when it is in a magnetic Üeld. In
(over 50%). Cadmium compounds are one type, atoms of caesium–133 are irra-
used as phosphorescent coatings in TV diated with *radio-frequency radiation,
tubes. Cadmium and its compounds are whose frequency is chosen to correspond
extremely toxic at low concentrations; to the energy difference between the two
great care is essential where solders are states. Some caesium nuclei absorb this
used or where fumes are emitted. It has radiation and are excited to the higher
similar chemical properties to zinc but state. These atoms are deÛected by a fur-
shows a greater tendency towards com- ther magnetic Üeld, which causes them to
plex formation. The element was discov- hit a detector. A signal from this detector
ered in 1817 by F. Stromeyer. is fed back to the radio-frequency oscilla-
cadmium cell See weston cell. tor to prevent it drifting from the reso-
nant frequency of 9 192 631 770 hertz. In
cadmium sulphide A water-insoluble this way the device is locked to this fre-
compound, CdS; r.d. 4.82. It occurs natu- quency with an accuracy better than 1
rally as the mineral greenockite and is part in 1013. The caesium clock is used in
used as a pigment and in semiconductors
the *SI unit deÜnition of the second.
and Ûuorescent materials.
cage compound See clathrate.
caecum A pouch in the alimentary
canal of vertebrates between the *small Cainozoic See cenozoic.
intestine and *colon. The caecum (and its
calciferol See vitamin d.
*appendix) is large and highly developed
in herbivorous animals (e.g. rabbits and calcination The formation of a calcium
cows), in which it contains a large popu- carbonate deposit from hard water. See
lation of bacteria essential for the break- hardness of water.
 calcinite 122

calcinite A mineral form of *potassium water. Calcium carbonate decomposes on

hydrogencarbonate, KHCO3. heating to give *calcium oxide (quicklime)
and carbon dioxide. It occurs naturally as
calcite One of the most common and
the minerals *calcite (rhombohedral; r.d.
widespread minerals, consisting of crys-
2.71) and *aragonite (rhombic; r.d. 2.93).
c talline calcium carbonate, CaCO3. Calcite
crystallizes in the rhombohedral system;
Rocks containing calcium carbonate dis-
solve slowly in acidiÜed rainwater (con-
it is usually colourless or white and has a
taining dissolved CO2) to cause temporary
hardness of 3 on the Mohs’ scale. It has
hardness. In the laboratory, calcium car-
the property of double refraction, which
bonate is precipitated from *limewater by
is apparent in Iceland spar – the transpar-
carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate is used
ent variety of calcite. It is an important
in making lime (calcium oxide) and is the
rock-forming mineral and is a major con-
main raw material for the *Solvay pro-
stituent in limestones, marbles, and car-
cess.
bonatites.
calcium chloride A white deliquescent
calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin) A peptide
compound, CaCl2, which is soluble in
hormone in vertebrates that lowers the
water; r.d. 2.15; m.p. 782°C; b.p. >1600°C.
concentration of calcium (and phosphate)
There are a number of hydrated forms, in-
in the blood. It operates in opposition to
cluding the monohydrate, CaCl2.H2O, the
*parathyroid hormone. Calcitonin is pro-
dihydrate, CaCl2.2H2O (r.d. 0.84), and the
duced by the *C cells, which in mammals
hexahydrate, CaCl2.6H2O (trigonal; r.d.
are located in the *thyroid gland.
1.71; the hexahydrate loses 4H2O at 30°C
calcium Symbol Ca. A soft grey metallic and the remaining 2H2O at 200°C). Large
element belonging to *group 2 (formerly quantities of it are formed as a byproduct
IIA) of the periodic table; a.n. 20; r.a.m. of the *Solvay process and it can be pre-
40.08; r.d. 1.54; m.p. 839°C; b.p. 1484°C. pared by dissolving calcium carbonate or
Calcium compounds are common in the calcium oxide in hydrochloric acid. Crys-
earth’s crust; e.g. limestone and marble tals of the anhydrous salt can only be ob-
(CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), and tained if the hydrated salt is heated in a
Ûuorite (CaF2). The element is extracted by stream of hydrogen chloride. Solid cal-
electrolysis of fused calcium chloride and cium chloride is used in mines and on
is used as a getter in vacuum systems and roads to reduce dust problems, whilst the
a deoxidizer in producing nonferrous al- molten salt is the electrolyte in the extrac-
loys. It is also used as a reducing agent in tion of calcium. An aqueous solution of
the extraction of such metals as thorium, calcium chloride is used in refrigeration
zirconium, and uranium. plants.
Calcium is an *essential element for liv-
calcium cyanamide A colourless solid,
ing organisms, being required for normal
CaCN2, which sublimes at 1300°C. It is
growth and development. In animals it is
prepared by heating calcium dicarbide at
an important constituent of bones and
800°C in a stream of nitrogen:
teeth and is present in the blood, being
required for muscle contraction and other CaC2(s) + N2(g) → CaCN2(s) + C(s)
metabolic processes. In plants it is a con-
The reaction has been used as a method
stituent (in the form of calcium pectate)
of Üxing nitrogen in countries in which
of the *middle lamella.
cheap electricity is available to make the
calcium acetylide See calcium dicar- calcium dicarbide (the cyanamide pro-
bide. cess). Calcium cyanamide can be used as a
fertilizer because it reacts with water to
calcium bicarbonate See calcium
give ammonia and calcium carbonate:
hydrogencarbonate.
CaCN2(s) + 3H2O(l) → CaCO3(s) + 2NH3(g)
calcium carbide See calcium
dicarbide. It is also used in the production of
melamine, urea, and certain cyanide salts.
calcium carbonate A white solid,
CaCO3, which is only sparingly soluble in calcium dicarbide (calcium acetylide;
123 calcium phosphate(V)

calcium carbide; carbide) A colourless solid in water; cubic; r.d. 2.50; m.p. 561°C. It
compound, CaC2; tetragonal; r.d. 2.22; can be prepared by neutralizing nitric
m.p. 450°C; b.p. 2300°C. In countries in acid with calcium carbonate and crystal-
which electricity is cheap it is manufac- lizing it from solution as the tetrahydrate
tured by heating calcium oxide with ei- Ca(NO3)2.4H2O, which exists in two mono-
ther coke or ethyne at temperatures clinic crystalline forms (α, r.d. 1.9; β, r.d. c
above 2000°C in an electric arc furnace. 1.82). There is also a trihydrate,
The crystals consist of Ca2+ and C2– ions Ca(NO3)2.3H2O. The anhydrous salt can be
arranged in a similar way to the ions in obtained from the hydrate by heating but
sodium chloride. When water is added to it decomposes on strong heating to give
calcium dicarbide, the important organic the oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen.
raw material ethyne (acetylene) is pro- Calcium nitrate is sometimes used as a ni-
duced: trogenous fertilizer.
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) + C2H2(g) calcium octadecanoate (calcium
stearate) An insoluble white salt,
calcium Ûuoride A white crystalline Ca(CH3(CH2)16COO)2, which is formed
solid, CaF2; r.d. 3.2; m.p. 1423°C; b.p. when soap is mixed with water contain-
2500°C. It occurs naturally as the mineral ing calcium ions and is the scum pro-
*Ûuorite (or Ûuorspar) and is the main duced in hard-water regions.
source of Ûuorine. The calcium Ûuoride
structure (Ûuorite structure) is a crystal calcium oxide (quicklime) A white solid
structure in which the calcium ions are compound, CaO, formed by heating cal-
each surrounded by eight Ûuoride ions ar- cium in oxygen or by the thermal decom-
ranged at the corners of a cube. Each position of calcium carbonate; cubic; r.d.
Ûuoride ion is surrounded by four calcium 3.35; m.p. 2580°C; b.p. 2850°C. On a large
ions at the corners of a tetrahedron. scale, calcium carbonate in the form of
limestone is heated in a tall tower (lime
calcium hydrogencarbonate (calcium
kiln) to a temperature above 550°C:
bicarbonate) A compound, Ca(HCO3)2,
that is stable only in solution and is CaCO3(s) ˆ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
formed when water containing carbon
dioxide dissolves calcium carbonate: Although the reaction is reversible, the
carbon dioxide is carried away by the up-
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → ward current through the kiln and all the
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) limestone decomposes. Calcium oxide is
It is the cause of temporary *hardness of used to make calcium hydroxide, as a
water, because the calcium ions react cheap alkali for treating acid soil, and in
with soap to give scum. Calcium hydro- extractive metallurgy to produce a slag
gencarbonate is unstable when heated with the impurities (especially sand) pre-
and decomposes to give solid calcium car- sent in metal ores.
bonate. This explains why temporary calcium phosphate(V) A white insolu-
hardness is removed by boiling and the ble powder, Ca3(PO4)2; r.d. 3.14. It is found
formation of ‘scale’ in kettles and boilers. naturally in the mineral *apatite,
calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) A Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl), and as rock phosphate.
white solid, Ca(OH)2, which dissolves spar- It is also the main constituent of animal
ingly in water (see limewater); hexagonal; bones. Calcium phosphate can be pre-
r.d. 2.24. It is manufactured by adding pared by mixing solutions containing cal-
water to calcium oxide, a process that cium ions and hydrogenphosphate ions in
evolves much heat and is known as slak- the presence of an alkali:
ing. It is used as a cheap alkali to neutral-
HPO42– + OH– → PO43– + H2O
ize the acidity in certain soils and in the
manufacture of mortar, whitewash, 3Ca2+ + 2PO43– → Ca3(PO4)2
bleaching powder, and glass.
It is used extensively as a fertilizer. The
calcium nitrate A white deliquescent compound was formerly called calcium
compound, Ca(NO3)2, that is very soluble orthophosphate (see phosphates).
 calcium stearate 124

calcium stearate See calcium octade- which may be 1–20 km in diameter. It

canoate. forms when magma subsides from the
summit, sometimes aided by the explo-
calcium sulphate A white solid com-
sive ejection of material. Often a caldera
pound, CaSO4; r.d. 2.96; 1450°C. It occurs
Ülls with water, forming a crater lake.
c naturally as the mineral *anhydrite,
which has a rhombic structure, trans-
Large calderas appear to be characteristic
features of the landscapes of Mars and
forming to a monoclinic form at 200°C.
Venus.
More commonly, it is found as the dihy-
drate, *gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O (monoclinic; Calgon Trade name for a water-
r.d. 2.32). When heated, gypsum loses softening agent. See hardness of water.
water at 128°C to give the hemihydrate,
caliche A mixture of salts found in de-
2CaSO4.H2O, better known as *plaster of
posits between gravel beds in the Ata-
Paris. Calcium sulphate is sparingly solu-
cama and Tarapaca regions of Chile. They
ble in water and is a cause of permanent
vary from 4 m to 15 cm thick and were
*hardness of water. It is used in the man-
formed by periodic leaching of soluble
ufacture of certain paints, ceramics, and
salts during wet geological epochs, fol-
paper. The naturally occurring forms are
lowed by drying out of inland seas in dry
used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
periods. They are economically important
calculus A series of mathematical tech- as a source of nitrates. A typical composi-
niques developed independently by tion is NaNO3 17.6%, NaCl 16.1%, Na2SO4
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz 6.5%, CaSO4 5.5%, MgSO4 3.0%, KNO3 1.3%,
(1646–1716). Differential calculus treats a Na2B4O7 0.94%, KClO3 0.23%, NaIO3 0.11%,
continuously varying quantity as if it con- sand and gravel to 100%.
sisted of an inÜnitely large number of
californium Symbol Cf. A radioactive
inÜnitely small changes. For example, the
metallic transuranic element belonging to
velocity v of a body at a particular instant
the *actinoids; a.n. 98; mass number of
can be regarded as the inÜnitesimal dis-
the most stable isotope 251 (half-life
tance, written ds, that it travels in the
about 700 years). Nine isotopes are
vanishingly small time interval, dt; the in-
known; californium–252 is an intense
stantaneous velocity v is then ds/dt, which
neutron source, which makes it useful in
is called the derivative of s with respect to
neutron *activation analysis and poten-
t. If s is a known function of t, v at any in-
tially useful as a radiation source in
stant can be calculated by the process of
medicine. The element was Ürst produced
*differentiation. The differential calculus
by Glenn Seaborg (1912–99) and associates
is a powerful technique for solving many
in 1950.
problems concerned with rate processes,
maxima and minima, and similar prob- calixarenes Compounds that have mol-
lems. ecules with a cuplike structure (the name
Integral calculus is the opposite tech- comes from the Greek calix, cup). The sim-
nique. For example, if the velocity of a plest, has four phenol molecules joined by
body is a known function of time, the four –CH2– groups into a ring (forming
inÜnitesimal distance ds travelled in the the base of the ‘cup’). The four phenol
brief instant dt is given by ds = vdt. The hexagons point in the same direction to
measurable distance s travelled between form a cavity that can bind substrate mol-
two instants t1 and t2 can then be found ecules. Interest has been shown in the po-
by a process of summation, called integra- tential ability of calixarene molecules to
tion, i.e. mimic enzyme action.
t1
s= ∫t 2
vdt callus 1. (in botany) A protective tissue,
consisting of parenchyma cells, that devel-
The technique is used for Ünding areas
ops over a cut or damaged plant surface.
and volumes and other problems involv-
Callus tissue can also be induced to form
ing the summation of inÜnitesimals.
in cell cultures by hormone treatment.
caldera A crater or large depression at 2. (in pathology) A thick hard area of skin
the top of an inactive shield *volcano, that commonly forms on the palms of the
125 cambium

hands and soles of the feet as a result of calorimeter Any of various devices used
continuous pressure or friction. 3. (in to measure thermal properties, such as
physiology) Hard tissue formed round *caloriÜc value, speciÜc *heat capacity,
bone ends following a fracture, which is speciÜc *latent heat, etc. See bomb
gradually converted to new bone.
calomel See mercury(i) chloride.
calorimeter.
Calvin, Melvin (1911–97) US bio-
c
chemist. After World War II, at the
calomel half cell (calomel electrode) A
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley,
type of half cell in which the electrode is
he investigated the light-independent re-
mercury coated with calomel (HgCl) and
actions of *photosynthesis. Using radio-
the electrolyte is a solution of potassium
active carbon-14 to label carbon dioxide,
chloride and saturated calomel. The stan-
he discovered the *Calvin cycle, for which
dard electrode potential is –0.2415 volt
he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize for
(25°C). In the calomel half cell the reac-
chemistry.
tions are
Calvin cycle The metabolic pathway of
HgCl(s) ˆ Hg+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
the light-independent stages of *photo-
Hg+(aq) + e ˆ Hg(s) synthesis, which occurs in the stroma of
the chloroplasts. The pathway was eluci-
The overall reaction is
dated by Melvin Calvin and his co-workers
HgCl(s) + e ˆ Hg(s) + Cl–(aq) and involves the Üxation of carbon diox-
This is equivalent to a Cl2(g)|Cl–(aq) half ide and its subsequent reduction to carbo-
cell. hydrate. During the cycle, carbon dioxide
combines with *ribulose bisphosphate,
caloric theory A former theory con- through the mediation of the enzyme
cerning the nature of heat, which was re- ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxy-
garded as a weightless Ûuid (called caloric). genase (rubisco), to form an unstable six-
It was unable to account for the fact that carbon compound that breaks down to
friction could produce an unlimited quan- form two molecules of the three-carbon
tity of heat and it was abandoned when compound glycerate 3-phosphate. This is
Joule showed that heat is a form of en- converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate,
ergy. which is used to regenerate ribulose bis-
calorie The quantity of heat required to phosphate and to produce glucose and
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water fructose.
by 1°C (1 K). The calorie, a c.g.s. unit, is calx A metal oxide formed by heating an
now largely replaced by the *joule, an *SI ore in air.
unit. 1 calorie = 4.186 8 joules.
calyptra 1. A layer of cells that covers
Calorie (kilogram calorie; kilocalorie) the developing sporophyte of mosses, liv-
1000 calories. This unit is still in limited erworts, clubmosses, horsetails, and ferns.
use in estimating the energy value of In mosses it forms a hood over the *cap-
foods, but is obsolescent. sule and in liverworts it forms a sheath at
caloriÜc value The heat per unit mass the base of the capsule stalk. 2. See root
produced by complete combustion of a cap.
given substance. CaloriÜc values are used calyptrogen The region within the root
to express the energy values of fuels; usu- *apical meristem that divides to produce
ally these are expressed in megajoules per the *root cap (calyptra).
kilogram (MJ kg–1). They are also used to
calyx The *sepals of a Ûower, collec-
measure the energy content of foodstuffs;
tively, forming the outer whorl of the
i.e. the energy produced when the food is
*perianth. It encloses the petals, stamens,
oxidized in the body. The units here are
and carpels and protects the Ûower in
kilojoules per gram (kJ g–1), although Calo-
bud. See also pappus.
ries (kilocalories) are often still used in
nontechnical contexts. CaloriÜc values are cambium (lateral meristem) A plant tis-
measured using a *bomb calorimeter. sue consisting of actively dividing cells (see
 Cambrian 126

meristem) that is responsible for increas- the camera tube, causing localized dis-
ing the girth of the plant, i.e. it causes sec- charge of those of its elements that are il-
ondary growth. The two most important luminated. This mosaic is scanned from
cambia are the vascular (or fascicular) behind by an electron beam so that the
cambium and the *cork cambium. The beam current is varied as it passes over
c vascular cambium occurs in the stem and areas of light and shade. The signal so
root; it divides to produce secondary picked up by the scanning beam is pream-
*xylem and secondary *phloem (new pliÜed in the camera and passed to the
food- and water-conducting tissues). In transmitter with sound and synchroniza-
mature stems the vascular cambium is ex- tion signals. In *colour television three
tended laterally to form a complete ring: separate camera tubes are used, one for
the sections of this ring between the vas- each *primary colour.
cular bundles comprises the interfascicu-
camouÛage A high degree of similarity
lar cambium. Compare apical meristem.
between an animal and its visual environ-
Cambrian The earliest geological period ment, which enables it to be disguised or
of the Palaeozoic era. It is estimated to concealed. By blending into the back-
have begun about 570 million years ago ground the animal can elude predators or
and lasted for some 100 million years. remain invisible to potential prey. See also
During this period marine animals with cryptic coloration; mimicry. Compare
mineralized shells made their Ürst appear- warning coloration.
ance and Cambrian rocks are the Ürst to
camphor A white crystalline cyclic ke-
contain an abundance of fossils. Cambrian
tone, C10H16O; r.d. 0.99; m.p. 179°C; b.p.
fossils are all of marine animals; they in-
204°C. It was formerly obtained from the
clude *trilobites, which dominated the
wood of the Formosan camphor tree, but
Cambrian seas, echinoderms, brachio-
can now be synthesized. The compound
pods, molluscs, and primitive *graptolites
has a characteristic odour associated with
(from the mid Cambrian). Trace *fossils
its use in mothballs. It is a plasticizer in
also provide evidence for a variety of
celluloid.
worms.
Canada balsam A yellow-tinted resin
camera 1. An optical device for obtain-
used for mounting specimens in optical
ing still photographs or for exposing cine-
microscopy. It has similar optical proper-
matic Ülm. It consists of a light-proof box
ties to glass.
with a lens at one end and a plate or Ülm
at the other. To make an exposure the canaliculus A very small channel that
shutter is opened and an image of the ob- occurs between the cells of the liver and
ject to be photographed is formed on the bone. In the liver the bile canaliculi carry
light-sensitive Ülm. The length of the ex- bile to the bile ducts; in bone, canaliculi
posure is determined by the intensity of connect lacunae, the cavities containing
light available, the Ülm speed, and the bone cells.
*aperture of the lens. In the simpler cam-
canal rays Streams of positive ions pro-
eras the shutter speed and aperture are
duced in a *discharge tube by boring
controlled manually, but in automatic
holes (canals) in the cathode. The positive
cameras the iris over the lens or the shut-
ions attracted to the cathode pass through
ter is adjusted on the basis of information
the holes and emerge on the other side as
provided by a built-in *exposure meter. In
positive rays.
ciné cameras the shutter automatically
opens as the Ülm comes to rest behind the cancer Any disorder of cell growth that
lens for each frame; the Ülm passes results in invasion and destruction of sur-
through the camera so that a set number rounding healthy tissue by abnormal
(commonly 16, 18, or 24) of frames are ex- cells. Cancer cells arise from normal cells
posed every second. 2. The part of a tele- whose nature is permanently changed.
vision system that converts optical images They multiply more rapidly than healthy
into electronic signals. It consists of a lens body cells and do not seem subject to nor-
system, which focuses the image to be mal control by nerves and hormones.
televised on the photosensitive mosaic of They may spread via the bloodstream or
127 capacitor microphone

lymphatic system to other parts of the structures of a molecule that together

body, where they produce further tissue form a *resonance hybrid.
damage (metastases). Malignant tumour is
capacitance The property of a conduc-
another name for cancer. A cancer that tor or system of conductors that describes
arises in epithelium is called a carcinoma;
one that arises in connective tissue is
its ability to store electric charge. The ca-
pacitance (C) is given by Q /V, where Q is
c
called a sarcoma. Leukaemia is cancer of stored charge on one conductor and V the
white blood cells; lymphoma is cancer of potential difference between the two con-
*lymphoid tissue; and myeloma is cancer ductors (or between a single conductor
of *plasma cells of the bone marrow. and earth); it is measured in farads (or, in
Causative agents (carcinogens) include var- practice, microfarads).
ious chemicals (including those in tobacco An isolated sphere has a capacitance of
smoke), ionizing radiation, silica and as- 4πεr, where r is the radius and ε the *per-
bestos particles, and *oncogenic viruses mittivity of the medium surrounding it.
(see also oncogene). Hereditary factors and Capacitance is more commonly applied to
stress may also play a role. systems of conductors (or semiconductors)
candela Symbol Cd. The *SI unit of lu- separated by insulators (see capacitor).
minous intensity equal to the luminous capacitation The Ünal stage in the mat-
intensity in a given direction of a source uration process of a spermatozoon. This
that emits monochromatic radiation of takes place inside the genital tract as the
frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and has a radiant sperm penetrates the ovum.
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt
capacitor An arrangement of conduc-
per steradian.
tors separated by an insulator (dielectric)
candle power Luminous intensity as used to store charge or introduce *reac-
formerly expressed in terms of the inter- tance into an alternating-current circuit.
national candle but now expressed in can- The earliest form was the *Leyden jar. Ca-
dela. pacitors used as circuit elements have two
conducting plates separated by the dielec-
cane sugar See sucrose. tric. The dielectric may be air, paper im-
canine tooth A sharp conical *tooth in pregnated with oil or wax, plastic Ülm, or
mammals that is large and highly devel- ceramic. The simplest form has two paral-
oped in carnivores (e.g. dogs) for tearing lel rectangular conducting plates (area A)
meat. There are two canines in each jaw, separated by a dielectric (thickness d, per-
each situated between the second *incisor mittivity ε). The capacitance of such a ca-
and the Ürst *premolar. In some animals pacitor is Aε/d. Electrolytic capacitors are
(e.g. herbivores, such as giraffes and rab- devices in which a thin layer of an oxide
bits) canine teeth are absent. is deposited on one of the electrodes to
function as the dielectric.
Cannizzaro reaction A reaction of
aldehydes to give carboxylic acids and al- capacitor microphone A microphone
cohols. It occurs in the presence of strong consisting of a *capacitor with a steady
bases with aldehydes that do not have voltage applied across its parallel plates.
alpha hydrogen atoms. For example, ben- One plate is Üxed, the other is a thin dia-
zenecarbaldehyde gives benzenecar- phragm that is moved by the pressure of
boxylic acid and benzyl alcohol: the sound waves. The movements of the
diaphragm cause a variation in the spac-
2C6H5CHO → C6H5COOH + C6H5CH2OH ing and therefore in the *capacitance of
Aldehydes that have alpha hydrogen the device. This variation in capacitance
atoms undergo the *aldol reaction in- is, in turn, reÛected in a similar variation
in the charge carried by each plate. The
stead. The Cannizzaro reaction is an ex-
consequent current to and from one plate
ample of a *disproportionation. It was
is carried by a resistor, the varying poten-
discovered in 1853 by the Italian chemist
tial difference across which constitutes
Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910).
the device’s output signal. It was formerly
canonical form One of the possible known as a condenser microphone.
 capillarity 128

capillarity See surface tension. rounding the cell wall of certain bacteria.
It appears to have a protective function,
capillary 1. A tube of small diameter.
making ingestion of the bacterial cell by
2. (blood capillary) The narrowest type of
*phagocytes more difÜcult and preventing
blood vessel in the vertebrate circulatory
desiccation. 3. (in animal anatomy)
c system. Capillaries conduct blood from
*arterioles to all living cells: their walls
a. The membranous or Übrous envelope
that surrounds certain organs, e.g. the kid-
are only one cell layer thick, so that oxy-
neys, spleen, and lymph nodes. b. The lig-
gen and nutrients can pass through them
amentous sheath of connective tissue that
into the surrounding tissues. Capillaries
surrounds various skeletal joints.
also transport waste material (e.g. urea
and carbon dioxide) to venules for ulti- capture Any of various processes in
mate excretion. Capillaries can be con- which a system of particles absorbs an
stricted or dilated, according to local extra particle. There are several examples
tissue requirements. in atomic and nuclear physics. For in-
capitulum A type of Ûowering shoot (see stance, a positive ion may capture an elec-
racemose inflorescence) characteristic tron to give a neutral atom or molecule.
of plants of the family Compositae (Aster- Similarly, a neutral atom or molecule cap-
aceae), e.g. daisy and dandelion. The tip of turing an electron becomes a negative
the shoot is Ûattened and bears many ion. An atomic nucleus may capture a
small stalkless Ûowers (Ûorets) sur- neutron to produce a different (often un-
rounded by an involucre (ring) of bracts. stable) nucleus. Another type of nuclear
This arrangement gives the appearance of capture is the process in which the nu-
a single Ûower. cleus of an atom absorbs an electron from
the innermost orbit (the K shell) to trans-
capric acid See decanoic acid. form into a different nucleus. In this pro-
caproic acid See hexanoic acid. cess (called K capture) the atom is left in
an excited state and generally decays by
caprolactam (6-hexanelactam) A white emission of an X-ray photon.
crystalline substance, C6H11NO; r.d. 1.02; Radiative capture is any such process in
m.p. 69–71°C; b.p. 139°C. It is a *lactam which the capture results in an excited
containing the –NH.CO– group with Üve state that decays by emission of photons.
CH2 groups making up the rest of the A common example is neutron capture to
seven-membered ring. Caprolactam is yield an excited nucleus, which decays by
used in making *nylon. emission of a gamma ray.
caprylic acid See octanoic acid. carapace 1. The dorsal part of the *ex-
capsid The protein coat of a *virus. The oskeleton of some crustaceans (e.g. crabs),
chemical nature of the capsid is impor- which spreads like a shield over several
tant in stimulating the body’s *immune segments of the head and thorax. 2. The
response against the invading virus. domed dorsal part of the shell of tortoises
and turtles, formed of bony plates fused
capsule 1. (in botany) a. A dry fruit that
with the ribs and vertebrae and covered
releases its seeds when ripe; it is formed
by a horny epidermal layer. The ventral
from several fused carpels and contains
part of the shell (plastron) is similar but
many seeds. The seeds may be dispersed
Ûatter.
through pores (as in the poppy), through a
lid (as in plantain), or by the splitting and carat 1. A measure of Üneness (purity) of
separation of the individual carpels (as in gold. Pure gold is described as 24-carat
the crocus). Various other forms of cap- gold. 14-carat gold contains 14 parts in 24
sules include the *silicula and *siliqua. of gold, the remainder usually being cop-
b. The part of the sporophyte of mosses per. 2. A unit of mass equal to 0.200
and liverworts in which the haploid gram, used to measure the masses of dia-
spores are produced. It is borne on a long monds and other gemstones.
stalk (seta) and sheds its spores when ma-
carbamide See urea.
ture (see peristome). 2. (in microbiology)
A thick gelatinous layer completely sur- carbanion An organic ion with a nega-
129 carbon

tive charge on a carbon atom; i.e. an ion formula Cx(H2O)y. The simplest carbo-
of the type R3C–. Carbanions are interme- hydrates are the *sugars (saccharides),
diates in certain types of organic reaction including glucose and sucrose. *Poly-
(e.g. the *aldol reaction). saccharides are carbohydrates of much
greater molecular weight and complex-
carbene A species of the type R2C:, in
which the carbon atom has two electrons
ity; examples are starch, glycogen, and c
cellulose. Carbohydrates perform many
that do not form bonds. Methylene, :CH2,
vital roles in living organisms. Sugars, no-
is the simplest example. Carbenes are
tably glucose, and their derivatives are es-
highly reactive and exist only as transient
sential intermediates in the conversion of
intermediates in certain organic reactions.
food to energy. Starch and other polysac-
They attack double bonds to give cyclo-
charides serve as energy stores in plants,
propane derivatives. They also cause inser-
particularly in seeds, tubers, etc., which
tion reactions, in which the carbene
provide a major energy source for ani-
group is inserted between the carbon and
mals, including man. Cellulose, lignin,
hydrogen atoms of a C–H bond:
and others form the supporting cell walls
C–H + :CR2 → C–CR2–H and woody tissue of plants. Chitin is a
structural polysaccharide found in the
carbenium ion See carbonium ion. body shells of many invertebrate animals.
Carbohydrates also occur in the surface
carbide Any of various compounds of
coat of animal cells and in bacterial cell
carbon with metals or other more elec-
walls.
tropositive elements. True carbides con-
tain the ion C4– as in Al4C3. These are carbolic acid See phenol.
saltlike compounds giving methane on
carbon Symbol C. A nonmetallic el-
hydrolysis, and were formerly called
ement belonging to *group 14 (formerly
methanides. Compounds containing the
IVB) of the periodic table; a.n. 6; r.a.m.
ion C22– are also saltlike and are known as
12.011; m.p. ∼3550°C; b.p. ∼4827°C. Car-
dicarbides. They yield ethyne (acetylene)
bon has three main allotropic forms (see
on hydrolysis and were formerly called
allotropy).
acetylides. The above types of compound
*Diamond (r.d. 3.52) occurs naturally
are ionic but have partially covalent bond
and can be produced synthetically. It is ex-
character, but boron and silicon form true
tremely hard and has highly refractive
covalent carbides, with giant molecular
crystals. The hardness of diamond results
structures. In addition, the transition met-
from the covalent crystal structure, in
als form a range of interstitial carbides in
which each carbon atom is linked by cova-
which the carbon atoms occupy intersti-
lent bonds to four others situated at the
tial positions in the metal lattice. These
corners of a tetrahedron. The C–C bond
substances are generally hard materials
length is 0.154 nm and the bond angle is
with metallic conductivity. Some transi-
109.5°.
tion metals (e.g. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni)
Graphite (r.d. 2.25) is a soft black slip-
have atomic radii that are too small to
pery substance (sometimes called black
allow individual carbon atoms in the in-
lead or plumbago). It occurs naturally and
terstitial holes. These form carbides in
can also be made by the *Acheson pro-
which the metal lattice is distorted and
cess. In graphite the carbon atoms are ar-
chains of carbon atoms exist (e.g. Cr3C2,
ranged in layers, in which each carbon
Fe3C). Such compounds are intermediate
atom is surrounded by three others to
in character between interstitial carbides
which it is bound by single or double
and ionic carbides. They give mixtures of
bonds. The layers are held together by
hydrocarbons on hydrolysis with water or
much weaker van der Waals’ forces. The
acids.
carbon–carbon bond length in the layers
carbocation See carbonium ion. is 0.142 nm and the layers are 0.34 nm
apart. Graphite is a good conductor of
carbocyclic See cyclic.
heat and electricity. It has a variety of
carbohydrate One of a group of or- uses including electrical contacts, high-
ganic compounds based on the general temperature equipment, and as a solid lu-
 carbon assimilation 130

bricant. Graphite mixed with clay is the carbonate A salt of carbonic acid con-
‘lead’ in pencils (hence its alternative taining the carbonate ion, CO32–. The free
name). The third crystalline allotrope is ion has a plane triangular structure. Metal
fullerite (see buckminsterfullerene). carbonates may be ionic or may contain
There are also several amorphous forms covalent metal–carbonate bonds (complex
c of carbon, such as *carbon black and carbonates) via one or two oxygen atoms.
*charcoal. The carbonates of the alkali metals are all
There are two stable isotopes of carbon soluble but other carbonates are insolu-
(proton numbers 12 and 13) and four ble; they all react with mineral acids to re-
radioactive ones (10, 11, 14, 15). Car- lease carbon dioxide.
bon–14 is used in *carbon dating. carbonate minerals A group of com-
Carbon occurs in all organic com- mon rock-forming minerals containing
pounds and is therefore fundamental to the anion CO32– as the fundamental unit
the structure of all living organisms. It is in their structure. The most important
an *essential element for plants and ani- carbonate minerals are *calcite,
mals, being ultimately derived from at- *dolomite, and *magnesite. See also arag-
mospheric carbon dioxide assimilated by onite.
plants during photosynthesis (see carbon
carbonation The solution of carbon
cycle). The ubiquitous nature of carbon in dioxide in a liquid under pressure.
living organisms is due to its unique abil-
ity to form stable covalent bonds with carbon bisulphide See carbon disul-
other carbon atoms and also with hydro- phide.
gen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur atoms, carbon black A Üne carbon powder
resulting in the formation of a variety of made by burning hydrocarbons in insufÜ-
compounds containing chains and rings cient air. It is used as a pigment and a
of carbon atoms. Üller (e.g. for rubber).
carbon assimilation The incorpora- carbon cycle 1. (in biology) One of the
tion of carbon from atmospheric carbon major cycles of chemical elements in the
dioxide into organic molecules. This pro- environment (see biogeochemical cycle).
cess occurs during *photosynthesis. See Carbon (as carbon dioxide) is taken up
carbon cycle. from the atmosphere and incorporated

carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere

respiration in
combustion respiration
decomposers

carbon organic death carbon compounds

in fossil respiration photosynthesis compounds in dead organic
fuels in animals matter

fossilization feeding death

organic compounds
in green plants

The carbon cycle in nature

131 carbon disulphide

into the tissues of plants in *photosynthe- past intensity of the cosmic radiation. The
sis. It may then pass into the bodies of an- technique was developed by Willard F.
imals as the plants are eaten (see food Libby (1908–80) and his coworkers in
chain). During the respiration of plants, 1946–47.
animals, and organisms that bring about
decomposition, carbon dioxide is returned
carbon dioxide A colourless odourless
gas, CO2, soluble in water, ethanol, and
c
to the atmosphere. The combustion of fos- acetone; d. 1.977 g dm–3 (0°C); m.p.
sil fuels (e.g. coal and peat) also releases –56.6°C; b.p. –78.5°C. It occurs in the at-
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. See mosphere (0.04% by volume) but has a
illustration. short residence time in this phase as it is
2. (in physics) A series of nuclear reactions both consumed by plants during *photo-
in which four hydrogen nuclei combine to synthesis and produced by *respiration
form a helium nucleus with the liberation and by combustion. It is readily prepared
of energy, two positrons, and two neutri- in the laboratory by the action of dilute
nos. The process is believed to be the acids on metal carbonates or of heat on
source of energy in many stars and to heavy-metal carbonates. Carbon dioxide is
take place in six stages. In this series car- a by-product from the manufacture of
bon–12 acts as if it were a catalyst, being lime and from fermentation processes.
reformed at the end of the series: Carbon dioxide has a small liquid range
12
6C + 11H → 137N + γ and liquid carbon dioxide is produced
only at high pressures. The molecule CO2
13
7N → 136C + e + + ν e is linear with each oxygen making a dou-
ble bond to the carbon. Chemically, it is
13
6C + 11H → 147N + γ
unreactive and will not support combus-
14
7N + 11H → 158O + γ tion. It dissolves in water to give *car-
bonic acid.
15
8O → 157N + e + + ν e Large quantities of solid carbon dioxide
(dry ice) are used in processes requiring
15
7N + 11H → 126C + 42He.
large-scale refrigeration. It is also used in
See stellar evolution. Üre extinguishers as a desirable alterna-
carbon dating (radiocarbon dating) A tive to water for most Üres, and as a con-
method of estimating the ages of archaeo- stituent of medical gases as it promotes
logical specimens of biological origin. As a exhalation. It is also used in carbonated
result of *cosmic radiation a small num- drinks.
ber of atmospheric nitrogen nuclei are The level of carbon dioxide in the at-
continuously being transformed by neu- mosphere has increased by some 12% in
tron bombardment into radioactive nuclei the last 100 years, mainly because of ex-
of carbon–14: tensive burning of fossil fuels and the de-
struction of large areas of rain forest. This
14
7N + n → 146C + p has been postulated as the main cause of
Some of these radiocarbon atoms Ünd the average increase of 0.5°C in global
their way into living trees and other temperatures over the same period,
plants in the form of carbon dioxide, as a through the *greenhouse effect. Atmos-
result of *photosynthesis. When the tree pheric CO2 concentration continues to
is cut down photosynthesis stops and the rise, in spite of some tentative steps to
ratio of radiocarbon atoms to stable car- control emissions, giving the prospect of
bon atoms begins to fall as the radiocar- accelerated *global warming in the fore-
bon decays. The ratio 14C/12C in the seeable future.
specimen can be measured and enables carbon disulphide (carbon bisulphide)
the time that has elapsed since the tree A colourless highly refractive liquid, CS2,
was cut down to be calculated. The slightly soluble in water and soluble in
method has been shown to give consis- ethanol and ether; r.d. 1.261; m.p. –110°C;
tent results for specimens up to some b.p. 46.3°C. Pure carbon disulphide has an
40 000 years old, though its accuracy de- ethereal odour but the commercial prod-
pends upon assumptions concerning the uct is contaminated with a variety of
 carbon fibres 132

other sulphur compounds and has a most riod, and extended until the beginning of
unpleasant smell. It was previously manu- the Permian period, about 285 million
factured by heating a mixture of wood, years ago. In Europe the period is divided
sulphur, and charcoal; modern processes into the Lower and Upper Carboniferous,
use natural gas and sulphur. Carbon disul- which roughly correspond to the Missis-
c phide is an excellent solvent for oils, sippian and Pennsylvanian periods, re-
waxes, rubber, sulphur, and phosphorus, spectively, of North America. During the
but its use is decreasing because of its Lower Carboniferous a marine transgres-
high toxicity and its Ûammability. It is sion occurred and the characteristic rock
used for the preparation of xanthates in of this division – the Carboniferous lime-
the manufacture of viscose yarns. stone – was laid down in the shallow seas.
Fauna included foraminiferans, corals,
carbon Übres Fibres of carbon in which bryozoans, brachiopods, blastoids, and
the carbon has an oriented crystal struc- other invertebrates. The Upper Carbonif-
ture. Carbon Übres are made by heating erous saw the deposition of the millstone
textile Übres and are used in strong com- grit, a mixture of shale and sandstone
posite materials for use at high tempera- formed in deltaic conditions, followed by
tures. the coal measures, alternating beds of
carbonic acid A dibasic acid, H2CO3, coal, sandstone, shale, and clay. The coal
formed in solution when carbon dioxide was formed from the vast swamp forests
is dissolved in water: composed of seed ferns, lycopsids, and
other plants. During the period Üshes con-
CO2(aq) + H2O(l) ˆ H2CO3(aq) tinued to diversify and amphibians be-
The acid is in equilibrium with dissolved came more common.
carbon dioxide, and also dissociates as fol- carbonium ion (carbenium ion) An or-
lows: ganic ion with a positive charge on a car-
H2CO3 ˆ H+ + HCO3– bon atom; i.e. an ion of the type R3C+.
Carbonium ions are intermediates in cer-
Ka = 4.5 × 10–7 mol dm–3 tain types of organic reaction (e.g.
HCO3– ˆ CO32– + H+ *Williamson’s synthesis). Certain fairly
stable carbonium ions can be formed
Ka = 4.8 × 10–11 mol dm–3 (carbocations).
The pure acid cannot be isolated, al- carbonize (carburize) To change an or-
though it can be produced in ether solu- ganic compound into carbon by heating,
tion at –30°C. Carbonic acid gives rise to or to coat something with carbon in this
two series of salts: the *carbonates and way.
the *hydrogencarbonates.
carbon monoxide A colourless odour-
carbonic anhydrase An enzyme, pres- less gas, CO, sparingly soluble in water
ent in red blood cells and kidney cells, and soluble in ethanol and benzene;
that catalyses the reaction between car- d. 1.25 g dm–3 (0°C); m.p. –199°C; b.p.
bon dioxide with water: –191.5°C. It is Ûammable and highly toxic.
CO2 + H2O ˆ H2CO3 In the laboratory it can be made by the
dehydration of methanoic acid (formic
H2CO3 ˆ H+ + HCO3–. acid) using concentrated sulphuric acid.
This reaction is one of the fastest known Industrially it is produced by the oxida-
and controls the elimination of carbon tion of natural gas (methane) or (formerly)
dioxide from the body and the pH of by the water-gas reaction. It is formed by
urine. It also facilitates the transfer of car- _O
bon dioxide from the tissues to the blood C carbon monoxide
and from the blood to the alveoli (air sacs) _
O C_ O carbon dioxide
of the lungs. See also chloride shift.
O
_ _ _ _
C C C O tricarbon dioxide
Carboniferous A geological period in (carbon suboxide)
the Palaeozoic era. It began about 360 mil-
lion years ago, following the Devonian pe- Oxides of carbon
133 cardiac cycle

the incomplete combustion of carbon and *carboxylic acid. For example, ethanoic
is present in car-exhaust gases. acid gives rise to the ethanoate ion,
It is a neutral oxide, which burns in air CH3COO–.
to give carbon dioxide, and is a good re-
carboxyl group The organic group
ducing agent, used in a number of metal-
lurgical processes. It has the interesting
–COOH, present in *carboxylic acids. c
chemical property of forming a range of carboxylic acids Organic compounds
transition metal carbonyls, e.g. Ni(CO)4. containing the group –COOH (the car-
Carbon monoxide is able to use vacant p- boxyl group; i.e. a carbonyl group at-
orbitals in bonding with metals; the stabi- tached to a hydroxyl group). In systematic
lization of low oxidation states, including chemical nomenclature carboxylic-acid
the zero state, is a consequence of this. names end in the sufÜx -oic, e.g. ethanoic
This also accounts for its toxicity, which is acid, CH3COOH. They are generally weak
due to the binding of the CO to the iron acids. Many long-chain carboxylic acids
in haemoglobin, thereby blocking the up- occur naturally as esters in fats and oils
take of oxygen. and are therefore also known as *fatty
acids. See also glyceride.
carbon suboxide See tricarbon diox-
ide.
carboxyl group
O
carbon tetrachloride See tetra-
R C
chloromethane.
O H
carbonyl chloride (phosgene) A colour-
less gas, COCl2, with an odour of freshly Carboxylic acid structure
cut hay. It is used in organic chemistry as
a chlorinating agent, and was formerly carboxypeptidase An *exopeptidase
used as a war gas. enzyme in pancreatic juice that is se-
creted into the duodenum. The enzyme is
carbonyl compound A compound con-
secreted as an inactive precursor, procar-
taining the carbonyl group >C=O. Alde-
boxypeptidase, which is activated by an-
hydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are
other pancreatic protease, *trypsin. See
examples of organic carbonyl compounds.
also chymotrypsin.
Inorganic carbonyls are complexes in
which carbon monoxide has coordinated carburize See carbonize.
to a metal atom or ion, as in *nickel car-
carbylamine reaction See isocyanide
bonyl, Ni(CO)4. See also ligand.
test.
carbonyl group The group >C=O,
carcerulus A dry fruit that is a type of
found in aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic
*schizocarp. It consists of a number of
acids, amides, etc., and in inorganic car-
one-seeded fragments (mericarps) that ad-
bonyl complexes (see carbonyl
here to a central axis. It is characteristic of
compound).
mallow.
carborundum See silicon carbide.
carcinogen Any agent that produces
carboxyhaemoglobin The highly sta- *cancer, e.g. tobacco smoke, certain in-
ble product formed when *haemoglobin dustrial chemicals, and *ionizing radia-
combines with carbon monoxide. Carbon tion (such as X-rays and ultraviolet rays).
monoxide competes with oxygen for
carcinoma See cancer.
haemoglobin, with which it binds
strongly: the afÜnity of haemoglobin for cardiac 1. Relating to the heart. 2. Re-
carbon monoxide is 250 times greater lating to the part of the stomach nearest
than that for oxygen. This reduces the to the oesophagus.
availability of haemoglobin for combina-
cardiac cycle The sequence of events
tion with (and transport of) oxygen and
that occurs in the heart during one full
accounts for the toxic effects of carbon
heartbeat. These events comprise contrac-
monoxide on the respiratory system.
tion (see systole) and relaxation (see dias-
carboxylate An anion formed from a tole) of the chambers of the heart,
 cardiac muscle 134

associated with opening and closing of thetic nerves and by the action of certain
the heart valves. When both the atria and hormones.
the ventricles are relaxed, pressure in the
Carius method A method of determin-
heart is low and blood Ûows from the ing the amount of sulphur and halogens
vena cava and pulmonary vein into the
c atria and through to the ventricles. The
in an organic compound, by heating the
compound in a sealed tube with silver ni-
aortic and pulmonary valves, at the junc- trate in concentrated nitric acid. The com-
tion between the left ventricle and aorta pound is decomposed and silver sulphide
and the right ventricle and pulmonary and halides are precipitated, separated,
artery, respectively, are closed; therefore, and weighed.
blood can enter but not leave the heart,
which increases the pressure in the cham- carnallite A mineral consisting of a hy-
bers. As the pressure in the heart in- drated mixed chloride of potassium and
creases, the atria begin to contract, magnesium, KCl.MgCl2.6H2O.
forcing the blood into the ventricles and carnassial teeth Molar and premolar
closing the *tricuspid valve and the *bi- teeth modiÜed for shearing Ûesh by hav-
cuspid valve. A wave of ventricular con- ing cusps with sharp cutting edges. They
traction follows, expelling the blood into are typical of animals of the order *Car-
the aorta and pulmonary artery to com- nivora (e.g. tigers, wolves), in which they
plete the cardiac cycle. At a resting heart are the Ürst molars in the lower jaw and
rate, the human cardiac cycle lasts ap- the last premolars in the upper.
proximately 0.85 second. Carnivora An order of mainly Ûesh-
cardiac muscle A specialized form of eating mammals that includes the dogs,
*muscle that is peculiar to the vertebrate wolves, bears, badgers, weasels, and cats.
heart. There are two types of cardiac mus- Carnivores typically have very keen sight,
cle Übres: contractile Übres, which are stri- smell, and hearing. The hinge joint be-
ated and contain numerous myoÜbrils; tween the lower jaw and skull is very
and conducting Übres, or *Purkyne Übres, tight, allowing no lateral movement of
which branch extensively and conduct the lower jaw. This – together with the ar-
electrical signals throughout the muscle. rangement of jaw muscles – enables a
The muscle itself shows spontaneous con- very powerful bite. The teeth are special-
traction and does not need nervous stimu- ized for stabbing and tearing Ûesh: ca-
nines are large and pointed and some of
lation (see pacemaker). The vagus nerve to
the cheek teeth are modiÜed for shearing
the heart can, however, affect the rate of
(see carnassial teeth).
contraction.
carnivore An animal that eats meat, es-
cardiac output The volume of blood
pecially a member of the order *Car-
pumped per minute by each ventricle,
nivora (e.g. tigers, wolves). Carnivores are
which is also the total blood Ûow through specialized by having strong powerful
the pulmonary circuit. At rest, normal jaws and well-developed canine teeth.
human cardiac output is approximately 5 They may be *predators or carrion eaters.
litres per minute, rising to 22 litres per See also consumer. Compare herbivore;
minute during maximum physical exer- omnivore.
tion. The cardiac output can be calculated
from heart rate (number of beats per carnivorous plant (insectivorous plant)
minute) and stroke volume (volume of Any plant that supplements its supply of
blood expelled from the heart per beat). nitrates in conditions of nitrate deÜciency
by digesting small animals, especially in-
cardiovascular centre One of the sects. Such plants are adapted in various
areas in the brain that are responsible for ways to attract and trap the insects and
the modiÜcation of the cardiovascular sys- produce proteolytic enzymes to digest
tem based upon the integration of sensory them. Venus’ Ûy trap (Dionaea), for exam-
information from the autonomic nervous ple, has spiny-margined hinged leaves
system. These centres inÛuence the heart that snap shut on an alighting insect. Sun-
rate via the sympathetic and parasympa- dews (Drosera) trap and digest insects by
135 carotid body

means of glandular leaves that secrete a T1/T2 and η = (T1 – T2)/T1. For maximum
sticky substance, and pitcher plants (fami- efÜciency T1 should be as high as possible
lies Nepenthaceae and Sarraceniaceae) and T2 as low as possible.
have leaves modiÜed as pitchers into
carnotite A radioactive mineral consist-
which insects fall, drowning in the water
and digestive enzymes at the bottom.
ing of hydrated uranium potassium vana-
date, K2(UO2)2(VO4)2.nH2O. It varies in
c
Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi colour from bright yellow to lemon- or
(1796–1832) French physicist, who Ürst greenish-yellow. It is a source of uranium,
worked as a military engineer. He then radium, and vanadium. The chief occur-
turned to scientiÜc research and in 1824 rences are in the Colorado Plateau, USA;
published his analysis of the efÜciency of Radium Hill, Australia; and Katanga,
heat engines. The key to this analysis is Democratic Republic of Congo.
the thermodynamic *Carnot cycle. He
died at an early age of cholera. Caro’s acid See peroxosulphuric(vi)
acid.
Carnot cycle The most efÜcient cycle of
operations for a reversible *heat engine. carotene A member of a class of
Published in 1824 by Nicolas Carnot, it *carotenoid pigments. Examples are
consists of four operations on the working β-carotene and lycopene, which colour
substance in the engine (see illustration): carrot roots and ripe tomato fruits respec-
a. Isothermal expansion at thermody- tively. α- and β-carotene yield vitamin A
namic temperature T1 with heat Q 1 taken when they are broken down during ani-
in. mal digestion.
b. Adiabatic expansion with a fall of tem- carotenoid Any of a group of yellow, or-
perature to T2. ange, red, or brown plant pigments chem-
c. Isothermal compression at temperature ically related to terpenes. Carotenoids are
T2 with heat Q 2 given out. responsible for the characteristic colour of
d. Adiabatic compression with a rise of
many plant organs, such as ripe tomatoes,
temperature back to T1.
carrots, and autumn leaves. They also
function as accessory *photosynthetic pig-
P ments in the light-dependent reactions of
T1Q1 isothermal *photosynthesis. See carotene; xantho-
expansion phyll.
adiabatic
expansion
Carothers, Wallace Hume (1896–1937)
adiabatic T2Q2
compression US industrial chemist, who joined the Du
isothermal Pont company where he worked on poly-
compression mers. In 1931 he produced *neoprene, a
synthetic rubber. His greatest success
came in 1935 with the discovery of the
polyamide that came to be known as
V *nylon. Carothers, who suffered from de-
pression, committed suicide.
Carnot cycle
carotid artery The major artery that
According to the Carnot principle, the efÜ- supplies blood to the head. A pair of com-
ciency of any reversible heat engine de- mon carotid arteries arise from the aorta
pends only on the temperature range (on the left) and the innominate artery (on
through which it works, rather than the the right) and run up the neck; each
properties of the working substances. In branches into an external and an internal
any reversible engine, the efÜciency (η) is carotid artery, which supply the head.
the ratio of the work done (W) to the heat carotid body One of a pair of tissue
input (Q 1), i.e. η = W/Q 1. As, according to masses adjacent to the *carotid sinus.
the Ürst law of *thermodynamics, W = Q 1 Each contains receptors that are sensitive
– Q 2, it follows that η = (Q 1 – Q 2)/Q 1. For to oxygen and pH levels (acidity) in the
the Kelvin temperature scale, Q 1/Q 2 = blood. High levels of carbon dioxide in the
 carotid sinus 136

blood lower the pH (i.e. increase the acid- 5. (in biochemistry) See carrier mol-
ity). By responding to Ûuctuations in pH, ecule; hydrogen carrier.
the carotid body coordinates reÛex
carrier gas The gas that carries the sam-
changes in respiration rate.
ple in *gas chromatography.
c carotid sinus An enlarged region of the
*carotid artery at its major branching
carrier molecule 1. A molecule that
plays a role in transporting electrons
point in the neck. Its walls contain many through the *electron transport chain.
receptors that are sensitive to changes in Carrier molecules are usually proteins
pressure and it regulates blood pressure bound to a nonprotein group; they can
by initiating reÛex changes in heart rate undergo oxidation and reduction rela-
and dilation of blood vessels. tively easily, thus allowing electrons to
carpal (carpal bone) One of the bones Ûow through the system. There are four
that form the wrist (see carpus) in terres- types of carrier: Ûavoproteins (e.g. *FAD),
trial vertebrates. *cytochromes, iron–sulphur proteins (e.g.
ferredoxin), and *ubiquinone. 2. A lipid-
carpel The female reproductive organ of soluble molecule that can bind to lipid-
a Ûower. Typically it consists of a *stigma, insoluble molecules and transport them
*style, and *ovary. It is thought to have across membranes. Carrier molecules
evolved by the fusion of the two edges of have speciÜc sites that interact with the
a Ûattened megasporophyll (see sporo- molecules they transport. Several differ-
phyll). Each Ûower may have one carpel ent molecules may compete for transport
(monocarpellary) or many (polycarpellary), by the same carrier. See transport pro-
either free (apocarpous) or fused together tein.
(syncarpous). See also pistil.
carrier wave An electromagnetic wave
carpus The wrist (or corresponding part of speciÜed frequency and amplitude that
of the forelimb) in terrestrial vertebrates, is emitted by a radio transmitter in order
consisting of a number of small bones to carry information. The information is
(carpals). The number of carpal bones superimposed onto the carrier by means
varies with the species. The rabbit, for ex- of *modulation.
ample, has two rows of carpals, the Ürst
carrying capacity Symbol K. The maxi-
(proximal) row containing three bones
mum population of a particular species
and the second (distal) row Üve. In hu- that can be supported indeÜnitely by a
mans there are also eight carpals. This given habitat or area without damage to
large number of bones enables Ûexibility the environment. It can be manipulated
at the wrist joint, between the hand and by human intervention. For example, the
forelimb. See also pentadactyl limb. carrying capacity for grazing mammals
carrier 1. (in radio) See carrier wave. could be increased by boosting the yield
2. (in physics) See charge carrier. 3. (in of their grassland habitat by the applica-
medicine) An individual who harbours a tion of fertilizer. See also k selection.
particular disease-causing microorganism Cartesian coordinates A system used
without ill-effects and who can transmit in analytical geometry to locate a point P,
the microorganism to others. Compare with reference to two or three axes (see
vector. 4. (in genetics) An individual graphs). In a two-dimensional system the
with an *allele for some defective condi- vertical axis is the y-axis and the horizon-
tion that is masked by a normal *domi- tal axis is the x-axis. The point at which
nant allele. Such individuals therefore do the axes intersect each other is called the
not suffer from the condition themselves origin, O. Values of y <0 fall on the y-axis
but they may pass on the defective allele below the origin, values of x <0 fall on the
to their offspring. In humans, women x-axis to the left of the origin. Any point P
may be carriers of such conditions as is located by its perpendicular distances
red–green colour blindness and haemo- from the two axes. The distance from the
philia, the alleles for which are carried x-axis is called the ordinate; the distance
on the X chromosomes (see sex linkage). from the y-axis is the abscissa. The posi-
137 cascade liquefier

tion is indicated numerically by enclosing the matrix as chondrocytes. It also con-

the values of the abscissa and the ordinate tains collagenous and elastic Übres.
in parentheses and separating the two by Hyaline cartilage consists largely of glycos-
means of a comma, e.g. (x,y). In three di- aminoglycan, giving it a shiny glasslike
mensions the system can be used to locate appearance; this type of cartilage gives
a point with reference to a third, z-axis. It Ûexibility and support at the joints. Fibro- c
is named after René Descartes (1596– cartilage, in which bundles of collagen
1650). Übres predominate, is stronger and less
elastic than hyaline cartilage; it is found
y
in such areas as the intervertebral discs.
abscissa Elastic cartilage has a yellow appearance
P (x,y)
due to the presence of numerous elastic
Übres (see elastin). This cartilage main-
ordinate
tains the shape of certain organs, such as
the pinna of the ear.
–x O x
cartilage bone (replacing bone) *Bone
that is formed by replacing the cartilage
of an embryo skeleton. The process, called
ossiÜcation, is brought about by the cells
(osteoblasts) that secrete bone. Compare
–y membrane bone.
cartilaginous Üshes See chon-
two-dimensional system drichthyes.
cartography The science of the produc-
y
tion of maps and charts. Maps may be
based on original surveys, aerial photo-
graphs (photogrammetry), or compiled
P (x,y,z ) from existing maps and records. Com-
puter-based information systems are in-
y creasingly used in the production of maps
x (digital cartography) in place of more tra-
z
ditional methods. See also map projec-
tions.

x caruncle A small outgrowth from the

testa of a seed that develops from the pla-
centa, funicle, or micropyle. Examples in-
z clude the warty outgrowth from the
three-dimensional system
castor-oil seed and the tuft of hairs on the
testa of the seed of willowherb. See also
Cartesian coordinates aril.
caryopsis A dry single-seeded indehis-
cartilage (gristle) A Ürm Ûexible connec- cent fruit that differs from an *achene in
tive tissue that forms the adult skeleton of that the fruit wall is fused to the testa of
cartilaginous Üsh (e.g. sharks). In other the seed. It is the grain of cereals and
vertebrates cartilage forms the skeleton of grasses.
the embryo, being largely replaced by cascade liqueÜer An apparatus for liq-
*bone in mature animals (although it per- uefying a gas of low *critical temperature.
sists in certain areas). Cartilage comprises Another gas, already below its critical
a matrix consisting chieÛy of a glycos- temperature, is liquiÜed and evaporated
aminoglycan (mucopolysaccharide) called at a reduced pressure in order to cool the
chondroitin sulphate secreted by cells Ürst gas to below its critical temperature.
(chondroblasts) that become embedded in In practice a series of steps is often used,
 cascade process 138

each step enabling the critical tempera- caste A division found in social insects,
ture of the next gas to be reached. such as the *Hymenoptera (ants, bees,
wasps) and the Isoptera (termites), in
cascade process Any process that takes
which the individuals are structurally and
place in a number of steps, usually be-
physiologically specialized to perform a
c cause the single step is too inefÜcient to
produce the desired result. For example, particular function. For example, in hon-
in some uranium-enrichment processes eybees there are queens (fertile females),
the separation of the desired isotope is workers (sterile females), and drones
only poorly achieved in a single stage; to (males). There are several different castes
achieve better separation the process has of workers (all sterile females) among
to be repeated a number of times, in a se- ants.
ries, with the enriched fraction of one cast iron A group of iron alloys contain-
stage being fed to the succeeding stage for ing 1.8 to 4.5% of carbon. It is usually cast
further enrichment. Another example of into speciÜc shapes ready for machining,
cascade process is that operating in a *cas- heat treatment, or assembly. It is some-
cade liqueÜer. times produced direct from the *blast fur-
case hardening The hardening of the nace or it may be made from remelted
surface layer of steel, used for tools and *pig iron.
certain mechanical components. The com- castor oil A pale-coloured oil extracted
monest method is to carburize the surface from the castor-oil plant. It contains a
layer by heating the metal in a hydrocar- mixture of glycerides of fatty acids, the
bon or by dipping the red hot metal into predominant acid being ricinoleic acid,
molten sodium cyanide. Diffusion of ni- C17H32(OH)COOH. It is used as a *drying
trogen into the surface layer to form ni- oil in paints and varnishes and medically
trides is also used. as a laxative.
casein One of a group of phosphate- catabolism The metabolic breakdown
containing proteins (phosphoproteins) of large molecules in living organisms to
found in milk. Caseins are easily digested smaller ones, with the release of energy.
by the enzymes of young mammals and Respiration is an example of a catabolic
represent a major source of phosphorus. series of reactions. See metabolism. Com-
See rennin. pare anabolism.
Cassegrainian telescope See tele- catalysis The process of changing the
scope. rate of a chemical reaction by use of a
Cassini, Giovanni Domenico *catalyst.
(1625–1712) Italian-born French as- catalyst A substance that increases the
tronomer, who was professor of astron- rate of a chemical reaction without itself
omy at Bologna. In 1669 he moved to undergoing any permanent chemical
Paris to run the new observatory there, change. Catalysts that have the same
becoming a French citizen in 1673. He is phase as the reactants are homogeneous
best known for his discovery (1675) of the catalysts (e.g. *enzymes in biochemical re-
gap that divides Saturn’s ring system into actions or transition-metal complexes
two parts, now called the Cassini division. used in the liquid phase for catalysing or-
He also discovered four new satellites of ganic reactions). Those that have a differ-
Saturn. ent phase are hetereogeneous catalysts
cassiterite A yellow, brown, or black (e.g. metals or oxides used in many indus-
form of tin(IV) oxide, SnO2, that forms trial gas reactions). The catalyst provides
tetragonal, often twinned, crystals; the an alternative pathway by which the reac-
principal ore of tin. It occurs in hydrother- tion can proceed, in which the activation
mal veins and metasomatic deposits asso- energy is lower. It thus increases the rate
ciated with acid igneous rocks and in at which the reaction comes to equilib-
alluvial (placer) deposits. The chief pro- rium, although it does not alter the posi-
ducers are Malaysia, Indonesia, Demo- tion of the equilibrium. The catalyst itself
cratic Republic of Congo, and Nigeria. takes part in the reaction and conse-
139 cathode-ray oscilloscope

quently may undergo physical change tinuous quantities. Catastrophe theory

(e.g. conversion into powder). In certain originated in *topology in work by the
circumstances, very small quantities of French mathematician René Thom
catalyst can speed up reactions. Most cata- (1923–2002) and was developed by Thom
lysts are also highly speciÜc in the type of and the Russian mathematician Vladimir
reaction they catalyse, particularly en- Igorevich Arnold (1937– ). There are c
zymes in biochemical reactions. Gener- physical applications of catastrophe
ally, the term is used for a substance that theory in *optics and in systems involving
increases reaction rate (a positive cata- *complexity, including biological systems.
lyst). Some reactions can be slowed down
catechol See 1,2-dihydroxybenzene.
by negative catalysts (see inhibition).
catecholamine Any of a class of amines
catalytic activity The increase in the
that possess a catechol (C6H4(OH)2) ring.
rate of a speciÜed chemical reaction
Including *dopamine, *adrenaline, and
caused by an enzyme or other catalyst
*noradrenaline, they function as *neuro-
under speciÜed assay conditions. It is
transmitters and/or hormones.
measured in *katals or in moles per sec-
ond. category (in taxonomy) See rank.
catalytic converter A device used in catenary A curve formed when a chain
the exhaust systems of motor vehicles to or rope of uniform density hangs from
reduce atmospheric pollution. The three two Üxed points. If the lowest point on
main pollutants produced by petrol en- the curve passes through the origin, the
gines are: unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon equation is y = c(coshx/c), where c is the
monoxide produced by incomplete com- distance between the x-axis and the direc-
bustion of hydrocarbons, and nitrogen ox- trix.
ides produced by nitrogen in the air
catenation The formation of chains of
reacting with oxygen at high engine tem-
atoms in chemical compounds.
peratures. Hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide can be controlled by a higher cathetometer A telescope or micro-
combustion temperature and a weaker scope Ütted with crosswires in the eye-
mixture. However, the higher tempera- piece and mounted so that it can slide
ture and greater availability of oxygen along a graduated scale. Cathetometers
arising from these measures encourage are used for accurate measurement of
formation of nitrogen oxides. The use of lengths without mechanical contact. The
three-way catalytic converters solves this microscope type is often called a travel-
problem by using platinum and palladium ling microscope.
catalysts to oxidize the hydrocarbons and
cathode A negative electrode. In *elec-
the CO and rhodium catalysts to reduce
trolysis cations are attracted to the cath-
the nitrogen oxides back to nitrogen.
ode. In vacuum electronic devices
These three-way catalysts require that the
electrons are emitted by the cathode and
air–fuel ratio is strictly stochiometric.
Ûow to the *anode. It is therefore from
Some catalytic converters promote oxida-
the cathode that electrons Ûow into these
tion reactions only, leaving the nitrogen
devices. However, in a primary or sec-
oxides unchanged. Three-way converters
ondary cell the cathode is the electrode
can reduce hydrocarbons and CO emis-
that spontaneously becomes negative dur-
sions by some 85%, at the same time re-
ing discharge, and from which therefore
ducing nitrogen oxides by 62%.
electrons emerge.
catalytic cracking See cracking.
cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) An in-
catalytic RNA See ribozyme. strument based on the *cathode-ray tube
that provides a visual image of electrical
cataphoresis See electrophoresis.
signals. The horizontal deÛection is usu-
catastrophe theory A branch of math- ally provided by an internal *timebase,
ematics dealing with the sudden emer- which causes the beam to sweep across
gence of discontinuities, in contrast to the screen at a speciÜed rate. The signal to
*calculus, which is concerned with con- be investigated is fed to the vertical deÛec-
 cathode rays 140

tion plates after ampliÜcation. Thus the illusion of an illuminated line as this
beam traces a graph of the signal ampli- point sweeps across the tube.
tude against time. The television tube is a form of cathode-
ray tube in which the beam is made to
cathode rays Streams of electrons
scan the screen 625 times to form a
c emitted at the cathode in an evacuated
tube containing a cathode and an anode.
frame, with 25 new frames being pro-
duced every second. (These are the Ügures
They were Ürst observed in gas *discharge
for standard television tubes in the UK).
tubes operated at low pressure. Under
Each frame creates a picture by variations
suitable conditions electrons produced by
in the intensity of the beam as it forms
secondary emission at the cathode are ac-
each line.
celerated down the tube to the anode. In
such devices as the *cathode-ray tube the cathodic protection See sacrificial
electrons are produced by *thermionic protection.
emission from a hot cathode in a vacuum.
cation A positively charged ion, i.e. an
cathode-ray tube (CRT) The device that ion that is attracted to the cathode in
provides the viewing screen in the televi- *electrolysis. Compare anion.
sion tube, the radar viewer, and the *cath-
cationic detergent See detergent.
ode-ray oscilloscope. The cathode-ray tube
consists of an evacuated tube containing a cationic dye See dyes.
heated cathode and two or more ring-
cationic resin See ion exchange.
shaped anodes through which the cath-
ode rays can pass so that they strike the catkin A type of Ûowering shoot (see
enlarged end of the tube (see illustration). racemose inflorescence) in which the
This end of the tube is coated with axis, which is often long, bears many
Ûuorescent material so that it provides a small stalkless unisexual Ûowers. Usually
screen. Any point on the screen that is the male catkins hang down from the
struck by the cathode ray becomes lumi- stem; the female catkins are shorter and
nous. A *control grid between the cath- often erect. Examples include birch and
ode and the anode enables the intensity of hazel. Most plants with catkins are
the beam to be varied, thus controlling adapted for wind pollination, the male
the brightness of the illumination on the Ûowers producing large quantities of
screen. The assembly of cathode, control pollen; willows are an exception, having
grid, and anode is called the *electron nectar-secreting Ûowers and being polli-
gun. The beam emerging from the elec- nated by insects.
tron gun is focused and deÛected by
caudal vertebrae The bones (see vert-
means of plates providing an electric Üeld
ebra) of the tail, which articulate with the
or coils providing a magnetic Üeld. This
*sacral vertebrae. The number of caudal
enables the beam to be focused to a small
vertebrae varies with the species. Rabbits,
point of light and deÛected to produce the
for example, have 15 caudal vertebrae,
while in humans these vertebrae are
vertical fused to form a single bone, the *coccyx.
deflection
cathode anode plates causality The principle that effect can-
not precede cause. The principle is partic-
ularly useful when combined with the
principle that the highest attainable speed
in the universe is the *speed of light in a
vacuum. Causality is used to analyse the
results of scattering experiments and in
control focusing horizontal
grid anode deflection optics.
plates
caustic 1. (in chemistry) Describing a
luminous
screen substance that is strongly alkaline (e.g.
caustic soda). 2. (in optics) The curve or
Cathode-ray tube surface formed by the reÛection of paral-
141 celestial equator

lel rays of light in a large-aperture con- and thus with its role in the immune re-
cave mirror. The apex of the caustic lies at sponse. Hence, for example, CD4 antigens
the principal focus of the mirror. Such a are expressed by helper T cells, whereas
curve can sometimes be seen on the sur- CD8 antigens are expressed by cytotoxic
face of the liquid in a cup as a result of and suppressor T cells. The antigens are
reÛection by the curved walls of the cup. glycoproteins and are characterized using c
A similar curve is formed by a convex lens *monoclonal antibodies. 2. See compact
with spherical surfaces refracting parallel disk.
rays of light.
CD-I CD interactive. A variant of *CD-
caustic potash See potassium hydrox- ROM in which data, sound, and images
ide. can be interleaved on the same disk, i.e. it
caustic soda See sodium hydroxide. is a *multimedia disk. It was designed as a
‘buy and play’ system for the home.
Cavendish, Henry (1731–1810) British
chemist and physicist, born in France. Al- cDNA See complementary dna.
though untrained, his inheritance from CD-ROM CD read-only memory. A device
his grandfather, the Duke of Devonshire, that is based on the audio *compact disk
enabled him to live as a recluse and study and provides read-only access to a large
science. In his experiments with gases amount of data (up to 640 megabytes) for
(1766), he correctly distinguished between use on computer systems. The term also
hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and in 1781 refers to the medium in general. A CD-
synthesized water by exploding hydrogen ROM drive must be used with the com-
in oxygen. He also constructed a torsion puter system to read the data from disk;
balance in 1798, with which he measured the data cannot normally be rewritten.
the mean density (and hence mass) of the Most drives can also play CD audio disks,
earth. but audio disk players cannot handle CD-
cavitation The formation of gas- or ROMs. The data may be in any form –
vapour-Ülled cavities in liquids in motion text, sound, images, or binary data, or a
when the pressure is reduced to a critical mixture – and various CD-ROM format
value while the ambient temperature re- standards exist to handle these. CD-ROM
mains constant. If the velocity of the Ûow- is widely used for the distribution of data,
ing liquid exceeds a certain value, the images, and software and for archiving
pressure can be reduced to such an extent data.
that the *Bernoulli theorem breaks down. CD-RW CD-rewritable, a CD format
It is at this point that cavitation occurs, launched around 1997 that enabled
causing a restriction on the speed at recording and re-use of CDs. CD-RW uses
which hydraulic machinery can be run a phase change to record data. The record-
without noise, vibration, erosion of metal ing layer is a special alloy (typically
parts, or loss of efÜciency. silver/indium/antimony/tellurium). The
cavity resonator See resonant cavity. laser in the CD drive has three power lev-
els. The highest level melts small regions
C cell (parafollicular cell) Any one of a of the recording layer and these cool
group of calcium-secreting cells in verte- quickly to an amorphous form, thereby
brates that are derived from the terminal creating small pits in the recording sur-
pair of gill pouches. In mammals these face. This level is used for writing data to
cells are incorporated into the *thyroid the disk. The intermediate power level
gland and the *parathyroid gland.
heats the surface to a temperature below
c.c.p. Cubic close packing. See close the melting point, but high enough to
packing. cause recrystallization of the amorphous
pits. This is used for erasing data. The low-
CD 1. (cluster of differentiation) Any
est power level is used for reading data
group of antigens that is associated with a
from the disk in the same way that data is
speciÜc subpopulation of human *T cells.
read from a CD-ROM.
The differentiation antigens expressed by
a T cell vary with its stage of development celestial equator See equator.
 celestial mechanics 142

north celestial
pole

zenith

c
observer‘s N
meridian

observer
ecliptic

celestial equator

horizon
S

nadir

south celestial
pole

Celestial sphere

celestial mechanics The study of the *electrolytic cell a current from an out-
motions of and forces between the celes- side source is passed through the elec-
tial bodies. It is based on *Newton’s laws trolyte to produce chemical change (see
of motion and *Newton’s law of gravita- electrolysis). In a *voltaic cell, sponta-
tion. ReÜnements based on the general neous reactions between the electrodes
theory of *relativity are also included in and electrolyte(s) produce a potential dif-
the study, although the differences be- ference between the two electrodes.
tween the two theories are only impor- Voltaic cells can be regarded as made
tant in a few cases. up of two *half cells, each composed of
an electrode in contact with an elec-
celestial sphere The imaginary sphere trolyte. For instance, a zinc rod dipped in
of inÜnite radius within which celestial zinc sulphate solution is a Zn|Zn2+ half
bodies appear to lie. The earth, and the cell. In such a system zinc atoms dissolve
observer, are visualized as being at the as zinc ions, leaving a negative charge on
centre of the sphere and the sphere as ro- the electrode
tating once every sidereal *day (see illus-
tration). The sphere is used to describe the Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e
position of celestial bodies with respect to The solution of zinc continues until the
the earth. charge build-up is sufÜcient to prevent
celestine A mineral form of strontium further ionization. There is then a poten-
sulphate, SrSO4. tial difference between the zinc rod and
its solution. This cannot be measured di-
cell (in physical chemistry) 1. A system rectly, since measurement would involve
in which two electrodes are in contact making contact with the electrolyte,
with an electrolyte. The electrodes are thereby introducing another half cell (see
metal or carbon plates or rods or, in some electrode potential). A rod of copper in
cases, liquid metals (e.g. mercury). In an copper sulphate solution comprises an-
143 cell

other half cell. In this case the sponta- centration of the electrolyte in the two
neous reaction is one in which copper half cells. Alternatively, it may be an elec-
ions in solution take electrons from the trode concentration difference (e.g. differ-
electrode and are deposited on the elec- ent concentrations of metal in an
trode as copper atoms. In this case, the amalgam, or different pressures of gas
copper acquires a positive charge. in two gas electrodes). Cells are also c
The two half cells can be connected by classiÜed into cells without transport
using a porous pot for the liquid junction (having a single electrolyte) and with
(as in the *Daniell cell) or by using a salt transport (having a liquid junction across
bridge. The resulting cell can then supply which ions are transferred). Various types
current if the electrodes are connected of voltaic cell exist, used as sources of
through an external circuit. The cell is current, standards of potential, and ex-
written perimental set-ups for studying electro-
Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq)|Cu2+(aq)|Cu E = 1.10 V chemical reactions. See also dry cell;
primary cell; secondary cell.
Here, E is the e.m.f. of the cell equal to the 2. See photoelectric cell. 3. See solar
potential of the right-hand electrode cell. 4. See kerr effect (for Kerr cell).
minus that of the left-hand electrode for
zero current. Note that ‘right’ and ‘left’ cell (in biology) The structural and func-
refer to the cell as written. Thus, the cell tional unit of most living organisms (com-
could be written pare coenocyte; syncytium). Cell size
varies, but most cells are microscopic (av-
Cu(s)|Cu2+(aq)|Zn2+(aq)|Zn(s) E = –1.10 V erage diameter 0.01–0.1 mm). Cells may
The overall reaction for the cell is exist as independent units of life, as in
bacteria and certain protoctists, or they
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq) may form colonies or tissues, as in all
This is the direction in which the cell re- plants and animals. Each cell consists of a
action occurs for a positive e.m.f. mass of protein material that is differenti-
The cell above is a simple example of a ated into *cytoplasm and a *nucleus,
chemical cell; i.e. one in which the e.m.f. is which contains DNA. The cell is bounded
produced by a chemical difference. Con- by a *plasma membrane, which in the
centration cells are cells in which the cells of plants, fungi, algae, and bacteria is
e.m.f. is caused by a difference of concen- surrounded by a *cell wall. There are two
tration. This may be a difference in con- main types of cell. Prokaryotic cells (bac-

Golgi apparatus
smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
mitochondrion cellulose
cell wall chloroplast
nucleolus
ribosome
plasma
membrane rough
cytoplasm endoplasmic
reticulum
nuclear
lysosome envelope cell vacuole
nucleus mitochondrion
glycogen centrioles
granules centrosome starch
granules
fat rough
droplets endoplasmic Golgi apparatus
reticulum
ribosome
animal plant

Generalized eukaryotic cells

 cell body 144

CELL BIOLOGY

1665 English physicist Robert Hooke (1635–1703) coins the word ‘cell’.
c 1831 Robert Brown discovers the nucleus in plant cells.
1838 German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1804–81) proposes that plants are
composed of cells.
1839 Theodor Schwann states that animals are composed of cells and
concludes that all living things are made up of cells.
1846 German botanist Hugo von Mohl (1805–72) coins the word ‘protoplasm’
for the living material of cells.
1858 German pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) postulates that all cells
arise from other cells.
1865 German botanist Julius von Sachs (1832–97) discovers the chlorophyll-
containing bodies in plant cells later named chloroplasts.
1876–80 German cytologist Eduard Strasburger (1844–1912) describes cell
division in plants and states that new nuclei arise from division of existing
nuclei.
1882 German cytologist Walther Flemming (1843–1905) describes the process
of cell division in animal cells, for which he coins the term ‘mitosis’.
Strasburger coins the words ‘cytoplasm’ and ‘nucleoplasm’.
1886 German biologist August Weismann (1834–1914) proposes his theory of
the continuity of the germ plasm.
1887 Belgian cytologist Edouard van Beneden (1846–1910) discovers that the
number of chromatin-containing threadlike bodies (subsequently named
chromosomes) in the cells of a given species is always the same and that
the sex cells contain half this number.
1888 German anatomist Heinrich von Waldeyer (1836–1921) coins the word
‘chromosome’.
1898 Camillo Golgi discovers the Golgi apparatus.
1901 US biologist Clarence McClung (1870–1946) discovers the sex
chromosomes.
1911 Thomas Hunt Morgan produces the first chromosome map.
1949 Canadian geneticist Murray Barr (1908–95) discovers Barr bodies.
1955 Belgian biochemist Christian de Duve (1917– ) discovers lysosomes and
peroxisomes.
1956 Romanian-born US physiologist George Palade (1912– ) discovers the
role of microsomes (later renamed ribosomes).

teria) are the more primitive. The nuclear interconnected cavities and separate
material is not bounded by a membrane compartments (organelles), e.g. *mito-
and chemicals involved in cell me- chondria, *endoplasmic reticulum,
tabolism are associated with the plasma *Golgi apparatus, *lysosomes, and *ribo-
membrane. Reproduction is generally somes (see illustration). Reproduction can
asexual and involves simple cell cleavage. be either asexual (see mitosis) or sexual
In eukaryotic cells the nucleus is bounded (see meiosis). Plants and animals consist
by a nuclear envelope and the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells but plant cells possess
is divided by membranes into a system of *chloroplasts and other *plastids and bear
145 cell cycle

1956 US biochemist Arthur Kornberg (1918– ) discovers DNA polymerase.

1957 US biochemist Melvin Calvin (1911–97) publishes details of the c
photosynthetic carbon-fixation cycle (Calvin cycle).
1961 South African-born British biochemist Sydney Brenner (1927– )
discovers messenger RNA, in conjunction with François Jacob (1920– )
and Mathews Meselson (1930– ).
1964 US microbiologists Keith Porter and Thomas F. Roth discover the first cell
receptors.
1970 US biologist Lynn Margulis (1938– ) proposes the endosymbiont theory
for the origin of eukaryote cellular organelles.
1971 German-born US cell biologist Günter Blobel (1936– ) proposes the
signal hypothesis to explain how proteins are delivered to their correct
destinations within cells.
1975 British biologists J. A. Lucy and E. C. Cocking achieve successful fusion of
plant and animal cells.
1979 The first ‘test-tube baby’, Louise Brown, is born in the UK using in vitro
fertilization.
1982 British cell biologist Timothy Hunt (1943– ) discovers cyclins, proteins
that control the cell cycle.
US neurologist Stanley Prusiner (1942– ) discovers prions.
1983 A mouse embryo is engineered to include the gene for human growth
hormone, creating a ‘supermouse’.
1984 Sheep embryos are cloned for the first time.
1986 US cell biologist Robert Horvitz (1947– ) identifies genes involved in
programmed cell death in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.
First licence granted in USA for marketing a genetically engineered
organism.
1993 First successful cloning of human embryos.
1997 Birth of Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from adult body
cells.
1998 Approval given in USA for therapeutic use of a synthetic skin
containing live cultured human tissue cells.
2000 The embryo of a gaur, an endangered mammal, is cloned from skin cells
of an adult and develops inside the womb of a cow.
2002 A pluripotent stem cell is isolated from adult human bone marrow.

a rigid cellulose cell wall. See Chronology: cell cycle The sequence of stages that a
Cell Biology. cell passes through between one cell divi-
cell body (perikaryon) The part of a sion and the next. The cell cycle can be di-
*neuron that contains the nucleus. The vided into four main stages: (1) the M
cell processes that are involved in the phase, which consists of *mitosis (nuclear
transmission and reception of nervous im- division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic divi-
pulses (the axon and the dendrites respec- sion); (2) the G1 phase, in which there is a
tively) develop as extensions from the cell high rate of biosynthesis and growth; (3)
body. the S phase, in which the DNA content of
 cell division 146

the cell doubles and the chromosomes cell membrane Any membrane that is
replicate; (4) the G2 phase, during which found in a living cell, especially the
the Ünal preparations for cell division are *plasma membrane, which forms the cell
made. *Interphase consists of the G1, S, boundary. Other cell membranes include
and G2 phases, which comprise about 90% the nuclear envelope (see nucleus); the
c (16–24 hours) of the total time of the cell *tonoplast, which encloses the vacuole of
cycle in rapidly dividing cells. The M plant cells; and the membranes of the var-
phase lasts about 1–2 hours. A point is ious cell organelles, such as the endoplas-
reached in the G1 phase, known as the re- mic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
striction point, after which the cell be- mitochondria, chloroplasts, and lyso-
comes committed to passing through the somes.
remainder of the cell cycle regardless of cell sap The solution that Ülls the vac-
the external conditions. uoles of plant cells. It contains sugars,
cell division The formation of two or amino acids, waste substances (such as
more daughter cells from a single mother tannins), and mineral salts.
cell. The nucleus divides Ürst and this is cell theory The theory that was born of
followed by the formation of a plasma the Ündings of Matthias Schleiden (1804–
membrane between the daughter nuclei. 81) in 1838 and Theodor *Schwann in
*Mitosis produces two daughter nuclei 1839, who postulated, respectively, that
that are identical to the original nucleus; plants and animals were made up of cells
*meiosis results in four daughter nuclei and that these units were basic to the
each with half the number of chromo- structure and function of all organisms.
somes in the mother cell nucleus. See also Previously, in 1665, Robert Hooke, while
cell cycle. examining cork under the microscope,
cell fusion (somatic cell hybridization) had observed that its structure consisted
The technique of combining two cells of hollow boxlike units, which he called
from different tissues or species in a cell ‘cells’. At the time, however, he did not
culture. The cells fuse and coalesce but realize the signiÜcance of these units,
their nuclei generally remain separate. which were in fact dead cells.
However, during cell division a single cellular plastics Solid synthetic ma-
spindle is formed so that each daughter terials having an open structure. A com-
cell has a single nucleus containing sets of mon example is rigid *polystyrene foam
chromosomes from each parental line. used in insulation and packaging.
Subsequent division of the hybrid cells
often results in the loss of chromosomes cellulase A carbohydrate-digesting en-
(and therefore genes), so that absence of a zyme (a carbohydrase) that hydrolyses cel-
gene product in the culture can be related lulose to sugars, including cellobiose (a
to the loss of a particular chromosome. disaccharide consisting of two β-(1,4)
Thus the technique is used to determine linked molecules of glucose) and glucose.
the control of characteristics exerted by Cellulase breaks the β-glycosidic links that
speciÜc chromosomes. Hybrid cells result- join the constituent sugar units of cellu-
ing from cell fusion have also been used lose. See also ruminantia.
to produce *monoclonal antibodies. celluloid A transparent highly Ûam-
cell junction Any of various kinds of mable substance made from cellulose ni-
connection between cells. Tight junctions trate with a camphor plasticizer. It was
form a seal between adjacent cells, partic- formerly widely used as a thermoplastic
ularly in epithelia, to prevent the passage material, especially for Ülm (a use now
discontinued owing to the Ûammability of
of materials between cells. A primarily
celluloid).
structural bond between cells is provided
by adherens junctions and desmosomes, cellulose A polysaccharide that consists
whereas communication between adja- of a long unbranched chain of glucose
cent cells is facilitated by gap junctions in units. It is the main constituent of the cell
animal cells and *plasmodesmata in plant walls of all plants, many algae, and some
cells. fungi and is responsible for providing the
147 Central Dogma

rigidity of the cell wall. It is an important form of this scale (ice point 100°, steam
constituent of dietary *Übre. The Übrous point 0°) in 1742.
nature of extracted cellulose has led to its
cement 1. Any of various substances
use in the textile industry for the produc-
used for bonding or setting to a hard ma-
tion of cotton, artiÜcial silk, etc.
cellulose acetate See cellulose
terial. Portland cement is a mixture of cal-
cium silicates and aluminates made by
c
ethanoate. heating limestone (CaCO3) with clay (con-
taining aluminosilicates) in a kiln. The
cellulose ethanoate (cellulose acetate)
product is ground to a Üne powder. When
A compound prepared by treating cellu-
mixed with water it sets in a few hours
lose (cotton linters or wood pulp) with a
and then hardens over a longer period of
mixture of ethanoic anhydride, ethanoic
time due to the formation of hydrated alu-
acid, and concentrated sulphuric acid. Cel-
minates and silicates. 2. (cementum) A
lulose in the cotton is ethanoylated and
thin layer of bony material that Üxes
when the resulting solution is treated teeth to the jaw. It covers the dentine of
with water, cellulose ethanoate forms as a the root of a *tooth, below the level of the
Ûocculent white mass. It is used in lac- gum, and is attached to the *periodontal
quers, nonshatterable glass, varnishes, membrane lining the tooth socket in the
and as a Übre (see also rayon). jawbone.
cellulose nitrate A highly Ûammable cementation Any metallurgical process
material made by treating cellulose (wood in which the surface of a metal is impreg-
pulp) with concentrated nitric acid. De- nated by some other substance, especially
spite the alternative name nitrocellulose, an obsolete process for making steel by
the compound is in fact an ester (contain- heating bars of wrought iron to red heat
ing CONO2 groups), not a nitro compound for several days in a bed of charcoal. See
(which would contain C–NO2). It is used in also case hardening.
explosives (as guncotton) and celluloid.
cementite See steel.
cell wall A rigid outer layer that sur-
rounds the plasma membrane of plant, Cenozoic (Cainozoic; Kainozoic) The geo-
fungal, algal and bacterial (but not ani- logical era that began about 65 million
mal) cells. It protects and/or gives shape to years ago and extends to the present. It
a cell, and in herbaceous plants provides followed the *Mesozoic era and is subdi-
mechanical support for the plant body. vided into the *Tertiary and *Quaternary
Most plant cell walls are composed of the periods. The Cenozoic is often known as
polysaccharide *cellulose and may be the Age of Mammals as these animals
strengthened by the addition of *lignin. evolved to become an abundant, diverse,
The cell walls of fungi consist mainly of and dominant group. Birds and Ûowering
*chitin. Bacterial cell walls consist of com- plants also Ûourished. The era saw the for-
plex polymers of polysaccharides and mation of the major mountain ranges of
amino acids. the Himalayas and the Alps.

Celsius scale A *temperature scale in centi- Symbol c. A preÜx used in the

which the Üxed points are the tempera- metric system to denote one hundredth.
tures at standard pressure of ice in equi- For example, 0.01 metre = 1 centimetre
librium with water (0°C) and water in (cm).
equilibrium with steam (100°C). The scale, centigrade scale See celsius scale.
between these two temperatures, is di-
vided in 100 degrees. The degree Celsius
centipedes See chilopoda.
(°C) is equal in magnitude to the *kelvin. Central Dogma The basic belief origi-
This scale was formerly known as the nally held by molecular geneticists, that
centigrade scale; the name was ofÜcially Ûow of genetic information can only
changed in 1948 to avoid confusion with a occur from *DNA to *RNA to proteins. It
hundredth part of a grade. It is named is now known, however, that information
after the Swedish astronomer Anders Cel- contained within RNA molecules can also
sius (1701–44), who devised the inverted Ûow back to DNA, for example during the
 central nervous system 148

replication of *retroviruses. See also ge- migrates with each centrosome to oppo-
netic code. site poles of the cell. It was formerly
thought that centrioles were involved in
central nervous system (CNS) The
the assembly of *spindle microtubules
part of the nervous system that coordi-
but this is now in doubt, since their ab-
c nates all neural functions. In invertebrates
it may comprise simply a few *nerve
sence does not affect spindle formation.
cords and their associated *ganglia. In ver- centripetal force A force acting on a
tebrates it consists of the *brain and the body causing it to move in a circular path.
*spinal cord. The vertebrate CNS contains If the mass of the body is m, its constant
*reÛex arcs, which produce automatic speed v, and the radius of the circle r, the
and rapid responses to particular stimuli. magnitude of the force is mv2/r and it is di-
central processing unit See cpu; com- rected towards the centre of the circle.
puter. Even though the body is moving with a
constant speed v, its velocity is changing,
centre (in neurology) A part of the ner- because its direction is constantly chang-
vous system, consisting of a group of ing. There is therefore an acceleration v2/r
nerve cells, that coordinates a particular towards the centre of the circle. For exam-
process. An example is the respiratory ple, when an object is tied to a string and
centre in the vertebrate brainstem, which swung in a horizontal circle there is a ten-
controls breathing movements. The stim- sion in the string equal to mv2/r. If the
ulation of a centre will initiate the pro- string breaks, this restraining force disap-
cess, while destruction of the centre will pears and the object will move off in a
prevent or impair it. straight line along the tangent to the cir-
centre of curvature The centre of the cle in which it was previously moving.
sphere of which a *lens surface or curved In the case of a satellite (mass m) orbit-
*mirror forms a part. The radius of curva- ing the earth (mass M), the centripetal
ture is the radius of this sphere. force holding the satellite in orbit is the
gravitational force, GmM/d2, where G is
centre of gravity See centre of mass. the gravitational constant and d is the
centre of mass The point at which the height of the satellite above the centre of
whole mass of a body may be considered the earth. Therefore GmM/d2 = mv2/d. This
to be concentrated. This is the same as the equation enables the height of the orbit
centre of gravity, the point at which the to be calculated for a given orbital veloc-
whole weight of a body may be consid- ity.
ered to act, if the body is situated in a uni- Another way of looking at this situa-
form gravitational Üeld. tion, which was once popular, is to as-
sume that the centripetal force is
centrifugal force See centripetal balanced by an equal and opposite force,
force. acting away from the centre of the circle,
centrifugal pump See pump. called the centrifugal force. One could
then say that the satellite stays in orbit
centrifuge A device in which solid or when the centrifugal force balances the
liquid particles of different densities are gravitational force. This is, however, a
separated by rotating them in a tube in a confusing and misleading argument be-
horizontal circle. The denser particles cause the centrifugal force is Üctitious – it
tend to move along the length of the tube
does not exist. The gravitational force is
to a greater radius of rotation, displacing
not balanced by the centrifugal force: it is
the lighter particles to the other end.
the centripetal force.
centriole A cylindrical structure associ- Another example is that of a car round-
ated with the *centrosome in animal cells ing a bend. To an observer in the car, a
but not normally found in plant cells. tennis ball lying on the back shelf will roll
Centrioles occur in pairs, orientated at across the shelf as if it was acted on by an
right angles to each other, and are com- outward centrifugal force. However, to an
posed of *microtubules. During cell divi- observer outside the car it can be seen
sion the pair separates: a centriole that the ball, because of its almost fric-
149 cerebrospinal fluid

tionless contact with the car, is continu- *ammonites. Cephalopods have a highly
ing in its straight line motion, un- concentrated central nervous system
inÛuenced by the centripetal force. within a protective cartilaginous case. The
Occasionally the concept of a centrifugal eye has a well-developed retina and is
force can be useful, as long as it is recog- comparable to that of vertebrates. All
nized as a Üctitious force. A true centrifu- cephalopods are predacious carnivores ca- c
gal force is exerted, as a *reaction, by the pable of swimming by jet propulsion;
rotating object on whatever is providing they have highly mobile tentacles for
its centripetal force. catching and holding prey.
centroid The point within an area or cephalothorax The fused head and tho-
volume at which the centre of mass rax of crustaceans and arachnids (spiders,
would be if the surface or body had a uni- scorpions), which is connected to the ab-
form density. For a symmetrical area or domen.
volume it coincides with the centre of
mass. For a nonsymmetrical area or vol- Cepheid variable An unstable pulsat-
ume it has to be found by integration. ing star that has left the main sequence
(see hertzsprung–russell diagram). As it
centromere (kinomere; spindle attach- pulsates every 3 to 50 days its luminosity,
ment) The part of a *chromosome that at- radius, and temperature vary in a regular
taches to the *spindle during cell division way. Most Cepheids are yellow super-
(see meiosis; mitosis), attachment being giants and will become *red giants. There
via a platelike structure called the *ki- are more than 700 known Cepheids,
netochore. The centromere usually named after their prototype, Delta
appears as a constriction when chromo- Cepheid in the northern constellation
somes contract during cell division. The Cepheus.
position of the centromere is a distin-
guishing feature of individual chromo- ceramics Inorganic materials, such as
somes. pottery, enamels, and refractories. Ceram-
ics are metal silicates, oxides, nitrides, etc.
centrosome (cell centre; centrosphere) A
specialized region of all eukaryote cells cerebellum The part of the vertebrate
except fungi, situated next to the nucleus, *brain concerned with the coordination
that organizes the microtubules of the and regulation of muscle activity and the
*spindle during cell division. In animal maintenance of muscle tone and balance.
cells it is also the main region of the cell In mammals it consists of two connected
from which the microtubules of the *cy- hemispheres, composed of a core of white
toskeleton radiate. The centrosomes of matter and a much-folded outer layer of
most animal cells contain a pair of *cen- grey matter, and is situated above the
trioles. During *metaphase of mitosis and medulla oblongata and partly beneath the
meiosis, the centrosome separates into cerebrum.
two regions, each containing one of the cerebral cortex (pallium) The layer of
centrioles (where present). The two re- *grey matter that forms the outer layer of
gions move to opposite ends of the cell the hemispheres of the *cerebrum in
and a spindle forms between them. See many vertebrates. It is most highly devel-
also aster. oped in mammals. The cortex is responsi-
centrum See vertebra. ble for the control and integration of
voluntary movement and the senses of vi-
cephalization The tendency among ani-
sion, hearing, touch, etc.; it also contains
mal groups for the major sense organs,
centres concerned with memory, lan-
mouth, and brain to be grouped together
guage, thought, and intellect.
at the front (anterior) end of the body.
These are usually contained in a special- cerebral hemisphere Either of the two
ized cephalic region – the head. halves of the vertebrate *cerebrum.
Cephalopoda The most advanced class cerebrospinal Ûuid (CSF) The Ûuid,
of molluscs, containing the squids, similar in composition to *lymph, that
cuttleÜshes, octopuses, and the extinct bathes the central nervous system of ver-
 cerebrum 150

tebrates. It is secreted by the *choroid 799°C; b.p. 3426°C. It occurs in allanite,

plexus into the *ventricles of the brain, bastnasite, cerite, and monazite. Four iso-
Ülling these and other cavities in the topes occur naturally: cerium–136, –138,
brain and spinal cord, and is reabsorbed –140, and –142; Üfteen radioisotopes have
by veins on the brain surface. Its function been identiÜed. Cerium is used in misch-
c is to protect the central nervous system metal, a rare-earth metal containing 25%
from mechanical injury. cerium, for use in lighter Ûints. The oxide
is used in the glass industry. It was discov-
cerebrum The largest part of the verte-
ered by Martin Klaproth (1743–1817) in
brate *brain. It consists of two cerebral
1803.
hemispheres, which develop from the em-
bryonic *forebrain. The hemispheres have cermet A composite material consisting
an outer convoluted layer of grey matter – of a ceramic in combination with a sin-
the *cerebral cortex – which contains an tered metal, used when a high resistance
estimated ten billion nerve cells. Under- to temperature, corrosion, and abrasion is
neath this is *white matter. The two needed.
halves of the cerebrum are linked by the CERN (Conseil Européen pour la
*corpus callosum. The function of the cer- Recherche Nucléaire) The European Labo-
ebrum is to integrate complex sensory ratory for Particle Physics, formerly
and neural functions. The cerebrum is known as the European Organization for
thought to play a critical role in the pro- Nuclear Research, which is situated close
cess of learning, which involves both to Geneva in Switzerland and is supported
short-term and long-term memory. by a number of European nations. It runs
Cerenkov, Pavel Alekseyevich the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), which
(1904–90) Soviet physicist, who became a has a 7-kilometre underground tunnel en-
professor at the Lebedev Institute of abling protons to be accelerated to
Physics in Moscow. In 1934, while observ- 400 GeV, and the Large Electron-Positron
ing radioactive radiation underwater, he Collider (LEP), in which 50 GeV electron
discovered *Cerenkov radiation. The ex- and positron beams are collided.
planation of the phenomenon was pro- cerussite An ore of lead consisting of
vided by Igor Tamm (1895–1971) and Ilya lead carbonate, PbCO3. It is usually of sec-
Frank (1908–90), and in 1958 the three sci- ondary origin, formed by the weathering
entists shared the Nobel Prize for physics. of *galena. Pure cerussite is white but the
Cerenkov counter (Cerenkov detector) mineral may be grey due to the presence
A type of *counter for detecting and of impurities. It forms well-shaped ortho-
counting high-energy charged particles. rhombic crystals. It occurs in the USA,
The particles pass through a liquid and Spain, and SW Africa.
the light emitted as *Cerenkov radiation cervical vertebrae The *vertebrae of
is registered by a *photomultiplier tube. the neck. The number of cervical verte-
Cerenkov radiation Electromagnetic brae varies with the vertebrate group:
radiation, usually bluish light, emitted by most mammals (including humans) have
a beam of high-energy charged particles seven. Their main functions are to sup-
passing through a transparent medium at port the head and to provide articulating
a speed greater than the speed of light in surfaces against which it can move rela-
that medium. It was discovered in 1934 by tive to the backbone. See atlas; axis.
Pavel Cerenkov. The effect is similar to cervix A narrow or necklike part of an
that of a *sonic boom when an object organ. The cervix of the uterus (cervix
moves faster than the speed of sound; in uteri) leads to the vagina. Glands in its
this case the radiation is a shock wave set walls produce mucus, whose viscosity
up in the electromagnetic Üeld. Cerenkov changes according to the oestrous cycle.
radiation is used in the *Cerenkov counter. During labour, the cervix enlarges greatly
to allow passage of the fetus.
cerium Symbol Ce. A silvery metallic el-
ement belonging to the *lanthanoids; a.n. Cestoda A class of Ûatworms (see platy-
58; r.a.m. 140.12; r.d. 6.77 (20°C); m.p. helminthes) comprising the tapeworms –
151 chain reaction

ribbon-like parasites within the gut of ver- *calorie) and with electrical quantities (in
tebrates. Tapeworms are surrounded by which two systems, based respectively on
partially digested food in the host gut so unit permittivity and unit permeability of
they are able to absorb nutrients through free space, were used). For many scientiÜc
their whole body surface. The body con- purposes c.g.s. units have now been re-
sists of a scolex (head), bearing suckers placed by *SI units. c
and hooks for attachment, and a series of
Chadwick, Sir James (1891–1974)
proglottids, which contain male and fe-
British physicist. After working at Man-
male reproductive systems. The life cycle
chester University under *Rutherford, he
of a tapeworm requires two hosts, the pri-
went to work with Hans *Geiger in
mary host usually being a predator of the
Leipzig in 1913. Interned for the duration
secondary host. Taenia solium has humans
of World War I, he joined Rutherford in
for its primary host and the pig as its sec-
Cambridge after the war. In 1932 he dis-
ondary host. Mature proglottids, contain-
covered the *neutron, as predicted by
ing thousands of fertilized eggs, leave the
Rutherford. In 1935 he was awarded the
primary host with its faeces and develop
Nobel Prize, the same year in which he
into embryos and then larvae that con-
built Britain’s Ürst *cyclotron at Liverpool
tinue the life cycle in the gut of a sec-
University.
ondary host.
chaeta A bristle, made of *chitin, occur-
Cetacea An order of marine mammals
ring in annelid worms. In the earthworm
comprising the whales, which includes
they occur in small groups projecting
what is probably the largest known ani-
from the skin in each segment and func-
mal – the blue whale (Balaenoptera
tion in locomotion. The chaetae of poly-
musculus), over 30 m long and over 150
chaete worms (e.g. ragworm) are borne in
tonnes in weight. The forelimbs of whales
larger groups on paddle-like appendages
are modiÜed as short stabilizing Ûippers
(parapodia).
and the skin is very thin and almost hair-
less. A thick layer of blubber insulates the chain A line of atoms of the same type
body against heat loss and is an important in a molecule. In a straight chain the
food store. Whales breathe through a dor- atoms are attached only to single atoms,
sal blowhole, which is closed when the not to groups. Propane, for instance, is a
animal is submerged. The toothed whales straight-chain alkane, CH3CH2CH3, with a
(suborder Odontoceti), such as the dol- chain of three carbon atoms. A branched
phins and killer whale, are carnivorous; chain is one in which there are side
whalebone whales (suborder Mysticeti), groups attached to the chain. Thus,
such as the blue whale, feed on plankton 3-ethyloctane, CH3CH2CH(C2H5)C5H11, is a
Ültered by *whalebone plates. branched-chain alkane in which there is a
side chain (C2H5) attached to the third car-
cetane See hexadecane.
bon atom. A closed chain is a *ring of
cetane number A number that pro- atoms in a molecule; otherwise the mol-
vides a measure of the ignition character- ecule has an open chain.
istics of a Diesel fuel when it is burnt in a
Chain, Sir Ernst Boris (1906–79) Ger-
standard Diesel engine. It is the percent-
man-born British biochemist, who began
age of cetane (hexadecane) in a mixture of
his research career at Cambridge Univer-
cetane and 1-methylnaphthalene that has
sity in 1933. Two years later he joined
the same ignition characteristics as the
*Florey at Oxford, where they isolated
fuel being tested. Compare octane num-
and puriÜed *penicillin. They also devel-
ber.
oped a method of producing the drug in
CFC See chlorofluorocarbon. large quantities and carried out its Ürst
clinical trials. The two men shared the
c.g.s. units A system of *units based on
1945 Nobel Prize for physiology or
the centimetre, gram, and second. De-
medicine with penicillin’s discoverer,
rived from the metric system, it was not
Alexander *Fleming.
well suited for use with thermal quanti-
ties (based on the inconsistently deÜned chain reaction A reaction that is self-
 chair conformation 152

sustaining as a result of the products of rocks and hydrothermal veins associated

one step initiating a subsequent step. with the upper parts of acid igneous intru-
In nuclear chain reactions the succes- sions. Chalcopyrite is the most wide-
sion depends on production and capture spread of the copper ores, occurring, for
of neutrons. Thus, one nucleus of the iso- example, in Cornwall (UK), Sudbury
c tope uranium–235 can disintegrate with (Canada), Chile, Tasmania (Australia), and
the production of two or three neutrons, Rio Tinto (Spain).
which cause similar Üssion of adjacent nu-
chalk A very Üne-grained white rock
clei. These in turn produce more neu-
composed of the fossilized skeletal re-
trons. If the total amount of material
mains of marine plankton known as coc-
exceeds a *critical mass, the chain reac-
coliths and consisting largely of *calcium
tion may cause an explosion.
carbonate (CaCO3). It is used in toothpaste
Chemical chain reactions usually in-
and cosmetics and is the characteristic
volve free radicals as intermediates. An
rock of the *Cretaceous period. It should
example is the reaction of chlorine with
not be confused with blackboard ‘chalk’,
hydrogen initiated by ultraviolet radia-
which is made from calcium sulphate.
tion. A chlorine molecule is Ürst split into
atoms: Chandrasekhar limit The maximum
possible mass of a star that is prevented
Cl2 → Cl· + Cl·
from collapsing under its own gravity by
These react with hydrogen as follows the *degeneracy pressure of electrons. For
white dwarfs the Chandrasekhar mass is
Cl· + H2 → HCl + H·
about 1.4 times the mass of the sun. There
H· + Cl2 → HCl + Cl· etc. is an analogue of the Chandrasekhar limit
for neutron stars. For neutron stars its
Combustion and explosion reactions in-
value is less precisely known because of
volve similar free-radical chain reactions.
uncertainties regarding the equation of
chair conformation See conforma- state of neutron matter, but it is generally
tion. taken to be in the range of 1.5 to 3 (and al-
most certainly no more than 5) times the
chalaza 1. A twisted strand of Übrous al-
mass of the sun. It is named after Subrah-
bumen in a bird’s egg that is attached to
manyan Chandrasekhar (1910–95).
the membrane at either end of the yolk
and thus holds the yolk in position in the change of phase (change of state) A
albumen. 2. The part of a plant *ovule change of matter in one physical *phase
where the nucellus and integuments (solid, liquid, or gas) into another. The
merge. change is invariably accompanied by the
evolution or absorption of energy, even if
chalcedony A mineral consisting of a
it takes place at constant temperature (see
microcrystalline variety of *quartz. It oc-
latent heat).
curs in several forms, including a large
number of semiprecious gemstones; for channel 1. The region between the
example, sard, carnelian, jasper, onyx, source and the drain in a Üeld-effect
chrysoprase, agate, and tiger’s-eye. *transistor. The conductivity of the chan-
nel is controlled by the voltage applied to
chalcogens See group 16 elements.
the gate. 2. A path, or a speciÜed fre-
chalconides Binary compounds formed quency band, along which signals, infor-
between metals and group 16 elements; mation, or data Ûow. 3. A pore formed by
i.e. oxides, sulphides, selenides, and tel- a protein molecule in a plasma membrane
lurides. that aids the diffusion of certain sub-
stances into and out of the cell. These sub-
chalcopyrite (copper pyrites) A brassy
stances are usually charged ions (see ion
yellow mineral consisting of a mixed cop-
channel) or lipid-insoluble molecules. See
per–iron sulphide, CuFeS2, crystallizing in
also transport protein.
the tetragonal system; the principal ore of
copper. It is similar in appearance to chaos Unpredictable and seemingly ran-
pyrite and gold. It crystallizes in igneous dom behaviour occurring in a system that
153 charge density

should be governed by deterministic laws. It is used in sugar reÜning. Activated char-

In such systems, the equations that de- coal is charcoal that has been activated for
scribe the way the system changes with adsorption by steaming or by heating in a
time are nonlinear and involve several vacuum.
variables. Consequently, they are very
sensitive to the initial conditions, and a
charge A property of some *elementary
particles that gives rise to an interaction
c
very small initial difference may make an
enormous change to the future state of between them and consequently to the
the system. Originally, the theory was in- host of material phenomena described as
troduced to describe unpredictability in electrical. Charge occurs in nature in two
meteorology, as exempliÜed by the forms, conventionally described as posi-
butterÛy effect. It has been suggested that tive and negative in order to distinguish
the dynamical equations governing the between the two kinds of interaction be-
weather are so sensitive to the initial data tween particles. Two particles that have
that whether or not a butterÛy Ûaps its similar charges (both negative or both
wings in one part of the world may make positive) interact by repelling each other;
the difference between a tornado occur- two particles that have dissimilar charges
ring or not occurring in some other part (one positive, one negative) interact by at-
of the world. Chaos theory has subse- tracting each other. The size of the inter-
quently been extended to other branches action is determined by *Coulomb’s law.
of science; for example to turbulent Ûow, The natural unit of negative charge is
planetary dynamics, and electrical oscilla- the charge on an *electron, which is
tions in physics, and to combustion pro- equal but opposite in effect to the positive
cesses and *oscillating reactions in charge on the proton. Large-scale matter
chemistry. See also attractor; fractal. that consists of equal numbers of elec-
trons and protons is electrically neutral. If
chaotic reaction A type of chemical re-
there is an excess of electrons the body is
action in which the concentrations of re-
negatively charged; an excess of protons
actants show chaotic behaviour. This may
results in a positive charge. A Ûow of
occur when the reaction involves a large
charged particles, especially a Ûow of elec-
number of complex interlinked steps.
trons, constitutes an electric current.
Under such conditions, it is possible for
Charge is measured in coulombs, the
the reaction to display unpredictable
changes with time. See also oscillating charge on an electron being 1.602 × 10–19
reaction. coulombs.

character (trait) A distinctive inherited charge carrier The entity that trans-
feature of an organism. Organisms in a ports electric charge in an electric cur-
population may display different aspects rent. The nature of the carrier depends on
of a particular character, e.g. the A, B, and the type of conductor: in metals, the
O human blood groups (see abo system) charge carriers are electrons; in *semicon-
are different aspects of the blood group ductors the carriers are electrons (n-type)
character. or positive *holes (p-type); in gases the
carriers are positive ions and electrons; in
characteristic See logarithm. electrolytes they are positive and negative
charcoal A porous form of carbon pro- ions.
duced by the destructive distillation of or- charge conjugation Symbol C. A prop-
ganic material. Charcoal from wood is erty of elementary particles that deter-
used as a fuel. All forms of charcoal are mines the difference between a particle
porous and are used for adsorbing gases and its *antiparticle. The property is not
and purifying and clarifying liquids. There
restricted to electrically charged particles
are several types depending on the source.
(i.e. it applies to neutral particles such as
Charcoal from coconut shells is a particu-
the neutron). See cp invariance.
larly good gas adsorbent. Animal charcoal
(or bone black) is made by heating bones charge density 1. The electric charge
and dissolving out the calcium phos- per unit volume of a medium or body
phates and other mineral salts with acid. (volume charge density). 2. The electric
 charge-transfer complex 154

charge per unit surface area of a body plemented by a fourth pair – the charmed
(surface charge density). quark and its antiquark. The psi particle
itself is a meson having zero charm as it
charge-transfer complex A chemical
consists of the charmed pair. However,
compound in which there is weak coordi-
charmed *hadrons do exist; they are said
c nation involving the transfer of charge be-
tween two molecules. An example is
to possess naked charm. Charm is thought
to be conserved in strong and electromag-
phenoquinone, in which the phenol and
netic interactions.
quinone molecules are not held together
by formal chemical bonds but are associ- cheddite Any of a group of high explo-
ated by transfer of charge between the sives made from nitro compounds mixed
compounds’ aromatic ring systems. with sodium or potassium chlorate.
Charles, Jacques Alexandre César chelate An inorganic complex in which
(1746–1823) French chemist and physicist, a *ligand is coordinated to a metal ion at
who became professor of physics at the two (or more) points, so that there is a
Paris Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He ring of atoms including the metal (see for-
is best remembered for discovering mula). The process is known as chelation.
*Charles’ law (1787), relating to the vol- A ligand such as diaminoethane, which
ume and temperature of a gas. In 1783 he coordinates at two points, is said to be
became the Ürst person to make an ascent bidentate (‘having two teeth’). Other lig-
in a hydrogen balloon. ands are tridentate, tetradentate, etc. The
angle made by two bonds coordinating
Charles’ law The volume of a Üxed to the metal atom is the bite angle of the
mass of gas at constant pressure expands ligand. See also sequestration.
by a constant fraction of its volume at 0°C
for each Celsius degree or kelvin its tem- H2C
perature is raised. For any *ideal gas the NH2
fraction is approximately 1/273. This can H2C
NH2
be expressed by the equation Cu2+
V = V0(1 + t/273), NH2 CH2

where V0 is the volume at 0°C and V is its NH2

CH2
volume at t°C. This is equivalent to the
statement that the volume of a Üxed mass Chelate formed by coordination of two
of gas at constant pressure is proportional molecules of H2N(CH2)2NH2
to its thermodynamic temperature, V = kT,
where k is a constant. The law resulted
from experiments begun around 1787 by chelicerae The Ürst pair of appendages
Jacques Charles but was properly estab- on the head of arachnids and other
lished only by the more accurate results *arthropods of the phylum Chelicerata.
published in 1802 by the French scientist These appendages take the form of pin-
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778–1850). Thus the cers or claws and are used for grasping or
law is also known as Gay-Lussac’s law. An tearing food.
equation similar to that given above ap- chemical bond A strong force of attrac-
plies to pressures for ideal gases: tion holding atoms together in a molecule
p = p0(1 + t/273), or crystal. Typically chemical bonds have
energies of about 1000 kJ mol–1 and are
a relationship known as Charles’ law of
distinguished from the much weaker
pressures. See also gas laws.
forces between molecules (see van der
charm A property of certain *elemen- waals’ force). There are various types.
tary particles that is expressed as a quan- Ionic (or electrovalent) bonds can be
tum number and is used in the quark formed by transfer of electrons. For in-
model. It was originally suggested to ac- stance, the calcium atom has an electron
count for the unusually long lifetime of conÜguration of [Ar]4s2, i.e. it has two
the *psi particle. In this theory the three electrons in its outer shell. The chlorine
original quark–antiquark pairs were sup- atom is [Ne]3s23p5, with seven outer elec-
155 chemical dating

trons. If the calcium atom transfers two over the electron pair; i.e. the molecule is
electrons, one to each chlorine atom, it polarized with a positive charge on the
becomes a Ca2+ ion with the stable hydrogen and a negative charge on the
conÜguration of an inert gas [Ar]. At the chlorine. See also banana bond; hydrogen
same time each chlorine, having gained
one electron, becomes a Cl– ion, also with
bond; metallic bond; multicentre
bond; multiple bond. c
an inert-gas conÜguration [Ar]. The bond-
chemical cell See cell.
ing in calcium chloride is the electrostatic
attraction between the ions. chemical combination The combina-
Covalent bonds are formed by sharing tion of elements to give compounds.
of valence electrons rather than by trans- There are three laws of chemical combi-
fer. For instance, hydrogen atoms have nation.
one outer electron (1s1). In the hydrogen (1) The law of constant composition states
molecule, H2, each atom contributes 1 that the proportions of the elements in a
electron to the bond. Consequently, each compound are always the same, no mat-
hydrogen atom has control of 2 electrons ter how the compound is made. It is also
– one of its own and the second from the called the law of constant proportions or
other atom – giving it the electron deÜnite proportions.
conÜguration of an inert gas [He]. In the (2) The law of multiple proportions states
water molecule, H2O, the oxygen atom, that when two elements A and B combine
with six outer electrons, gains control of to form more than one compound, then
an extra two electrons supplied by the the masses of B that combine with a Üxed
two hydrogen atoms. This gives it the mass of A are in simple ratio to one an-
conÜguration [Ne]. Similarly, each hydro- other. For example, carbon forms two
gen atom gains control of an extra elec- oxides. In one, 12 grams of carbon is com-
tron from the oxygen, and has the [He] bined with 16 grams of oxygen (CO); in
electron conÜguration. the other 12 grams of carbon is combined
A particular type of covalent bond is with 32 grams of oxygen (CO2). The oxy-
one in which one of the atoms supplies gen masses combining with a Üxed mass
both the electrons. These are known as of carbon are in the ratio 16:32, i.e. 1:2.
coordinate (semipolar or dative) bonds, (3) The law of equivalent proportions
and written A→B, where the direction of states that if two elements A and B each
the arrow denotes the direction in which form a compound with a third element C,
electrons are donated. then a compound of A and B will contain
Covalent or coordinate bonds in which A and B in the relative proportions in
one pair of electrons is shared are elec- which they react with C. For example, sul-
tron-pair bonds and are known as single phur and carbon both form compounds
bonds. Atoms can also share two pairs of with hydrogen. In methane 12 g of carbon
electrons to form double bonds or three react with 4 g of hydrogen. In hydrogen
pairs in triple bonds. See orbital. sulphide, 32 g of sulphur react with 2 g of
In a compound such as sodium chlo- hydrogen (i.e. 64 g of S for 4 g of hydro-
ride, Na+Cl–, there is probably complete gen). Sulphur and carbon form a com-
transfer of electrons in forming the ionic pound in which the C:S ratio is 12:64 (i.e.
bond (the bond is said to be heteropolar). CS2). The law is sometimes called the law
Alternatively, in the hydrogen molecule of reciprocal proportions.
H–H, the pair of electrons is equally
chemical control The use of chemicals
shared between the two atoms (the bond
to kill pests (see pesticide). Compare bio-
is homopolar). Between these two ex-
logical control.
tremes, there is a whole range of interme-
diate bonds, which have both ionic and chemical dating An absolute *dating
covalent contributions. Thus, in hydrogen technique that depends on measuring the
chloride, H–Cl, the bonding is predomi- chemical composition of a specimen.
nantly covalent with one pair of electrons Chemical dating can be used when the
shared between the two atoms. However, specimen is known to undergo slow
the chlorine atom is more electronegative chemical change at a known rate. For in-
than the hydrogen and has more control stance, phosphate in buried bones is
 chemical engineering 156

slowly replaced by Ûuoride ions from the 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3

ground water. Measurement of the pro-
is equal to the rate of the back reaction
portion of Ûuorine present gives a rough
estimate of the time that the bones have 2NH3 → 3H2 + N2
been in the ground. Another, more accu-
c rate, method depends on the fact that
See also equilibrium constant.
amino acids in living organisms are chemical equivalent See equivalent
l-optical isomers. After death, these rac- weight.
emize and the age of bones can be esti- chemical fossil Any of various organic
mated by measuring the relative amounts compounds found in ancient geological
of d- and l-amino acids present. strata that appear to be biological in ori-
chemical engineering The study of gin and are assumed to indicate that life
the design, manufacture, and operation of existed when the rocks were formed. The
plant and machinery in industrial chemi- presence of chemical fossils in Archaean
cal processes. strata indicates that life existed over 3500
million years ago.
chemical equation A way of denoting
a chemical reaction using the symbols for chemical potential Symbol: µ. For a
the participating particles (atoms, mol- given component in a mixture, the coefÜ-
ecules, ions, etc.); for example, cient ∂G/∂n, where G is the Gibbs free en-
ergy and n the amount of substance of the
xA + yB → zC + wD component. The chemical potential is the
The single arrow is used for an irre- change in Gibbs free energy with respect
versible reaction; double arrows (ˆ) are to change in amount of the component,
used for reversible reactions. When reac- with pressure, temperature, and amounts
tions involve different phases it is usual to of other components being constant.
put the phase in brackets after the symbol Components are in equilibrium if their
(s = solid; l = liquid; g = gas; aq = aqueous). chemical potentials are equal.
The numbers x, y, z, and w, showing the chemical reaction A change in which
relative numbers of molecules reacting, one or more chemical elements or com-
are called the stoichiometric coefÜcients. pounds (the reactants) form new com-
The sum of the coefÜcients of the reac- pounds (the products). All reactions are to
tants minus the sum of the coefÜcients of some extent reversible; i.e. the products
the products (x + y – z – w in the example) can also react to give the original reac-
is the stoichiometric sum. If this is zero tants. However, in many cases the extent
the equation is balanced. Sometimes a of this back reaction is negligibly small,
generalized chemical equation is consid- and the reaction is regarded as
ered irreversible.
ν1A1 + ν2A2 + … → … νnA n + νn+1A n+1 … chemical shift A change in the normal
In this case the reaction can be written wavelength of absorption or emission of
ΣνiAi = 0, where the convention is that electromagnetic wavelength in a process
stoichiometric coefÜcients are positive for in which there is a nuclear energy change
(as in the *Mössbauer effect and *nuclear
reactants and negative for products. The
magnetic resonance) or a change in elec-
stoichiometric sum is Σνi.
tron energy levels in the inner shells of an
chemical equilibrium A reversible atom (as in X-ray *photoelectron spec-
chemical reaction in which the concentra- troscopy).
tions of reactants and products are not
chemiluminescence See lumi-
changing with time because the system is
nescence.
in thermodynamic equilibrium. For exam-
ple, the reversible reaction chemiosmotic theory A theory postu-
lated by the British biochemist Peter
3H2 + N2 ˆ 2NH3
Mitchell (1920–92) to explain the forma-
is in chemical equilibrium when the rate tion of ATP in the mitochondrial *elec-
of the forward reaction tron transport chain. As electrons are
157 chernozem

transferred along the electron carrier sys- chemotaxonomy The *classiÜcation of

tem in the inner mitochondrial mem- plants and microorganisms based on simi-
brane, hydrogen ions (protons) are larities and differences in their natural
actively transported (via *hydrogen carri- products and the biochemical pathways
ers) into the space between the inner and involved in their manufacture. See also
outer mitochondrial membranes, which taxonomy. c
thus contains a higher concentration of
chemotherapy The use of chemicals,
protons than the matrix. This creates an
especially drugs, in the treatment of dis-
electrochemical gradient across the inner
ease. The term is often used speciÜcally to
membrane, down which protons move
denote drug therapy for cancer, as distinct
back into the matrix. This movement oc-
from treatments with radiation (radio-
curs through special channels associated therapy).
with ATP synthetase, the enzyme that
catalyses the conversion of ADP to ATP, chemotropism The growth or move-
and is coupled with the phosphorylation ment of a plant or plant part in response
of ADP. A similar gradient is created to a chemical stimulus. An example is the
across the thylakoid membranes of growth of a pollen tube down the style
chloroplasts during the light-dependent during fertilization in response to the
reactions of *photosynthesis (see photo- presence of sugars in the style.
phosphorylation). chernozem (black earth) A type of soil
chemisorption See adsorption. that is characteristic of the continental in-
teriors of the mid-latitudes, in which
chemistry The study of the elements grassland formed the natural vegetation.
and the compounds they form. Chemistry Chernozems occur across the Russian
is mainly concerned with effects that de- steppes and parts of Romania and Hun-
pend on the outer electrons in atoms. See gary; these soils also occur in North Amer-
biochemistry; geochemistry; inorganic ica. The deep surface layer (A horizon) of a
chemistry; organic chemistry; physical chernozem is black and rich in alkaline
chemistry. humus derived from the decomposition
chemoautotroph See autotrophic nu- of the natural grassland vegetation. The
trition; chemosynthesis. underlying horizon contains calcium car-
bonate concretions. Chernozems are im-
chemoorganotroph An organism, es-
pecially a microorganism, that obtains its
energy by the oxidation of organic com-
grasses horizon
pounds.
chemoreceptor A *receptor that de-
black or
tects the presence of particular chemicals dark-brown A
and (in multicellular organisms) transmits crumb
this information to sensory nerves. Exam- structure
ples include the *taste buds and the re-
ceptors in the *carotid body. B (the B horizon
is often absent
chemosynthesis A type of *autotro- in chernozems
phic nutrition in which organisms (called and only a very
chemoautotrophs) synthesize organic ma- deep A horizon
terials using energy derived from the oxi- nodules of is visible)
calcium
dation of inorganic chemicals, rather than carbonate
from sunlight. Most chemoautotrophs are
bacteria, including Nitrosomonas, which
oxidizes ammonium to nitrite, and Thio- transition
bacillus, which oxidizes sulphur to sul- to lime-
rich parent
phate. material C
(e.g. loess)
chemosystematics See systematics.
chemotaxis See taxis. Chernozem soil profile
 chert 158

portant agriculturally and most have been display chirality as a result of a chirality
ploughed up for cereal production. plane in the molecule.
chert See flint. Chiron A minor planet discovered in
1977. It has an orbit of 50.68 years that,
chiasma (pl. chiasmata) The point at
c which paired *homologous chromosomes
unlike other known minor planets, lies al-
most entirely outside that of Saturn. Its di-
remain in contact as they begin to sepa- ameter is uncertain, but appears to be of
rate during the Ürst prophase of *meiosis, the order of 300 km.
forming a cross shape. A number of chias-
mata can usually be identiÜed and at Chiroptera An order of Ûying mammals
these points *crossing over occurs. comprising the bats. Their membranous
wings are supported by very elongated
Chile saltpetre A commercial mineral forelimbs and digits and stretch along the
largely composed of *sodium nitrate from sides of the body to the hindlimbs and
the caliche deposits in Chile. Before the tail. Whenever bats rest they allow their
ammonia-oxidation process for nitrates body temperature to fall, hibernating in
most imported Chilean saltpetre was used winter when food is scarce. Most bats are
by the chemical industry; its principal use nocturnal; their ears are enlarged and spe-
today is as an agricultural source of nitro- cialized for *echolocation, which they use
gen. to hunt prey and avoid obstacles. Bats
Chilopoda A class of terrestrial *arthro- feed variously on insects, fruit, nectar, or
pods belonging to the phylum Uniramia blood.
and comprising the centipedes, character- chi-squared test A procedure in
ized by a distinct head bearing one pair of *statistics to test how well a frequency
poison jaws and 15–177 body segments, distribution matches one predicted theo-
each bearing one pair of similar legs. Cen- retically. Statistical tables are used to as-
tipedes are fast-moving predators. See also sess the signiÜcance of the result obtained
myriapoda. by calculating χ2 = Σ(O – E)2/E, where O are
the observed frequencies and E are the
chimaera An organism composed of tis-
predicted frequencies.
sues that are genetically different. Chi-
maeras can develop if a *mutation occurs chitin A *polysaccharide comprising
in a cell of a developing embryo. All the chains of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine, a deriva-
cells arising from it have the mutation tive of glucose. Chitin is structurally very
and therefore produce tissue that is genet- similar to cellulose and serves to
ically different from adjacent tissue, e.g. strengthen the supporting structures of
brown patches in otherwise blue eyes in various invertebrates. It also occurs in
humans. *Graft hybrids are examples of fungi.
plant chimaeras. chloral See trichloroethanal.
china clay See kaolin. chloral hydrate See 2,2,2-trichloro-
Chinese white See zinc oxide. ethanediol.

chip See silicon chip. chlorates Salts of the chloric acids; i.e.
salts containing the ions ClO– (chlorate(I)
chirality The property of existing in left- or hypochlorite), ClO2– (chlorate(III) or
and right-handed structural forms. See op- chlorite), ClO3– (chlorate(V)), or ClO4–
tical activity. (chlorate(VII) or perchlorate). When used
chirality element The part of a mol- without speciÜcation of an oxidation state
ecule that makes it exist in left- and right- the term ‘chlorate’ refers to a chlorate(V)
handed forms. In most cases this is a salt.
chirality centre (i.e. an asymmetric atom). chlorenchyma *Parenchyma tissue that
In certain cases the element is a chirality contains chloroplasts and is photosyn-
axis. For example, in allenenes of the type thetic. Chlorenchyma makes up the meso-
R1R2C=C=CR3R4 the C=C=C chain is a chi- phyll tissue of plant leaves and is also
rality axis. Certain ring compounds may found in the stems of certain plant
159 chlorine

species. Compare collenchyma (see Chloric(VII) acid is both a strong acid and
ground tissues); sclerenchyma. a strong oxidizing agent. It is widely used
to decompose organic materials prior to
chloric acid Any of the oxoacids of chlo-
rine: *chloric(I) acid, *chloric(III) acid, analysis, e.g. samples of animal or veg-
etable matter requiring heavy-metal anal-
*chloric(V) acid, and *chloric(VII) acid.
The term is commonly used without ysis. c
speciÜcation of the oxidation state of chlo- chloride See halide.
rine to mean chloric(V) acid, HClO3.
chloride shift The movement of chlo-
chloric(I) acid (hypochlorous acid) A liq- ride ions (Cl–) into red blood cells. Carbon
uid acid that is stable only in solution, dioxide reacts with water to form car-
HOCl. It may be prepared by the reaction bonic acid in the red blood cells (see car-
of chlorine with an agitated suspension of bonic anhydrase). The carbonic acid
mercury(II) oxide. Because the dispropor- then dissociates into hydrogencarbonate
tionation of the ion ClO– is slow at low ions (HCO3–) and hydrogen ions (H+). The
temperatures chloric(I) acid may be pro- plasma membrane is relatively permeable
duced, along with chloride ions by the re- to negative ions. Therefore the hydrogen-
action of chlorine with water at 0°C. At carbonate ions diffuse out of the cell into
higher temperatures disproportionation the blood plasma, leaving the hydrogen
to the chlorate(V) ion, ClO3–, takes place. ions, which create a net positive charge;
Chloric(I) acid is a very weak acid but is a this is neutralized by the diffusion of chlo-
mild oxidizing agent and is widely used as ride ions from the plasma into the cell.
a bleaching agent.
chlorinating agent A chemical reagent
chloric(III) acid (chlorous acid) A pale- that introduces chlorine atoms into a
yellow acid known only in solution,
compound or substitutes chlorine for
HClO2. It is formed by the reaction of
some other group. Examples include
chlorine dioxide and water and is a weak
phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5, and sul-
acid and an oxidizing agent.
phur dichloride oxide (thionyl chloride,
chloric(V) acid (chloric acid) A colour- SOCl2).
less unstable liquid, HClO3; r.d. 1.2; m.p.
chlorination 1. A chemical reaction in
<–20°C; decomposes at 40°C. It is best pre-
which a chlorine atom is introduced into
pared by the reaction of barium chlorate
with sulphuric acid although chloric(V) a compound. See halogenation. 2. The
acid is also formed by the disproportiona- treatment of water with chlorine to disin-
tion of chloric(I) acid in hot solutions. It is fect it.
both a strong acid and a powerful oxidiz- chlorine Symbol Cl. A *halogen el-
ing agent; hot solutions of the acid or its ement; a.n. 17; r.a.m. 35.453; d. 3.214
salts have been known to detonate in con- g dm–3; m.p. –100.98°C; b.p. –34.6°C. It is a
tact with readily oxidized organic ma- poisonous greenish-yellow gas and occurs
terial. widely in nature as sodium chloride in
chloric(VII) acid (perchloric acid) An un- seawater and as halite (NaCl), carnallite
stable liquid acid, HClO4; r.d. 1.76; m.p. (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O), and sylvite (KCl). It is
–112°C; b.p. 39°C (50 mmHg); explodes at manufactured by the electrolysis of brine
about 90°C at atmospheric pressure. and also obtained in the *Downs process
There is also a monohydrate (r.d. 1.88 for making sodium. It has many ap-
(solid), 1.77 (liquid); m.p. 48°C; explodes at plications, including the chlorination of
about 110°C) and a dihydrate (r.d. 1.65; drinking water, bleaching, and the manu-
m.p. –17.8°C; b.p. 200°C). Commercial facture of a large number of organic
chloric(VII) acid is a water azeotrope, chemicals.
which is 72.5% HClO4, boiling at 203°C. It reacts directly with many elements
The anhydrous acid may be prepared by and compounds and is a strong oxidizing
vacuum distillation of the concentrated agent. Chlorine compounds contain the
acid in the presence of magnesium per- element in the 1, 3, 5, and 7 oxidation
chlorate as a dehydrating agent. states. It was discovered by Karl Scheele in
 chlorine dioxide 160

1774 and Humphry Davy conÜrmed it as b.p. 12.3°C. It is made by reaction of

an element in 1810. ethene and hydrogen chloride and used in
making lead tetraethyl for petrol.
chlorine dioxide A yellowish-red ex-
plosive gas, ClO2; d. 3.09 g dm–3; m.p. chloroethanoic acids (chloroacetic
c –59.5°C; b.p. 9.9°C. It is soluble in cold
water but decomposed by hot water to
acids) Three acids in which hydrogen
atoms in the methyl group of ethanoic
give chloric(VII) acid, chlorine, and oxy- acid have been replaced by chlorine
gen. Because of its high reactivity, chlo- atoms. They are: monochloroethanoic acid
rine dioxide is best prepared by the (CH2ClCOOH); dichloroethanoic acid
reaction of sodium chlorate and moist ox- (CHCl2COOH); trichloroethanoic acid
alic acid at 90°–100°C, as the product is (CCl3COOH). The presence of chlorine
then diluted by liberated carbon dioxide. atoms in the methyl group causes elec-
Commercially the gas is produced by the tron withdrawal from the COOH group
reaction of sulphuric acid containing chlo- and makes the chloroethanoic acids
ride ions with sulphur dioxide. Chlorine stronger acids than ethanoic acid itself.
dioxide is widely used as a bleach in Ûour The Ka values (in moles dm–3 at 25°C) are
milling and in wood pulping and also CH3COOH 1.7 × 10–5
Ünds application in water puriÜcation.
CH2ClCOOH 1.3 × 10–3
chlorine monoxide See dichlorine
oxide. CHCl2COOH 5.0 × 10–2
chlorite 1. See chlorates. 2. A group of CCl3COOH 2.3 × 10–1
layered silicate minerals, usually green or
white in colour, that are similar to the chloroethene (vinyl chloride) A gaseous
micas in structure and crystallize in the compound, CH2:CHCl; r.d. 0.911; m.p.
monoclinic system. Chlorites are com- –153.8°C; b.p. –13.37°C. It is made by chlo-
posed of complex silicates of aluminium, rinating ethene to give dichloroethane,
magnesium, and iron in combination then removing HCl:
with water, with the formula C2H4 + Cl2 → CH2ClCH2Cl → CH2CHCl
(Mg,Al,Fe)12(Si,Al)8O20(OH)16. They are
most common in low-grade metamorphic The compound is used in making PVC.
rocks and also occur as secondary miner- chloroÛuorocarbon (CFC) A type of
als in igneous rocks as alteration products compound in which some or all of the
of pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas. The hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon (usually
term is derived from chloros, the Greek an alkane) have been replaced by chlorine
word for green. and Ûuorine atoms (see halocarbons).
chloroacetic acids See Most chloroÛuorocarbons are chemically
chloroethanoic acids. unreactive and are stable at high tempera-
tures. They are used as aerosol propel-
chlorobenzene A colourless highly lants, refrigerants, and solvents, and in
Ûammable liquid, C6H5Cl; r.d. 1.106; m.p. the manufacture of rigid packaging foam.
–45.43°C; b.p. 131.85°C. It is prepared by A commonly encountered commercial
the direct chlorination of benzene using a name for these compounds is freon; freon
halogen carrier (see friedel–crafts reac- 12, for example, is dichlorodiÛuoro-
tion), or manufactured by the *Raschig methane (CCl2F2). ChloroÛuorocarbons,
process. It is used mainly as an industrial because of their chemical inertness, can
solvent. diffuse unchanged into the upper atmos-
2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene (chloroprene) phere. Here, photochemical reactions
A colourless liquid chlorinated diene, cause them to break down and react with
CH2:CClCH:CH2; r.d. 0.96; b.p. 59°C. It is ozone (see ozone layer). For this reason,
polymerized to make synthetic rubbers their use has been discouraged. See also
(e.g. neoprene). pollution.

chloroethane (ethyl chloride) A colour- chloroform See trichloromethane.

less Ûammable gas, C2H5Cl; m.p. –136.4°C; chloromethane (methyl chloride) A
161 choline

colourless Ûammable gas, CH3Cl; r.d. eral deÜciency, infection (particularly by

0.916; m.p. –97.1°C; b.p. –24.2°C. It is a viruses), or genetic factors.
*haloalkane, made by direct chlorination
chlorosulphanes See disulphur
of methane and used as a local anaes-
dichloride.
thetic and refrigerant.
chlorophyll One of two pigments
chlorous acid See chloric(iii) acid. c
(chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) responsi- chloroxybacteria (grass-green bacteria)
ble for the green colour of most plants. See cyanobacteria.
Chlorophyll molecules are the principal choanae (internal nares) See nares.
sites of light absorption in the light-
dependent reactions of *photosynthesis. choke A coil of wire with high induc-
They are magnesium-containing *por- tance and low resistance. It is used in
phyrins, chemically related to *cyto- radio circuits to impede the passage of
chrome and *haemoglobin. See also audio-frequency or radio-frequency cur-
bacteriochlorophyll. rents or to smooth the output of a rectify-
ing circuit.
Chlorophyta (green algae) A large phy-
lum of *algae, the members of which pos- choke damp See blackdamp.
sess chlorophylls a and b, store food cholecalciferol See vitamin d.
reserves as starch, and have cellulose cell
walls. In these respects they resemble cholecystokinin (CCK; pancreozymin) A
plants more closely than do any of the hormone, produced by the duodenal re-
other algal phyla. The Chlorophyta are gion of the small intestine, that induces
widely distributed and diverse in form. the gall bladder to contract and eject bile
Unicellular forms may occur singly (some- into the intestine and stimulates the pan-
times with *Ûagella for motility) or in creas to secrete its digestive enzymes.
colonies, while multicellular forms may Cholecystokinin output is stimulated by
be Ülamentous (e.g. Spirogyra) or platelike contact with the contents of the stomach.
(e.g. Ulva). cholesteric crystal See liquid crystal.
chloroplast Any of the chlorophyll- cholesterol A *sterol (see also steroid)
containing organelles (see plastid) that are occurring widely in animal tissues and
found in large numbers in those plant also in some plants and algae. It can exist
cells undergoing *photosynthesis. Chloro- as a free sterol or esteriÜed with a long-
plasts are typically lens-shaped and chain fatty acid. Cholesterol is absorbed
bounded by a double membrane. They through the intestine or manufactured in
contain membranous structures called the liver. It serves principally as a con-
thylakoids, which are piled up into stacks stituent of blood plasma *lipoproteins
(see granum), surrounded by a gel-like ma- and of the lipid–protein complexes that
trix (stroma). The light-dependent reac- form plasma membranes. It is also impor-
tions of photosynthesis occur on the tant as a precursor of various steroids, es-
thylakoid membranes, while the light- pecially the bile acids, sex hormones, and
independent reactions take place in the adrenocorticoid hormones. The derivative
stroma. 7-dehydrocholesterol is converted to vita-
min D3 by the action of sunlight on skin.
chloroplatinic acid A reddish crys-
Increased levels of dietary and blood
talline compound, H2PtCl6, made by dis-
cholesterol have been associated with
solving platinum in aqua regia.
atherosclerosis, a condition in which
chloroprene See 2-chlorobuta-1,3- lipids accumulate on the inner walls of ar-
diene. teries and eventually obstruct blood Ûow.
It is now thought that this damage to
chlorosis The abnormal condition in
blood vessels is caused by high concentra-
plant stems and leaves in which synthesis
tions of low-density lipoproteins in the
of the green pigment chlorophyll is inhib-
blood.
ited, resulting in a pale yellow coloration.
This may be caused by lack of light, min- choline An amino alcohol,
 cholinergic 162

CH2OHCH2N(CH3)3OH. It occurs widely in or craniates, the notochord is present

living organisms as a constituent of cer- only in the embryo or larva and becomes
tain types of phospholipids – the replaced by the *vertebral column (back-
*lecithins and sphingomyelins – and in bone) before birth or metamorphosis. This
the neurotransmitter *acetylcholine. It is has permitted the vertebrates a greater
c sometimes classiÜed as a member of the degree of movement and subsequent im-
*vitamin B complex. provement in the sense organs and en-
cholinergic Describing a nerve Übre largement of the brain, which is enclosed
that either releases *acetylcholine when in a skeletal case, the cranium.
stimulated or is itself stimulated by acetyl- In some classiÜcations the two nonver-
choline. Compare adrenergic. tebrate subphyla are elevated to the status
of phyla and the jawed and jawless chor-
cholinesterase (acetylcholinesterase) dates are included together in a third
An enzyme that hydrolyses the neuro-
phylum, Craniata, containing a single sub-
transmitter *acetylcholine to choline and
phylum, Vertebrata. The old subphyla
acetate. Cholinesterase is secreted by
Agnatha and Gnathostomata are then
nerve cells at *synapses and by muscle
regarded as superclasses of the Vertebrata.
cells at *neuromuscular junctions.
Organophosphorus insecticides (see pesti- chorion 1. A membrane enclosing the
cide) act as *anticholinesterases by in- embryo, yolk sac, and allantois of reptiles,
hibiting the action of cholinesterase. birds, and mammals. In mammals a sec-
Chondrichthyes A class of vertebrates tion of the chorion becomes the embry-
comprising the Üshes with cartilaginous onic part of the *placenta. See
skeletons. The majority belong to the sub- extraembryonic membranes. 2. The pro-
class Elasmobranchii (skates, rays, and tective shell of an insect egg, produced by
sharks – see selachii). Most cartilaginous the ovary. It is pierced by a small pore
Üshes are marine carnivores with power- (micropyle) that allows the entry of sper-
ful jaws. Unlike bony Üshes, they have no matozoa for fertilization. See also egg mem-
swim bladder, and therefore avoid sinking brane.
only by constant swimming with the aid chorionic gonadotrophin See gon-
of an asymmetrical (heterocercal) tail. adotrophin.
There is no operculum covering the gill
slits, the Ürst of which is modiÜed as a choroid A pigmented layer, rich in
*spiracle. Fertilization is internal so the blood vessels, that lies between the retina
few eggs produced are consequently and the sclerotic of the vertebrate eye. At
yolky, large, and well-protected. Some car- the front of the eye the choroid is mod-
tilaginous Üshes show viviparous develop- iÜed to form the *ciliary body and the
ment of the young (see viviparity). *iris.
chondrin The matrix of *cartilage, choroid plexus A membrane rich in
which is made up of chondrocytes embed- blood vessels that lines the *ventricles of
ded in chondroitin sulphate. the brain. It is an extension of the *pia
chondrocyte Any of the cells that make mater and secretes *cerebrospinal Ûuid
up the matrix of *cartilage. into the ventricles; it also controls ex-
change of materials between the blood
Chordata A phylum of animals charac- and cerebrospinal Ûuid.
terized by a hollow dorsal nerve cord and,
at some stage in their development, a Ûex- chromate A salt containing the ion
ible skeletal rod (the *notochord) and CrO42–.
*gill slits opening from the pharynx. chromatic aberration See aberration.
There are four subphyla: the Urochordata
(or Tunicata; sea squirts), Cephalochor- chromaticity An objective description
data (lancelets), *Agnatha (jawless chor- of the colour quality of a visual stimulus
dates), and *Gnathostomata (jawed that does not depend on its luminance
chordates). In the Agnatha and Gnatho- but which, together with its luminance,
stomata, commonly known as vertebrates completely speciÜes the colour. The col-
163 chrome alum

our quality is deÜned in terms of chro- column and continuously washed through
maticity coordinates, x,y, and z, where with a solvent (a process known as
elution). Different components of the
x = X/(X + Y + Z)
sample are adsorbed to different extents
y = Y/(X + Y + Z) and move down the column at different
and z = Z/(X + Y + Z)
rates. In Tsvet’s original application, plant c
pigments were used and these separated
X, Y, and Z are the tristimulus values of a into coloured bands in passing down the
light, i.e. they are the amounts of three column (hence the name chromatogra-
reference stimuli needed to match exactly phy). The usual method is to collect the
the light under consideration in a trichro- liquid (the eluate) as it passes out from
matic system. the column in fractions.
In general, all types of chromatography
chromatid A threadlike strand formed
involve two distinct phases – the station-
from a *chromosome during the early
ary phase (the adsorbent material in the
stages of cell division. Each chromosome
column in the example above) and the
divides along its length into two chro-
moving phase (the solution in the exam-
matids, which are at Ürst held together at
ple). The separation depends on competi-
the centromere. They separate completely
tion for molecules of sample between the
at a later stage. The DNA of the chromo-
moving phase and the stationary phase.
some reproduces itself exactly so that
The form of column chromatography
each chromatid has the complete amount
above is an example of adsorption chro-
of DNA and becomes a daughter chromo-
matography, in which the sample mol-
some with exactly the same genes as the
ecules are adsorbed on the alumina. In
original chromosome from which it was
partition chromatography, a liquid (e.g.
formed.
water) is Ürst absorbed by the stationary
chromatin The substance of which eu- phase and the moving phase is an immis-
karyotic *chromosomes are composed. It cible liquid. The separation is then by
consists of proteins (principally histones), *partition between the two liquids. In
DNA, and small amounts of RNA and can ion-exchange chromatography (see ion ex-
be observed microscopically in two forms. change), the process involves com-
In the *interphase of the cell cycle, chro- petition between different ions for ionic
matin is mainly in a condensed form, sites on the stationary phase. *Gel Ültra-
heterochromatin, which stains densely tion is another chromatographic tech-
with basic stains and cannot undergo nique in which the size of the sample
transcription. During the *metaphase of molecules is important.
cell division most of the chromatin is in See also gas chromatography; high-
an expanded, lighter staining form, eu- performance liquid chromatography;
chromatin, in which genes are available paper chromatography; rf value; thin-
for transcription. layer chromatography.
chromatogram A record obtained by chromatophore 1. A pigment-
chromatography. The term is applied to containing cell found in the skin of many
the developed records of *paper chro- lower vertebrates (e.g. chameleon) and in
matography and *thin-layer chromatogra- the integument of crustaceans. Concentra-
phy and also to the graphical record tion or dispersion of the pigment granules
produced in *gas chromatography. in the cytoplasm of the cell causes the
colour of the animal to alter to match its
chromatography A technique for
surroundings. A common type of chro-
analysing or separating mixtures of gases,
matophore is the melanophore, which
liquids, or dissolved substances. The origi-
contains the pigment *melanin. 2. A
nal technique (invented by the Russian
membrane-bound structure in photo-
botanist Mikhail Tsvet (1872–1919) in
synthetic bacteria that contains photo-
1906) is a good example of column chro-
synthetic pigments.
matography. A vertical glass tube is
packed with an adsorbing material, such chrome alum See potassium chromium
as alumina. The sample is poured into the sulphate.
 chrome iron ore 164

chrome iron ore A mixed iron– with air. At high temperatures hydrogen
chromium oxide, FeO.Cr2O3, used to reduces it to the metal.
make ferrochromium for chromium
chromium(III) oxide (chromium
steels.
sesquioxide) A green crystalline water-
c chrome red A basic lead chromate,
PbO.PbCrO4, used as a red pigment.
insoluble salt, Cr2O3; r.d. 5.21; m.p.
2435°C; b.p. 4000°C. It is obtained by heat-
chrome yellow Lead chromate, ing chromium in a stream of oxygen or by
PbCrO4, used as a pigment. heating ammonium dichromate. The in-
dustrial preparation is by reduction of
chromic acid A hypothetical acid, sodium dichromate with carbon.
H2CrO4, known only in chromate salts. Chromium(III) oxide is amphoteric, dis-
chromic anhydride See chromium(vi) solving in acids to give chromium(III) ions
oxide. and in concentrated solutions of alkalis to
give chromites. It is used as a green pig-
chromic compounds Compounds con- ment in glass, porcelain, and oil paint.
taining chromium in a higher (+3 or +6)
oxidation state; e.g. chromic oxide is chromium(IV) oxide (chromium diox-
chromium(VI) oxide (CrO3). ide) A black insoluble powder, CrO2;
m.p. 300°C. It is prepared by the action
chromite A spinel mineral, FeCr2O4; the of oxygen on chromium(VI) oxide or
principal ore of chromium. It is black chromium(III) oxide at 420–450°C and
with a metallic lustre and usually occurs
200–300 atmospheres. The compound is
in massive form. It is a common con-
unstable.
stituent of peridotites and serpentines.
The chief producing countries are Turkey, chromium(VI) oxide (chromium triox-
South Africa, Russia, the Philippines, and ide; chromic anhydride) A red compound,
Zimbabwe. CrO3; rhombic; r.d. 2.70; m.p. 196°C. It
can be made by careful addition of con-
chromium Symbol Cr. A hard silvery
centrated sulphuric acid to an ice-cooled
*transition element; a.n. 24; r.a.m. 52.00;
concentrated aqueous solution of sodium
r.d. 7.19; m.p. 1857°C; b.p. 2672°C. The
main ore is chromite (FeCr2O4). The metal dichromate with stirring. The mixture is
has a body-centred-cubic structure. It is then Ültered through sintered glass,
extracted by heating chromite with washed with nitric acid, then dried at
sodium chromate, from which chromium 120°C in a desiccator.
can be obtained by electrolysis. Alterna- Chromium(VI) oxide is an extremely
tively, chromite can be heated with car- powerful oxidizing agent, especially to or-
bon in an electric furnace to give ganic matter; it immediately inÛames
ferrochrome, which is used in making ethanol. It is an acidic oxide and dissolves
alloy steels. The metal is also used as a in water to form ‘chromic acid’, a power-
shiny decorative electroplated coating and ful oxidizing agent and cleansing Ûuid for
in the manufacture of certain chromium glassware. At 400°C, chromium(VI) oxide
compounds. loses oxygen to give chromium(III) oxide.
At normal temperatures the metal is chromium potassium sulphate A red
corrosion-resistant. It reacts with dilute crystalline solid, K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O;
hydrochloric and sulphuric acids to give r.d. 1.91. It is used as a mordant. See also
chromium(II) salts. These readily oxidize alums.
to the more stable chromium(III) salts.
Chromium also forms compounds with chromium sesquioxide See
the +6 oxidation state, as in chromates, chromium(iii) oxide.
which contain the CrO42– ion. The el- chromium steel Any of a group of
ement was discovered in 1797 by *stainless steels containing 8–25% of
Vauquelin.
chromium. A typical chromium steel
chromium(II) oxide A black insoluble might contain 18% of chromium, 8% of
powder, CrO. Chromium(II) oxide is pre- nickel, and 0.15% of carbon. Chromium
pared by oxidizing chromium amalgam steels are highly resistant to corrosion and
165 chromyl chloride

are used for cutlery, chemical plant, ball shows the positions of genes, genetic
bearings, etc. markers, or other landmarks along the
length of a chromosome. There are essen-
chromophore A group causing col-
tially two complementary types of map:
oration in a *dye. Chromophores are gen-
*linkage maps, which give the relative po-
erally groups of atoms having delocalized
electrons.
sitions of genetic sites (loci) determined c
by studies of how frequently recombina-
chromoplast Any of various pigment- tion occurs between the loci; and *physi-
containing *plastids in plant cells. Red, or- cal maps, which show the arrangement of
ange, and yellow chromoplasts contain the chromosomal material. Accumulated
carotenoid pigments and are responsible data for the chromosomes of many
for the coloration of fruits and Ûowers. See species of organism are now held in
also plastoglobulus. Compare chloro- databases and available freely via the
plast; leucoplast. Internet for geneticists and others world-
wide.
chromosome A threadlike structure
several to many of which are found in the chromosome mutation A change in
nucleus of plant and animal (eukaryotic) the gross structure of a chromosome,
cells. Chromosomes are composed of which usually causes severely deleterious
*chromatin and carry the *genes in a lin- effects in the organism. Chromosome mu-
ear sequence; these determine the indi- tations often occur due to an error in pair-
vidual characteristics of an organism. ing during the *crossing over stage of
When the nucleus is not dividing, individ- meiosis. The main types of chromosome
ual chromosomes cannot be identiÜed mutation include *translocation, *dupli-
with a light microscope. During the Ürst cation, *deletion, and *inversion. Compare
stage of nuclear division, however, the point mutation. See also mutation.
chromosomes contract and, when stained,
chromosphere The layer of the *sun’s
can be clearly seen under a microscope.
atmosphere immediately above the
Each consists of two *chromatids held to-
*photosphere. The chromosphere is nor-
gether at the *centromere (see also
mally only visible when the photosphere
meiosis; mitosis). The number of chromo-
is totally eclipsed by the moon. The chro-
somes in each cell is constant for and
mosphere is about 10 000 kilometres
characteristic of the species concerned. In
thick and the temperature in it rises from
the normal body cells of *diploid organ-
4000 K, where it merges with the photo-
isms the chromosomes occur in pairs (see
sphere, to about 50 000 K, where it
homologous chromosomes); in the
reaches the transition region below the
gamete-forming germ cells, however, the
*corona.
diploid number is halved and each cell
contains only one member of each chro- chromous compounds Compounds
mosome pair. Thus in man each body cell containing chromium in its lower (+2) oxi-
contains 46 chromosomes (22 matched dation state; e.g. chromous chloride is
pairs and one pair of *sex chromosomes) chromium(II) chloride (CrCl2).
and each germ cell 23. Abnormalities in
chromyl chloride (chromium oxychlo-
the number or structure of chromosomes
ride) A dark red liquid, CrO2Cl2; r.d.
may give rise to abnormalities in the indi-
1.911; m.p. –96.5°C; b.p. 117°C. It is
vidual; *Down’s syndrome is the result of
evolved as a dark-red vapour on addition
one such abnormality. See chromosome
of concentrated sulphuric acid to a mix-
mutation.
ture of solid potassium dichromate and
Bacterial and viral cells contain only a
sodium chloride; it condenses to a dark-
single chromosome; it differs from the eu-
red covalent liquid, which is immediately
karyotic chromosome in being much sim-
hydrolysed by solutions of alkalis to give
pler, lacking histones and consisting
the yellow chromate. Since bromides and
simply of a single or double strand of
iodides do not give analogous compounds
DNA or (in some viruses) RNA. See also ar-
this is a speciÜc test for chloride ions. The
tificial chromosome.
compound is a powerful oxidizing agent,
chromosome map Any plan that exploding on contact with phosphorus
 chronology protection conjecture 166

and inÛaming sulphur and many organic ella have the same structure and are col-
compounds. lectively called undulipodia (see unduli-
podium).
chronology protection conjecture A
conjecture put forward by Stephen cinnabar A bright red mineral form of
c *Hawking in the early 1990s that asserts
that the fundamental laws of physics
mercury(II) sulphide, HgS, crystallizing in
the hexagonal system; the principal ore of
should forbid time travel. There is some mercury. It is deposited in veins and im-
theoretical evidence in favour of this idea. pregnations near recent volcanic rocks
and hot springs. The chief sources include
chrysalis See pupa.
Spain, Italy, and Yugoslavia.
chrysotile See serpentine.
cinnamic acid (3-phenylpropenoic acid)
chyle A milky Ûuid consisting of *lymph A white crystalline aromatic *carboxylic
that contains absorbed food materials (es- acid, C6H5CH:CHCOOH; r.d. 1.248 (trans
pecially emulsiÜed fats). Most chyle occurs isomer); m.p. 135–136°C; b.p. 300°C. Es-
in the lymphatic ducts (*lacteals) in the ters of cinnamic acid occur in some essen-
*villi of the small intestine during the ab- tial oils.
sorption of fat.
CIP system (Cahn–Ingold–Prelog system)
chyme The semisolid and partly di- A system for the unambiguous description
gested food that is discharged from the of stereoisomers used in the R–S conven-
stomach into the duodenum. tion (see absolute configuration) and in
the *E–Z convention. The system involves
chymosin See rennin.
a sequence rule for determining a conven-
chymotrypsin An *endopeptidase en- tional order of ligands. The rule is that the
zyme in pancreatic juice that is secreted atom bonded directly to the chiral centre
into the duodenum. The enzyme is se- or double bond is considered and the lig-
creted as an inactive precursor, chymo- and in which this atom has the highest
trypsinogen, which is activated by proton number takes precedence. So, for
another pancreatic protease, *trypsin. example, I takes precedence over Cl. If
two ligands have bonding atoms with the
chymotrypsinogen See chymotrypsin.
same proton number, then substituents
ciliary body The circular band of tissue are taken into account (with the sub-
surrounding and supporting the *lens of stituent of highest proton number taking
the vertebrate eye. It contains the ciliary precedence). Thus, –C2H5 has a higher
muscles, which bring about changes in precedence than –CH3. If a double (or
the shape of the lens (see also accommoda- triple) bond occurs to a substituent, then
tion). The ciliary body produces the the substituent is counted twice (or three
*aqueous humour. times). An isotope of high nucleon num-
ber takes precedence over one of lower
ciliary feeding A method of feeding
nucleon number. Hydrogen always has
used by lancelets and many other aquatic
lowest priority in this system. For exam-
invertebrates. The movement of cilia
ple, the sequence for some common lig-
causes a current of water to be drawn to-
ands is I, Br, Cl, SO3H, OCOCH3, OCH3,
wards and through the animal, and micro-
OH, NO2, NH2, COOCH3, CONH2, COCH3,
organisms in the water are Ültered out by
CHO, CH2OH, C6H5, C2H5, CH3, H. The sys-
the cilia.
tem was jointly developed by the British
ciliary muscle See ciliary body. chemists Robert Sidney Cahn (1899–1981)
and Sir Christopher Kelk Ingold (1893–
cilium A short minute hairlike structure
1970) and the Bosnian–Swiss chemist
(up to 10 µm long) present on the surface
Vladimir Prelog (1906– ).
of many cells, notably in certain proto-
zoans and some types of vertebrate *epi- circadian rhythm (diurnal rhythm) Any
thelium. Cilia usually occur in large 24-hour periodicity in the behaviour or
groups. Beating of cilia can produce cell physiology of animals or plants. Examples
movement or create a current in Ûuid sur- are the sleep/activity cycle in many ani-
rounding a cell. Cilia and eukaryotic Ûag- mals and the growth movements of
167 cladistics

plants. Circadian rhythms are generally molluscs) have an open circulation, i.e. the
controlled by *biological clocks. blood is pumped into the body cavity, in
which the internal organs are suspended.
circle A closed curve every point on
In open circulatory systems the tissues are
which is a Üxed distance (the radius) from
in direct contact with the blood and ma-
a point (the centre) within the curve (see
illustration). The diameter is a line that
terials are exchanged directly by diffu- c
sion. In a closed circulation, found in
joins two points on the circumference and
larger animals, the blood Ûows in vessels,
passes through the centre: the diameter is
which usually contain a series of one-way
twice the radius (r). The circumference of
valves to maintain the Ûow in one direc-
a circle is equal to 2πr; the area is πr2,
tion. See also double circulation; single
where π is a constant with the value
circulation.
3.141 592. In analytical geometry the
equation of a circle, centred at the origin, circulatory system The heart, blood
is x2 + y2 = r2. vessels, blood, lymphatic vessels, and
lymph, which together serve to transport
circumference sector materials throughout the body. See also
double circulation; single
circulation; vascular system.
circumnutation See nutation.
cirque A steep semicircular hollow
us
di formed high on a mountain slope by the
ra
erosive action of a glacier. Many cirques
centre
diameter Üll with water to form lakes (called tarns).
In Britain cirques are also called corries or
ch

cwms.
or
d

cis-isomer See isomerism.

cisplatin A platinum complex, cis-
segment tangent [PtCl2(NH3)2], used in cancer treatment to
inhibit the growth of tumours. It acts by
secant
binding between strands of DNA.
A circle cis–trans isomerism See isomerism.
citrate A salt or ester of citric acid.
circular measure A method of measur-
ing angles by treating them as the angle citric acid A white crystalline hydroxy-
formed by a sector of a circle at the cir- carboxylic acid, HOOCCH2C(OH)-
cle’s centre. The unit of measure is the ra- (COOH)CH2COOH; r.d. 1.54; m.p. 153°C. It
dian, the angle subtended at the centre of is present in citrus fruits and is an inter-
a circle by an arc of equal length to the ra- mediate in the *Krebs cycle in plant and
dius. Since an arc of length r subtends an animal cells.
angle of 1 radian, the whole circumfer- citric-acid cycle See krebs cycle.
ence, length 2πr, will subtend an angle of
2πr/r = 2π radians. Thus, 360° = 2π radians; CJD See creutzfeldt–jakob disease.
1 radian = 57.296°. cladding 1. A thin coating of an expen-
circular polarization See polarization sive metal rolled on to a cheaper one.
of light. 2. A thin covering of a metal around a
fuel element in a nuclear reactor to pre-
circulation The mass Ûow of Ûuid (e.g. vent corrosion of the fuel elements by the
blood or lymph) through the tissues and coolant.
organs of an animal, allowing the trans-
port and exchange of such materials as clade A group of organisms that share a
common ancestor. See cladistics.
oxygen, nutrients, and waste products (see
also vascular system; lymphatic system). cladistics A method of classiÜcation in
Smaller animals (e.g. arthropods and most which animals and plants are placed into
 cladode 168

taxonomic groups called clades strictly ac- Clapeyron–Clausius equation A dif-

cording to their evolutionary relation- ferential equation that describes the rela-
ships. These relationships are deduced on tionship between variables when there is
the basis of certain shared *homologous a change in the state of a system. In a sys-
characters that are thought to indicate tem that has two *phases of the same sub-
c common ancestry (see monophyletic). Im- stance, for example solid and liquid, heat
plicit in this is the assumption that two is added or taken away very slowly so that
new species are formed suddenly, by split- one phase can change reversibly into the
ting from a common ancestor, and not by other while the system remains at equilib-
gradual evolutionary change. A diagram rium. If the two phases are denoted A and
indicating these relationships (called a B, the Clapeyron–Clausius equation is:
cladogram) therefore consists of a system
of dichotomous branches: each point of dp/dT = L/T(VB–VA),
branching represents divergence from a where p is the pressure, T is the *thermo-
common ancestor, as shown in the dia- dynamic temperature, L is the heat ab-
gram. Thus the species A to F form a clade sorbed per mole in the change from A to
as they share the common ancestor X, and B, and VB and VA are the volumes of B and
species A to D form a clade of a different A respectively. In the case of a transition
taxonomic rank, sharing the ancestor X2. from liquid to vapour, the volume of the
Species C to F do not form a clade, since liquid can be ignored. Taking the vapour
the latter must include all the descendants to be an *ideal gas, the Clapeyron–
of a common ancestor. Clausius equation can be written:
dloge p / dT = L/RT2.
A
ancestor The Clapeyron–Clausius equation is
X2 B named after the French engineer Benoit-
Pierre-Émile Clapeyron (1799–1864) and
ancestor C Rudolf Clausius.
X1
D Clark cell A type of *voltaic cell consist-
ancestor
X ing of an anode made of zinc amalgam
E and a cathode of mercury both immersed
in a saturated solution of zinc sulphate.
F The Clark cell was formerly used as a
standard of e.m.f.; the e.m.f. at 15°C is
A cladogram showing the relationships of six species 1.4345 volts. It is named after the British
(A–F) scientist Hosiah Clark (d. 1898).
Clark process See hardness of water.
cladode A Ûattened stem or internode class A category used in the *classiÜca-
that resembles and functions as a leaf. It tion of organisms that consists of similar
is an adaptation to reduce water loss, or closely related orders. Similar classes
since it contains fewer *stomata than a are grouped into a phylum. Examples in-
leaf. An example of a plant with cladodes clude Mammalia (mammals), Aves (birds),
is asparagus. and Dicotyledoneae (dicots).
cladogram See cladistics. classical Üeld theory A theory that de-
scribes a *Üeld in terms of *classical
Claisen condensation A reaction of es- physics rather than *quantum mechanics.
ters in which two molecules of the ester Examples of classical Üeld theories in-
react to give a keto ester, e.g. clude classical *electrodynamics, de-
2CH3COOR → CH3COCH2COOR + ROH scribed by *Maxwell’s equations, and the
general theory of *relativity, describing
The reaction is catalysed by sodium ethox- classical gravitation. A classical Üeld
ide, the mechanism being similar to that theory emerges as a limit of the corre-
of the *aldol reaction. It is named after sponding *quantum Üeld theory. In order
Ludwig Claisen (1851–1930). for a classical Üeld theory to apply on a
169 Clausius–Mossotti equation

macroscopic scale it is necessary for the clastic rock A rock composed of frag-
interactions to be long range, as they are ments (clasts) of other older rocks or their
in electrodynamics and gravitation, rather minerals. The fragments, generally the
than short range, as in nuclear forces. products of erosion, may vary in size from
Classical Üeld theory is also used for math- large boulders to the tiny particles in silt.
ematical convenience to describe the They have often been transported from c
physics of continuous media, such as their previous location, and are com-
Ûuids. monly found as sedimentary rocks along
coastlines. Typical consolidated clastic
classical physics Theoretical physics
rocks include sandstone and shale.
up to approximately the end of the 19th
century, before the concepts of *quantum clathrate A solid mixture in which
theory (1900) and special *relativity small molecules of one compound or el-
(1905). Classical physics relied largely on ement are trapped in holes in the crystal
Newton’s mechanics and James Clerk lattice of another substance. Clathrates
Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism. It are sometimes called enclosure com-
may still be applied with high precision to pounds or cage compounds, but they are
large-scale phenomena involving no very not true compounds (the molecules are
rapid relative motion. not held by chemical bonds). Quinol and
ice both form clathrates with such sub-
classiÜcation The arrangement of or- stances as sulphur dioxide and xenon.
ganisms into a series of groups based on
physiological, biochemical, anatomical, or Claude process A process for liquefy-
other relationships. An artiÜcial classiÜca- ing air on a commercial basis. Air under
tion is based on one or a few characters pressure is used as the working substance
simply for ease of identiÜcation or for a in a piston engine, where it does external
speciÜc purpose; for example, birds are work and cools adiabatically. This cool air
often arranged according to habit and is fed to a counter-current *heat ex-
habitat (seabirds, songbirds, birds of prey, changer, where it reduces the tempera-
etc.) while fungi may be classiÜed as edi- ture of the next intake of high-pressure
ble or poisonous. Such systems do not air. The same air is recompressed and
reÛect evolutionary relationships. A natu- used again, and after several cycles even-
ral classiÜcation is based on resemblances tually liqueÜes. The process was perfected
and is a hierarchical arrangement. The in 1902 by the French scientist Georges
smallest group commonly used is the Claude (1870–1960).
*species. Species are grouped into genera claudetite A mineral form of
(see genus), the hierarchy continuing up *arsenic(III) oxide, As4O6.
through *tribes, *families, *orders,
*classes, and phyla (see phylum) to *king- Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emmanuel
doms and – in some systems – *domains. (1822–88) German physicist, who held
(In traditional systems of plant classiÜca- teaching posts in Berlin and Zurich, be-
tion the phylum was replaced by the *di- fore going to Würzburg in 1869. He is
vision.) Higher up in the hierarchy the best known for formulating the second
similarities between members of a group law of *thermodynamics in 1850, inde-
become fewer. Present-day natural pendently of William Thomson (Lord
classiÜcations try to take into account as *Kelvin). In 1865 he introduced the con-
many features as possible and in so doing cept of *entropy, and later contributed to
aim to reÛect evolutionary relationships electrochemistry and electrodynamics.
(see cladistics). Natural classiÜcations are Clausius–Mossotti equation A rela-
also predictive. Thus if an organism is tion between the *polarizability α of a
placed in a particular genus because it molecule and the dielectric constant ε of a
shows certain features characteristic of dielectric substance made up of molecules
the genus, then it can be assumed it is with this polarizability. The Clausius–
very likely to possess most (if not all) of Mossotti equation can be written in the
the other features of that genus. See also form α = (3/4πN)/[(ε – 1)/(ε – 2)], where N is
binomial nomenclature; taxonomy. the number of molecules per unit volume.
 Claus process 170

The equation provides a link between a illite, KAl4(Si,Al)8O18.2H2O;

microscopic quantity (the polarizability) montmorillonite,
and a macroscopic quantity (the dielectric
(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O,
constant); it was derived using macro-
scopic electrostatics by the Italian physi- formed chieÛy through alteration of vol-
c cist Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti (1791– canic ash;
1863) in 1850 and independently by vermiculite,
Rudolf Clausius in 1879. It works best for
(Mg,Fe,Al)3(Al,Si)4O10(OH)2.4H2O,
gases and is only approximately true for
liquids or solids, particularly if the dielec- used as an insulating material and potting
tric constant is large. Compare lorentz– soil.
lorenz equation.
cleavage 1. (in embryology) The series
Claus process A process for obtaining of cell divisions by which a single fer-
sulphur from hydrogen sulphide (from tilized egg cell is transformed into a
natural gas or crude oil). It involves two multicellular body, the *blastula. Char-
stages. First, part of the hydrogen sul- acteristically no growth occurs during
phide is oxidized to sulphur dioxide: 2H2S cleavage, the shape of the embryo is un-
+ 3O2 → 2SO2 + 2H2O. Subsequently, the changed except for the formation of a
sulphur dioxide reacts with hydrogen sul- central cavity (the blastocoel), and the
phide to produce sulphur: SO2 + 2H2S → ratio of nuclear material (DNA) to cyto-
3S + 2H2O. The second stage occurs at plasm increases. 2. (in crystallography)
300°C and needs an iron or aluminium The splitting of a crystal along planes of
oxide catalyst. atoms in the lattice.
clavicle A bone that forms part of the Clemmensen reduction A method of
*pectoral (shoulder) girdle, linking the reducing a *carbonyl group (C=O) to CH2,
*scapula (shoulder blade) to the sternum using zinc amalgam and concentrated hy-
(breastbone). In man it forms the collar drochloric acid. It is used as a method of
bone and serves as a brace for the shoul- ascending a homologous series. The reac-
ders. tion is named after Erik Clemmensen
(1876–1941).
clay A Üne-grained deposit consisting
chieÛy of *clay minerals. It is characteris- climate The characteristic pattern of
tically plastic and virtually impermeable weather elements in an area over a pe-
when wet and cracks when it dries out. In riod. The main weather elements include
geology the size of the constituent parti- temperature, precipitation, humidity,
cles is usually taken to be less than solar insolation, and wind. The climate of
1/256 mm. In soil science clay is regarded a large area is determined by several cli-
as a soil with particles less than 0.002 mm matic controls: (1) the latitude of the area,
in size. which accounts for the amount of solar
radiation it receives; (2) the distribution of
clay minerals Very small particles,
land and sea masses; (3) the altitude and
chieÛy hydrous silicates of aluminium,
topography of the area; and (4) the loca-
sometimes with magnesium and/or iron
substituting for all or part of the alu- tion of the area in relation to the ocean
minium, that are the major constituents currents. Climates may be classiÜed into
of clay materials. The particles are essen- groups; the classiÜcation devised by the
tially crystalline (either platy or Übrous) meteorologist Vladimir Köppen (1846–
with a layered structure, but may be 1940) in 1918, with subsequent modiÜca-
amorphous or metalloidal. The clay min- tions, is the most frequently used today.
erals are responsible for the plastic prop- The scientiÜc study of climate is climatol-
erties of clay; the particles have the ogy.
property of being able to hold water. The climate change A long-term change in
chief groups of clay minerals are: the elements of climate, such as tempera-
kaolinite, Al4Si4O10(OH)8, the chief con- ture, precipitation, wind, and pressure,
stituent of *kaolin; measured over a period of time of at least
halloysite, Al4Si4(OH)8O10.4H2O; several decades. Throughout the geologi-
171 close packing

cal history of the earth there have been lymphocytes (*B cells) consisting of nu-
periodic Ûuctuations between warmer and merous small subsets. Each subset carries
cooler periods on a wide range of time a unique set of surface antibody mol-
scales. The causes of climate change are ecules with its own particular binding
complex. Factors include the external pro- characteristics. If a cell encounters and
cesses of variations of solar emissions, binds the corresponding antigen it is ‘se- c
variations of the earth’s orbit, volcanic lected’ – stimulated to divide repeatedly
eruptions, mountain building, and tec- and produce a large clone of identical
tonic movements; anthropogenic (human- cells, all secreting the antibody. The in-
induced) processes include the increase of volvement of helper T cells (see t cell) is
greenhouse gases as a result of activities essential for activation of the B cell.
that include the burning of fossil fuels, clone 1. A group of cells, an organism,
changes in land use, and the emission of or a population of organisms arising from
aerosols. Internal processes, natural inter- a single ancestral cell. All members of a
actions within the climate system, are particular clone are genetically identical.
also factors. The term climate change is In nature clones are produced by asexual
also used synonymously with *global reproduction, for example by the forma-
warming. tion of bulbs and tubers in plants or by
climax community A relatively stable *parthenogenesis in certain animals. New
ecological *community that is achieved at techniques of cell manipulation and tissue
the end of a *succession. culture have enabled the cloning of many
plants and some animals. A wide range of
cline A gradual variation in the charac- commercially important plant species, in-
teristics of a species or population over its cluding potatoes, tulips, and certain forest
geographical range. It occurs in response trees, are now cloned by *micropropaga-
to varying environmental factors, such as tion, resulting in more uniform crops.
soil type or climate. Cloning in animals is more complex, but
clinostat A mechanical device that ro- has been accomplished successfully in
tates whole plants (usually seedlings), so several species. The Ürst mammal to be
removing the effect of any stimulus that cloned experimentally from the body cell
normally acts in one particular direction. of an adult was a sheep (‘Dolly’) born in
It is most often used to study the growth 1997. The nucleus containing DNA was
of plant organs when the inÛuence of extracted from an udder cell (which had
gravity has been removed. been deprived of nutrients) and inserted
into an ‘empty’ egg cell (from which the
clitoris An erectile rod of tissue in fe- nucleus had been removed) using the
male mammals (and also some reptiles technique of *nuclear transfer. This re-
and birds) that is the equivalent of the constituted egg cell was then stimulated
male penis. It lies in front of the *urethra to divide by an electric shock and im-
and *vagina. planted into the uterus of a surrogate
cloaca The cavity in the pelvic region mother ewe, which subsequently gave
into which the terminal parts of the ali- birth to a clone of the original sheep. This
mentary canal and the urinogenital ducts breakthrough offered the prospect of pro-
open in most vertebrates. Placental mam- ducing exact replicas of animals with cer-
mals, however, have a separate anus and tain genetically engineered traits, for
urinogenital opening. example to manufacture drugs in their
milk or provide organs for human trans-
clock reaction See oscillating reac- plantation. 2. (gene clone) An exact
tion. replica of a gene. See gene cloning.
clonal selection theory A theory ex- cloning vector See vector.
plaining how the cells of the immune sys-
closed chain See chain; ring.
tem produce large quantities of the right
antibody at the right time, i.e. when the close packing The packing of spheres
appropriate antigen is encountered. It pro- so as to occupy the minimum amount of
poses that there is a pre-existing pool of space. In a single plane, each sphere is
 closo-structure 172

surrounded by six close neighbours in a cooled suddenly by adiabatic expansion,

hexagonal arrangement. The spheres in causing the vapour to become supersatu-
the second plane Üt into depressions in rated. The excess moisture in the vapour
the Ürst layer, and so on. Each sphere has is then deposited in drops on the tracks of
12 other touching spheres. There are two ions created by the passage of the ionizing
c types of close packing. In hexagonal close radiation. The resulting row of droplets
packing the spheres in the third layer are can be photographed. If the original mov-
directly over those in the Ürst, etc., and ing particle was being deÛected by electric
the arrangement of planes is ABAB…. In or magnetic Üelds, the extent of the
cubic close packing the spheres in the deÛection provides information on its
third layer occupy a different set of de- mass and charge. This device was in-
pressions than those in the Ürst. The ar- vented in 1911 by C. T. R. Wilson.
rangement is ABCABC…. See also cubic A simpler version of this apparatus is
crystal. the diffusion cloud chamber, developed by
Cowan, Needels, and Nielsen in 1950, in
closo-structure See borane.
which supersaturation is achieved by plac-
clotting factors (coagulation factors) A ing a row of felt strips soaked in a suitable
group of substances present in blood alcohol at the top of the chamber. The
plasma that, under certain circumstances, lower part of the chamber is cooled by
undergo a series of chemical reactions solid carbon dioxide. The vapour continu-
leading to the conversion of blood from a ously diffuses downwards, and that in the
liquid to a solid state (see blood clotting). centre (where it becomes supersaturated)
Although they have speciÜc names, most is almost continuously sensitive to the
coagulation factors are referred to by an presence of ions created by the radiation.
agreed set of Roman numerals (e.g. *Fac-
clubmoss See lycophyta.
tor VIII, Factor IX). Lack of any of these
factors in the blood results in the inability Clusius column A device for separating
of the blood to clot. See also haemophilia. isotopes by *thermal diffusion. One form
consists of a vertical column some 30 me-
cloud A mass of minute water droplets
tres high with a heated electric wire run-
or ice crystals held in suspension in the
ning along its axis. The lighter isotopes in
atmosphere that appears as an opaque
a gaseous mixture of isotopes diffuse
drifting body. The droplets or crystals are
faster than the heavier isotopes. Heated
formed by the condensation of water
by the axial wire, and assisted by natural
vapour in the atmosphere in the presence
convection, the lighter atoms are carried
of condensation nuclei – minute particles,
to the top of the column, where a fraction
such as smoke or salt. A number of cloud
rich in lighter isotopes can be removed
classiÜcations have been devised; that
for further enrichment.
most commonly used is based on cloud
appearance and height. The high clouds cluster See galaxy cluster; star clus-
(above 5000 metres) comprise cirrocumu- ter.
lus, cirrostratus, and cirrus (mares’ tails)
cluster compound A compound in
clouds; the medium clouds (approxi-
which groups of metal atoms are joined
mately 2000–5000 metres) comprise al-
together by metal–metal bonds. The for-
tocumulus and altostratus; and the low
mation of such compounds is a feature of
clouds (below 2000 metres) are nimbostra-
the chemistry of certain transition el-
tus, stratocumulus, and stratus. Some
ements, particularly molybdenum and
clouds with great vertical development
tungsten, but also vanadium, tantalum,
cannot be conÜned to these height cat-
niobium, and uranium. Isopoly com-
egories; these are cumulus and cumulo-
pounds are ones in which the cluster
nimbus clouds.
contains atoms of the same element;
cloud chamber A device for making heteropoly compounds contain a mixture
visible the paths of particles of *ionizing of different elements.
radiation. The Wilson (expansion) cloud
cluster of differentiation See cd.
chamber consists of a container contain-
ing air and ethanol vapour, which is Cnidaria A phylum of aquatic inverte-
173 coal gas

brates (sometimes known as coelenter- loids (e.g. boiling an egg coagulates the al-
ates) that includes Hydra, jellyÜsh, sea bumin). See also blood clotting.
anemones, and *corals. A cnidarian’s body
coal A brown or black carbonaceous de-
is *diploblastic, with two cell layers of the posit derived from the accumulation and
body wall separated by *mesoglea, and
shows *radial symmetry. The body cavity
alteration of ancient vegetation, which
originated largely in swamps or other
c
(gastrovascular cavity) is sac-shaped, with moist environments. As the vegetation de-
one opening acting as both mouth and composed it formed layers of peat, which
anus. This opening is surrounded by ten- were subsequently buried (for example,
tacles bearing *thread cells. Cnidarians by marine sediments following a rise in
exist both as free-swimming *medusae sea level or subsidence of the land). Under
(e.g. jellyÜsh) and as sedentary *polyps. the increased pressure and resulting
The latter may be colonial (e.g. corals) or higher temperatures the peat was trans-
solitary (e.g. sea anemones and Hydra). In formed into coal. Two types of coal are
many cnidarians the life cycle alternates recognized: humic (or woody) coals, de-
between these two forms (see alterna- rived from plant remains; and sapropelic
tion of generations). coals, which are derived from algae,
cnidoblast See thread cell. spores, and Ünely divided plant material.
As the processes of coaliÜcation (i.e. the
CNS See central nervous system. transformation resulting from the high
CoA See coenzyme a. temperatures and pressures) continue,
there is a progressive transformation of
coacervate An aggregate of macro- the deposit: the proportion of carbon rela-
molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and tive to oxygen rises and volatile sub-
nucleic acids, that form a stable *colloid stances and water are driven out. The
unit with properties that resemble living various stages in this process are referred
matter. Many are coated with a lipid to as the ranks of the coal. In ascending
membrane and contain enzymes that are order, the main ranks of coal are: lignite
capable of converting such substances as (or brown coal), which is soft, brown, and
glucose into more complex molecules, has a high moisture content; subbitumi-
such as starch. Coacervate droplets arise nous coal, which is used chieÛy by gener-
spontaneously under appropriate condi- ating stations; bituminous coal, which is
tions and may have been the prebiological the most abundant rank of coal; semibitu-
systems from which living organisms orig- minous coal; semianthracite coal, which
inated. has a Üxed carbon content of between 86%
and 92%; and anthracite coal, which is
coadaptation The mutual adaptation of hard and black with a Üxed carbon con-
two species that occurs during *coevolu- tent of between 92% and 98%.
tion. Most deposits of coal were formed dur-
coagulation The process in which col- ing the Carboniferous and Permian peri-
loidal particles come together irreversibly ods. More recent periods of coal formation
to form larger masses. Coagulation can be occurred during the early Jurassic and Ter-
brought about by adding ions to change tiary periods. Coal deposits occur in all
the ionic strength of the solution and thus the major continents; the leading produc-
destabilize the colloid (see flocculation). ers include the USA, China, Ukraine,
Ions with a high charge are particularly Poland, UK, South Africa, India, Australia,
effective (e.g. alum, containing Al3+, is and Germany. Coal is used as a fuel and in
used in styptics to coagulate blood). An- the chemical industry; by-products in-
other example of ionic coagulation is in clude coke and coal tar.
the formation of river deltas, which oc- coal gas A fuel gas produced by the de-
curs when colloidal silt particles in rivers structive distillation of coal. In the late-
are coagulated by ions in sea water. Alum 19th and early-20th centuries coal gas was
and iron (III) sulphate are also used for co- a major source of energy and was made
agulation in sewage treatment. Heating is by heating coal in the absence of air in
another way of coagulating certain col- local gas works. Typically, it contained hy-
 coal tar 174

drogen (50%), methane (35%), and carbon salts, usual oxidation states II and III, are
monoxide (8%). By-products of the process used to give a brilliant blue colour in
were *coal tar and coke. The use of this glass, tiles, and pottery. Anhydrous
type of gas declined with the increasing cobalt(II) chloride paper is used as a quali-
availability of natural gas, although since tative test for water and as a heat-
c the early 1970s interest has developed in sensitive ink. Small amounts of cobalt
using coal in making *SNG. salts are essential in a balanced diet for
coal tar A tar obtained from the destruc- mammals (see essential element). ArtiÜ-
tive distillation of coal. Formerly, coal tar cially produced cobalt–60 is an important
was obtained as a by-product in manufac- radioactive tracer and cancer-treatment
turing *coal gas. Now it is produced in agent. The element was discovered by
making coke for steel making. The crude Georg Brandt (1694–1768) in 1737.
tar contains a large number of organic cobalt(II) oxide A pink solid, CoO;
compounds, such as benzene, naphtha- cubic; r.d. 6.45; m.p. 1935°C. The addition
lene, methylbenzene, phenols, etc., which of potassium hydroxide to a solution of
can be obtained by distillation. The cobalt(II) nitrate gives a bluish-violet pre-
residue is pitch. Coal tar was once the cipitate, which on boiling is converted to
major source of organic chemicals, most pink impure cobalt(II) hydroxide. On heat-
of which are now derived from petroleum ing this in the absence of air, cobalt(II)
and natural gas. oxide is formed. The compound is readily
coaxial cable A cable consisting of a oxidized in air to form tricobalt tetroxide,
central conductor surrounded by an insu- Co3O4, and is readily reduced by hydrogen
lator, which is in turn contained in an to the metal.
earthed sheath of another conductor. The cobalt(III) oxide (cobalt sesquioxide) A
central conductor and the outer conduc- black grey insoluble solid, Co2O3; hexago-
tor are coaxial (i.e. have the same axis). nal or rhombic; r.d. 5.18; decomposes at
They are used to transmit high-frequency 895°C. It is produced by the ignition of
signals as they produce no external Üelds cobalt nitrate; the product however never
and are not inÛuenced by them. has the composition corresponding ex-
cobalamin (vitamin B12) See vitamin b actly to cobalt(III) oxide. On heating it
complex. readily forms Co3O4, which contains both
Co(II) and Co(III), and is easily reduced to
cobalt Symbol Co. A light-grey *transi- the metal by hydrogen. Cobalt(III) oxide
tion element; a.n. 27; r.a.m. 58.933; r.d. dissolves in strong acid to give unstable
8.9; m.p. 1495°C; b.p. 2870°C. Cobalt is brown solutions of trivalent cobalt salts.
ferromagnetic below its Curie point of With dilute acids cobalt(II) salts are
1150°C. Small amounts of metallic cobalt formed.
are present in meteorites but it is usually
extracted from ore deposits worked in cobalt steel Any of a group of alloy
Canada, Morocco, and the Democratic Re- *steels containing 5–12% of cobalt,
public of Congo. It is present in the min- 14–20% of tungsten, usually with 4% of
erals cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite but chromium and 1–2% of vanadium. They
also associated with copper and nickel as are very hard but somewhat brittle. Their
sulphides and arsenides. Cobalt ores are main use is in high-speed tools.
usually roasted to the oxide and then re-
COBE Cosmic Background Explorer; an
duced with carbon or water gas. Cobalt is
orbiting satellite launched in November
usually alloyed for use. Alnico is a well-
1989 for cosmological research. In 1992,
known magnetic alloy and cobalt is also
statistical studies of measurements on the
used to make stainless steels and in high-
*microwave background radiation indi-
strength alloys that are resistant to oxida-
cated the presence of weak temperature
tion at high temperatures (for turbine
Ûuctuations thought to be imprints of
blades and cutting tools).
quantum Ûuctuations in the *early uni-
The metal is oxidized by hot air and
verse. See also wmap.
also reacts with carbon, phosphorus, sul-
phur, and dilute mineral acids. Cobalt COBOL A high-level computer language
175 coelacanth

developed in the early 1960s. The name is used this device in 1932 to achieve the
short for common business-oriented lan- Ürst artiÜcially induced nuclear reaction
guage. COBOL is employed widely for data by bombarding lithium with protons to
processing in commerce and government. produce helium:
Although programs in COBOL tend to be
long and wordy, they are easy to read and
1
1H + 73Li = 42He + 42He c
easy to modify (even by someone who is cockroaches See dictyoptera.
not the original author).
cocoon A protective covering for eggs
coccus Any spherical bacterium. Cocci and/or larvae produced by many inverte-
may occur singly, in pairs, in groups of brates. For example, the larvae of many
four or more, in cubical packets, in grape- insects spin a cocoon in which the pupae
like clusters (*Staphylococcus), or in chains develop (that of the silkworm moth pro-
(*Streptococcus). Staphylococci and strepto- duces silk), and earthworms secrete a co-
cocci include pathogenic species. They are coon for the developing eggs.
generally nonmotile and do not form
spores. codominance The condition that arises
when both alleles in a *heterozygous or-
coccyx The last bone in the *vertebral ganism are dominant and are fully ex-
column in apes and man (i.e. tailless pri- pressed in the *phenotype. For example,
mates). It is formed by the fusion of 3–5 the human blood group AB is the result of
*caudal vertebrae. two alleles, A and B, both being ex-
cochlea Part of the *inner ear of mam- pressed. A is not dominant to B, nor vice
mals, birds, and some reptiles that trans- versa. Compare incomplete dominance.
forms sound waves into nerve impulses. codon A triplet of nucleotides within a
In mammals it is coiled, resembling a molecule of messenger *RNA that func-
snail shell. The cochlea is lined with sensi- tions as a unit of genetic coding (the
tive cells that bear tiny hairs; it is Ülled triplet code), usually by specifying a par-
with Ûuid (endolymph) and surrounded by ticular amino acid during the synthesis of
Ûuid (perilymph). Sound-induced vibra- proteins in a cell (see genetic code). A few
tions of the *oval window are transmitted codons specify instructions during this
through the perilymph and endolymph process (see start codon; stop codon).
and stimulate the hair cells that line the The term codon may also refer to any of
cochlea. These in turn stimulate nerve the corresponding nucleotide triplets of
cells that transmit information, via the DNA that are transcribed into codons. See
*auditory nerve, to the brain for interpre- also reading frame. Compare anticodon.
tation of the sounds.
coefÜcient 1. (in mathematics) A num-
Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas (1897– ber or other known factor by which a
1967) British physicist, who joined variable quantity is multiplied, e.g. in ax2
*Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory + bx + c = 0, a is the coefÜcient of x2 and b
in Cambridge, where with Ernest Walton is the coefÜcient of x. 2. (in physics) A
(1903–95) he built a linear accelerator (see measure of a speciÜed property of a par-
cockcroft–walton generator). In 1932, ticular substance under speciÜed condi-
using the apparatus to bombard lithium tions, e.g. the coefÜcient of *friction of a
nuclei with protons, they produced the substance.
Ürst artiÜcial nuclear transformation. For
this work they were awarded the 1951 coefÜcient of expansion See expan-
sivity.
Nobel Prize.
Cockcroft–Walton generator The coefÜcient of friction See friction.
Ürst proton accelerator; a simple *linear coelacanth A bony Üsh of the genus La-
accelerator producing a potential differ- timeria, thought to be extinct until the
ence of some 800 kV (d.c.) from a circuit Ürst modern specimen of L. chalumnae was
of rectiÜers and capacitors fed by a lower discovered in 1938 in the Indian Ocean
(a.c.) voltage. The experimenters, Sir John around the Comoros Islands, off the SE
Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton (1903–95), coast of Africa. A second species, L. mena-
 coelenterates 176

doensis, was discovered in 1999 in the coenzyme A (CoA) A complex organic

Celebes Sea, SE Asia. The coelacanth be- compound that acts in conjunction with
longs to the same order (Crossopterygii – enzymes involved in various biochemical
lobe-Ünned Üshes) as the ancestors of the reactions, notably the oxidation of pyru-
amphibians. It is a large Üsh, 1–2 m long vate via the *Krebs cycle and fatty-acid
c and weighing 80 kg or more, with a three- oxidation and synthesis. It comprises prin-
lobed tail Ün. The body is covered in cipally the B vitamin *pantothenic acid,
rough heavy scales and the pectoral Üns the nucleotide *adenine, and a ribose–
can be used like crutches to help move- phosphate group.
ment across the sea bed. The young are coenzyme Q See ubiquinone.
born alive. Fossil coelacanths are most
abundant in deposits about 400 million coercive force (coercivity) The magne-
years old and no fossils less than 70 mil- tizing force necessary to reduce the Ûux
lion years old have been found. density in a magnetic material to zero. See
hysteresis.
coelenterates See cnidaria.
coevolution The evolution of comple-
coelom A Ûuid-Ülled cavity that forms mentary adaptations in two species
the main *body cavity of vertebrate and caused by the *selection pressures that
most invertebrate animals. It is formed by each exerts on the other. It is common in
the splitting of the *mesoderm. Ciliated symbiotic associations (see symbiosis). For
ducts (coelomoducts) connect the coelom example, many insect-pollinated plants
to the exterior allowing the exit of waste have evolved Ûowers whose shapes,
products and gametes; in higher animals colours, etc., make them attractive to par-
these are specialized as oviducts, etc. The ticular insects; at the same time the polli-
coelom is large and often subdivided in nating insects have evolved sense organs
annelid worms (in which it functions as a and mouthparts specialized for quickly lo-
hydrostatic skeleton) and vertebrates. In cating, and extracting nectar from, partic-
arthropods it is restricted to the cavities of ular species of plants.
the gonads and excretory organs, the
body cavity being a blood-Ülled *haemo- cofactor A nonprotein component es-
coel. sential for the normal catalytic activity of
an enzyme. Cofactors may be organic
coelomoduct See coelom. molecules (*coenzymes) or inorganic ions.
coelostat A device that enables light They may activate the enzyme by altering
from the same area of the sky to be con- its shape or they may actually participate
tinuously reÛected into the Üeld of view of in the chemical reaction.
an astronomical telescope or other instru- coherent radiation Electromagnetic
ment. It consists of a plane mirror driven radiation in which two or more sets of
by a clockwork or electrical mechanism waves have a constant phase relationship,
so that it rotates from east to west to com- i.e. with peaks and troughs always simi-
pensate for the apparent west-to-east rota- larly spaced.
tion of the *celestial sphere.
coherent scattering Scattering for
coenocyte A mass of cytoplasm sur- which there is a well-deÜned relationship
rounding many nuclei and enclosed by a between the phase of the incoming wave
cell wall. It is found in certain algae and and the phase of the outgoing wave. Scat-
fungi. Compare cell; syncytium. tering for which there is no well-deÜned
coenzyme An organic nonprotein mol- such relationship is called incoherent scat-
tering.
ecule that associates with an enzyme mol-
ecule in catalysing biochemical reactions. coherent units A system of *units of
Coenzymes usually participate in the sub- measurement in which derived units are
strate–enzyme interaction by donating or obtained by multiplying or dividing base
accepting certain chemical groups. Many units without the use of numerical fac-
vitamins are precursors of coenzymes. See tors. *SI units form a coherent system; for
also cofactor. example the unit of force is the newton,
177 collagen

which is equal to 1 kilogram metre per the autumn crocus, Colchicum autumnale. It
second squared (kg m s–2), the kilogram, inhibits *spindle formation in cells during
metre, and second all being base units of mitosis so that chromosomes cannot sepa-
the system. rate during anaphase, thus inducing mul-
tiple sets of chromosomes (see polyploid).
cohesion 1. The force of attraction be-
tween like molecules. Cohesion provides
Colchicine is used in genetics, cytology, c
and plant breeding research and also in
the force that holds up a column of water
cancer therapy to inhibit cell division.
in the xylem tissue of plants without it
breaking. The cohesion–tension theory is cold-blooded animal See ectotherm.
the most widely accepted explanation for
cold emission The emission of elec-
the continual Ûow of water upwards
trons by a solid without the use of high
through the xylem of a plant. Water is re-
temperature, either as a result of Üeld
moved from the plant by the process of
emission (see field-emission microscope)
*transpiration, which creates a tension
or *secondary emission.
that pulls the water in the xylem upwards
as a single column held together by cohe- cold front See front.
sive forces. 2. (in botany) The union of
cold fusion See nuclear fusion.
like parts, such as the fusion of petals that
occurs in some Ûowers. Coleoptera An order of insects compris-
ing the beetles and weevils and contain-
coinage metals A group of three mal-
ing about 330 000 known species – the
leable ductile transition metals forming
largest order in the animal kingdom. The
group 11 (formerly IB) of the *periodic
forewings are hardened and thickened to
table: copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold
form elytra, which meet at a precise mid-
(Au). Their outer electronic conÜgurations
dorsal line and protect the underlying
have the form nd10(n+1)s1. Although this is
pair of hindwings and abdomen. The
similar to that of alkali metals, the
mouthparts are generally modiÜed for bit-
coinage metals all have much higher ion-
ing and in some species assume antler-
ization energies and higher (and positive)
like proportions. Beetles occur in a wide
standard electrode potentials. Thus, they
variety of terrestrial and aquatic habitats;
are much more difÜcult to oxidize and are
many feed on decaying organic matter,
more resistant to corrosion. In addition,
some eat living vegetation, while others
the fact that they have d-electrons makes
prey on other arthropods. A number of
them show variable valency (CuI, CuII, and
beetles and weevils are economically im-
CuIII; AgI and AgII; AuI and AuIII) and form
portant pests of stored grain, timber, and
a wide range of coordination compounds.
crops. The young emerge as larvae and
They are generally classiÜed with the
generally undergo metamorphosis via a
*transition elements.
pupal stage to form the adult beetle.
coincidence circuit An electronic logic
coleoptile A protective sheath that cov-
device that gives an output only if two
ers the young shoot of the embryo in
input signals are fed to it simultaneously
plants of the grass family. It bursts open
or within a speciÜed time of each other. A
when the Ürst leaves develop. Experi-
coincidence counter is an electronic
ments investigating growth movements
counter incorporating such a device.
of the oat coleoptile led to the discovery
coitus See sexual intercourse. of the plant growth substance indole-
acetic acid (IAA).
coke A form of carbon made by the de-
structive distillation of coal. Coke is used coleorhiza A protective sheath that cov-
for blast-furnaces and other metallurgical ers the young root of the embryo in
and chemical processes requiring a source plants of the grass family.
of carbon. Lower-grade cokes, made by
collagen An insoluble Übrous protein
heating the coal to a lower temperature,
found extensively in the connective tissue
are used as smokeless fuels for domestic
of skin, tendons, and bone. The polypep-
heating.
tide chains of collagen (containing the
colchicine An *alkaloid derived from amino acids glycine and proline predomi-
 collapsar 178

nantly) form triple-stranded helical coils of a tube with an adjustable slit at the
that are bound together to form Übrils, other end, the slit being at the principal
which have great strength and limited focus of the lens. Light rays entering the
elasticity. Collagen accounts for over 30% slit leave the lens as a parallel beam. Colli-
of the total body protein of mammals. mators for particle beams and other types
c collapsar A *neutron star, *white
of electromagnetic radiation utilize a sys-
tem of slits or apertures. 2. A small Üxed
dwarf, or any other star composed of de-
telescope attached to a large astronomical
generate matter: *black holes are also re-
telescope to assist in lining up the large
garded as collapsars. They share the
one onto the desired celestial body.
property that they have all collapsed
under the effect of a strong gravitational collision density The number of colli-
Üeld and ceased to produce energy within sions that occur in unit volume in unit
their cores. time when a given neutron Ûux passes
through matter.
collecting duct Any of the ducts in the
mammalian *kidney that drains into the collision quenching See external con-
renal pelvis, which leads to the ureter. version.
They are the main sites of water reabsorp- collodion A thin Ülm of cellulose nitrate
tion from the glomerular Ültrate, which made by dissolving the cellulose nitrate in
drains into the ducts from the *distal con- ethanol or ethoxyethane, coating the sur-
voluted tubules of the *nephrons. The face, and evaporating the solvent.
cells of the collecting ducts are relatively
impermeable to water. However, the in- colloids As originally deÜned by Thomas
Ûuence of *antidiuretic hormone in- Graham in 1861, substances, such as
creases the permeability of the collecting starch or gelatin, that will not diffuse
ducts, allowing the reabsorption of water through a membrane. Graham distin-
and controlling the Ünal urine concentra- guished colloids from crystalloids (e.g. in-
tion according to the body’s state of hy- organic salts), which would pass through
dration. membranes. Later it was recognized that
colloids were distinguished from true so-
collective excitation A quantized lutions by the presence of particles that
mode in a many-body system, occurring were too small to be observed with a nor-
because of cooperative motion of the mal microscope yet were much larger
whole system as a result of interactions than normal molecules. Colloids are now
between particles. *Plasmons and regarded as systems in which there are
*phonons in solids are examples of collec- two or more phases, with one (the dis-
tive excitations. Collective excitations persed phase) distributed in the other (the
obey Bose–Einstein statistics (see quantum continuous phase). Moreover, at least one
statistics). of the phases has small dimensions (in the
collector See transistor. range 10–9–10–6 m). Colloids are classiÜed
in various ways.
collenchyma See ground tissues. Sols are dispersions of small solid parti-
colligative properties Properties that cles in a liquid. The particles may be
depend on the concentration of particles macromolecules or may be clusters of
(molecules, ions, etc.) present in a solu- small molecules. Lyophobic sols are those
tion, and not on the nature of the parti- in which there is no afÜnity between the
dispersed phase and the liquid. An exam-
cles. Examples of colligative properties
ple is silver chloride dispersed in water. In
are osmotic pressure (see osmosis), *lower-
such colloids the solid particles have a
ing of vapour pressure, *depression of
surface charge, which tends to stop them
freezing point, and *elevation of boiling
coming together. Lyophobic sols are in-
point.
herently unstable and in time the parti-
collimator 1. Any device for producing cles aggregate and form a precipitate.
a parallel beam of radiation. A common Lyophilic sols, on the other hand, are
arrangement used for light consists of a more like true solutions in which the so-
convex achromatic lens Ütted to one end lute molecules are large and have an
179 colour

afÜnity for the solvent. Starch in water is from haemopoietic *stem cells. They
an example of such a system. Association include GM-CSF, a glycoprotein that
colloids are systems in which the dis- causes the stem cells to develop into
persed phase consists of clusters of mol- mixed colonies of granulocytes and
ecules that have lyophobic and lyophilic monocytes/macrophages (hence the
parts. Soap in water is an association col- name); G-CSF, which stimulates produc- c
loid (see micelle). tion of granulocytes only; and M-CSF,
Emulsions are colloidal systems in which promotes only monocyte/
which the dispersed and continuous macrophage cell production. *Inter-
phases are both liquids, e.g. oil-in-water or leukin-3 (IL-3) is sometimes called the
water-in-oil. Such systems require an ‘multi-CSF’ because it stimulates the pro-
emulsifying agent to stabilize the dis- duction of all types of lymphocytes and
persed particles. also erythrocytes.
Gels are colloids in which both dis-
colorimeter Any instrument for com-
persed and continuous phases have a
paring or reproducing colours. Monochro-
three-dimensional network throughout
matic colorimeters match a *colour with
the material, so that it forms a jelly-like
a mixture of monochromatic and white
mass. Gelatin is a common example. One
lights. Trichromatic colorimeters use a
component may sometimes be removed
mixture of three *primary colours.
(e.g. by heating) to leave a rigid gel (e.g.
silica gel). colorimetric analysis Quantitative
Other types of colloid include *aerosols analysis of solutions by estimating their
(dispersions of liquid or solid particles in a colour, e.g. by comparing it with the
gas, as in a mist or smoke) and foams (dis- colours of standard solutions.
persions of gases in liquids or solids).
colostrum A liquid with a high content
cologarithm The logarithm of the re- of nitrogen, antibodies, and vitamins that
ciprocal of a number. is secreted from the mammary glands be-
fore and just after giving birth. The
colon The section of the vertebrate
change of secretion from colostrum to
*large intestine that lies between the
proper milk takes place gradually during
*caecum and the *rectum. Its prime func-
the days after birth.
tion is to absorb water and minerals from
indigestible food residues passing from colour The sensation produced when
the small intestine, which results in the light of different wavelengths falls on the
formation of *faeces. human eye. Although the visible spec-
trum covers a continuously varying range
colony 1. (in zoology) A group of ani-
of colours from red to violet it is usually
mals of the same species living together
split into seven colours (the visible spec-
and dependent upon each other. Some,
trum) with the following approximate
such as the corals and sponges, are physi-
wavelength ranges:
cally connected and function as a single
red 740–620 nm
unit. Others, such as insect colonies, are
orange 620–585 nm
not physically joined but show a high
yellow 585–575 nm
level of social organization with members
green 575–500 nm
specialized for different functions (see
blue 500–445 nm
caste). 2. (in microbiology) A group of
indigo 445–425 nm
microorganisms, usually bacteria or
violet 425–390 nm
yeasts, that are considered to have devel-
A mixture of all these colours in the pro-
oped from a single parent cell. Colonies
portions encountered in daylight gives
that grow on *agar plates differ in shape,
white light; other colours are produced by
colour, surface texture, and translucency
varying the proportions or omitting com-
and can therefore be used as a means of
ponents.
identiÜcation.
A coloured light has three attributes: its
colony-stimulating factor (CSF) Any hue, depending on its wavelength; its sat-
of several *cytokines that stimulate devel- uration, depending on the degree to
opment of certain types of blood cells which it departs from white light; and its
 colour blindness 180

*luminosity. Coloured objects that owe colour television A television system

their colour to pigments or dyes absorb in which the camera Ülters the light from
some components of white light and the scene into the three component *pri-
reÛect the rest. For example, a red book mary colours, red, blue, and green, which
seen in white light absorbs all the compo- are detected by separate camera tubes.
c nents except the red, which it reÛects. The separate information so obtained
This is called a subtractive process as the relating to the colour of the image is com-
Ünal colour is that remaining after absorp- bined with the sound and synchroniza-
tion of the rest. This is the basis of the tion signals and transmitted using one of
process used in *colour photography. three systems, the American, British, or
Combining coloured lights, on the other French. At the receiver, the signal is split
hand, is an additive process and this is the again into red, blue, and green compo-
method used in *colour television. See also nents, each being fed to a separate *elec-
primary colour. tron gun in the cathode-ray tube of the
receiver. By an additive process (see col-
colour blindness Any disorder of vi-
our) the picture is reconstituted by the
sion in which colours are confused. The
beam from each gun activating a set of
most common type is red–green colour
phosphor dots of that colour on the
blindness. This is due to a recessive gene
screen.
carried on the X chromosome (see sex
linkage), and therefore men are more colour temperature The temperature
likely to show the defect although women of a non-black body as indicated by the
may be *carriers. It results in absence or temperature of a black body having ap-
malfunctioning of one or more of the proximately the same spectral distribu-
three types of cone cell responsible for tion.
*colour vision.
colour vision The ability of the eye to
colour charge See elementary parti- detect different wavelengths of light and
cles. to distinguish between these different
wavelengths and their corresponding
colour photography Any of various
colours. In the mammalian eye this is
methods of forming coloured images on
achieved by the *cone cells, which are lo-
Ülm or paper by photographic means. One
cated in and around the *fovea near to
common process is a subtractive reversal
the centre of the retina. The cone cells
system that utilizes a Ülm with three lay-
contain the light-sensitive pigment
ers of light-sensitive emulsion, one re-
iodopsin, which – according to the trichro-
sponding to each of the three *primary
matic theory – exists in three forms, each
colours. On development a black image is
form occurring in a different cone cell.
formed where the scene is blue. The
Each form of iodopsin is sensitive to ei-
white areas are dyed yellow, the *comple-
ther red, blue, or green light. The relative
mentary colour of blue, and the black-
stimulation of each type of cone will de-
ened areas are bleached clean. A yellow
termine the colour that is interpreted by
Ülter between this emulsion layer and the
the brain. For example, if red cones and
next keeps blue light from the second
green cones are stimulated to an equal ex-
emulsion, which is green-sensitive. This is
tent, the colour interpreted by the brain is
dyed magenta where no green light has
yellow. See also colour blindness.
fallen. The Ünal emulsion is red-sensitive
The *compound eye of certain insects is
and is given a cyan (blue-green) image on
also capable of colour vision.
the negative after dying. When white
light shines through the three dye layers columbium A former name for the el-
the cyan dye subtracts red where it does ement *niobium.
not occur in the scene, the magenta sub-
column chromatography See chro-
tracts green, and the yellow subtracts
matography.
blue. The light projected by the negative
therefore reconstructs the original scene coma 1. A nebulous cloud of gas and
either as a transparency or for use with dust that surrounds the nucleus of a
printing paper. *comet. 2. An *aberration of a lens or
181 communication satellite

mirror in which the image of a point Communication can occur between indi-
lying off the axis has a comet-shaped ap- viduals of the same species (intraspeciÜc
pearance. communication) or between members of
different species (interspeciÜc communica-
combinations See permutations and
tion). It generally involves the transmis-
combinations.
sion of a signal from one organism to c
combined cycle See fluidization. another; signals can be visual, chemical,
or tactile or they can take the form of
combustion A chemical reaction in
sounds. Visual signals between members
which a substance reacts rapidly with oxy-
of the same species are widely used by an-
gen with the production of heat and light.
imals in such activities as deÜning and
Such reactions are often free-radical chain
protecting *territories and Ünding suit-
reactions, which can usually be summa-
able mates (see courtship; display be-
rized as the oxidation of carbon to form
haviour; bioluminescence). Chemical
its oxides and the oxidation of hydrogen
and tactile signals also play an important
to form water. See also flame.
role in these activities (see pheromone).
comet A small body that travels around Social species rely heavily on all three
the sun in an eccentric orbit. Short-period types of signalling, the classic example
comets have orbital periods of less than being provided by the *dance of the bees,
150 years. The others have very long peri- in which information about the distance
ods, some exceeding 100 000 years. Typi- and direction of a food source is conveyed
cal comets have three components: the to other members of the colony. Visual
nucleus of ice and dust, the *coma of gas signals, in the form of body coloration,
and dust, and the comet tail, which only are the principal means of communica-
appears when the comet is near the sun tion between animals of different species
(it, too, consists of gas and dust). The nu- (see mimicry; warning coloration).
clei of most comets are thought to be Sounds are more effective than visual sig-
‘dirty snowballs’ about one kilometre in nals for intraspeciÜc communication over
diameter, although the solar system has a long distances and at night. Certain in-
few comets with nuclei exceeding 10 km sects produce sounds by *stridulation,
in diameter. The coma may be 104–105 km while birdsong and language are sophisti-
in diameter, and the tail can be 107 km in cated examples of sound signals in birds
length. See also halley’s comet. and humans, respectively. Among plants,
visual and chemical signals are important
commensalism An interaction between
in communication. Flowering plants
two animal or plant species that habitu-
whose Ûowers are pollinated by insects or
ally live together in which one species
other animals depend on the colour,
(the commensal) beneÜts from the associa-
shape, and scent of their Ûowers to attract
tion while the other is not signiÜcantly af-
suitable pollinating agents. Some plants
fected. For example, the burrows of many
produce chemical signals to deter com-
marine worms contain commensals that
petitors and predators (see allelopathy).
take advantage of the shelter provided but
do not affect the worm. communication satellite An un-
manned artiÜcial satellite sent by rocket
common-collector connection A
into a geostationary orbit (see syn-
technique used in the operation of some
chronous orbit) around the earth to en-
*transistors, in which the collector is
able television broadcasts and telephone
common to both the input and output cir-
communications to be made between
cuits, the input terminal is the *base, and
points on the earth’s surface that could
the output terminal is the collector.
not otherwise communicate by radio
common logarithm See logarithm. owing to the earth’s curvature. Modulated
*microwaves are transmitted to the satel-
common salt See sodium chloride.
lite, which ampliÜes them and retrans-
communication An interaction be- mits them at a different frequency to the
tween two organisms in which informa- receiving station. The satellites are pow-
tion is conveyed from one to the other. ered by *solar cells. Three or more satel-
 community 182

lites in equatorial orbits can provide a trieved from the rotating disk by means
world-wide communications linkage. The of a low-power laser focused on the track
satellites are placed well above the iono- and modulated by the binary code im-
sphere and therefore the carrier waves pressed on the track.
used have to be in the microwave region
c of the spectrum in order to pass through
companion cell A type of cell found
within the *phloem of Ûowering plants.
the ionosphere.
Each companion cell is usually closely as-
community A naturally occurring as- sociated with a *sieve element. Its func-
semblage of plant and animal species liv- tion is uncertain, though it appears to
ing within a deÜned area or habitat. regulate the activity of the adjacent sieve
Communities are named after one of their element and to take part in loading and
*dominant species (e.g. a pine commu- unloading sugar into the sieve element. In
nity) or the major physical characteristics gymnosperms a similar function is at-
of the area (e.g. a freshwater pond com- tributed to albuminous cells, which are
munity). Members of a community inter- found closely associated with gymno-
act in various ways (e.g. through *food sperm sieve elements.
chains and *competition). Large commu-
nities may be divided into smaller compo- compass A small magnet pivoted at its
nent communities. See association. central point to revolve in a horizontal
plane. In the earth’s magnetic Üeld the
commutative law The mathematical magnet (called the compass needle) aligns
law stating that the value of an expression itself so that its north-seeking end points
is independent of the order of combina- to the earth’s magnetic north pole. A scale
tion of the numbers, symbols, or terms in (called a compass card) is placed below
the expression. The commutative law for the needle for use in navigation. In some
addition applies if x + y = y + x. The com- navigation compasses the entire card is
mutative law of multiplication applies if pivoted, indicating direction by a Üxed
x × y = y × x. Subtraction and division are mark on the casing. Such compasses are
not commutative. Compare associative often Ülled with alcohol to provide damp-
law; distributive law. ing. Magnetic compasses suffer from
commutator The part of the armature being affected by magnetic metals in their
of an electrical motor or generator vicinity and to a large extent they have
through which connections are made to been replaced by *gyrocompasses.
external circuits. It consists of a cylindri- compass plant A plant that has its
cal assembly of insulated copper conduc- leaves permanently orientated in a
tors, each of which is connected to one north–south direction. Such an arrange-
point in the armature winding. Spring- ment enables the plant to take full advan-
loaded carbon brushes are positioned tage of morning and evening sun, while
around the commutator to carry the cur- avoiding the stronger midday sunlight. An
rent to or from it. example is the compass plant of the
compact disk (CD) A 120 mm metal prairies (Silphium laciniatum).
disk on which there is a *digital recording competent Describing embryonic tissue
of audio information, providing high- that is capable of developing into a spe-
quality recording and reproduction of cialized tissue when suitably stimulated.
music, speech, etc. The recording is pro-
See induction; evocation.
tected by a layer of clear plastic. The infor-
mation is permanently encoded in the competition The interaction that oc-
form of a spiral track of minute pits im- curs between two or more organisms,
pressed on one surface of the disk at the populations, or species that share some
time of manufacture; these impressions environmental resource when this is in
correspond to a changing sequence of short supply. Competition is an important
*bits. The CD is rotated at constant linear force in evolution: plants, for example,
velocity (CLV) in a CD player; the rotation become tall to compete for light, and ani-
rate is varied according to the radius of mals evolve various foraging methods to
the track accessed. Information is re- compete for food. There may be a direct
183 complexity

confrontation between competitors, as oc- electron is a wave (see de broglie wave-

curs between barnacles competing for length), whereas the *photoelectric ef-
space on a rock, or the numbers or fecun- fect is described by assuming that it is a
dity of the competitors are indirectly re- particle. The idea of two different but
duced through joint dependence on complementary concepts to treat quan-
limited resources. Competition occurs tum phenomena was Ürst put forward by c
both between members of a species the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1855–
(intraspeciÜc competition) and between 1962) in 1927. See also light.
different species (interspeciÜc competi-
complementary colours A pair of
tion). InterspeciÜc competition often re-
coloured lights of speciÜc hue (see colour)
sults in the dominance of one species over
another (see dominant). Since competi- that produce the sensation of white when
tion ultimately results in the displace- mixed in appropriate intensities. There is
ment by one competitor of the others, it an inÜnite number of such pairs, an ex-
is to the advantage of the competitors to ample (with wavelengths) is orange
avoid one another wherever possible. (608 nm) and blue (490 nm).
Thus in time the competitors become sep- complementary DNA (cDNA) A form
arated from each other geographically or of DNA prepared in the laboratory using
ecologically, which promotes evolutionary messenger *RNA (mRNA) as template, i.e.
change. Competition for mates may lead the reverse of the usual process of *tran-
to *sexual selection. scription in cells; the synthesis is catal-
competitive inhibition See inhibi- ysed by *reverse transcriptase. cDNA thus
tion. has a base sequence that is complemen-
tary to that of the mRNA template; unlike
complement A group of proteins pre- genomic DNA, it contains no noncoding
sent in blood plasma and tissue Ûuid that sequences (*introns). cDNA is used in
aids the body’s defences following an *im- *gene cloning for the expression of
mune response; the genes encoding it eukaryote genes in prokaryote host cells
form part of the *major histocompatibil- or as a *gene probe.
ity complex. Following an antibody–
antigen reaction, complement is activated complementary genes Two (or more)
chemically and becomes bound to the genes that are interdependent, such that
antibody–antigen complex (complement the dominant *allele from either gene can
Üxation); it becomes involved in destroy- only produce an effect on the *phenotype
ing foreign cells and attracting scavenging of an organism if the dominant allele
white blood cells (*phagocytes) to the area from the other gene is also present.
of conÛict in the body. complex A compound in which mol-
complemental males The small males ecules or ions form coordinate bonds to a
of certain animals that live in or on the fe- metal atom or ion (see illustration over-
males and are usually more or less degen- leaf). Often complexes occur as positive or
erate apart from the reproductive organs. negative complex ions, such as
They occur in certain crustaceans (e.g. [Cu(H2O)6]2+ and Fe[(CN)6]3–. A complex
some barnacles), in which the normal in- may also be a neutral molecule (e.g.
dividuals are hermaphrodite but the com- PtCl2(NH3)2). The formation of such coor-
plemental males have suppressed ovaries, dination complexes is typical behaviour of
lose their alimentary canal, and lead a transition metals. The complexes formed
semiparasitic existence in the mantle cav- are often coloured and have unpaired
ity of the larger partner. This may ensure electrons (i.e. are paramagnetic). See also
that cross fertilization occurs. ligand; chelate.
complementarity The concept that a complexity The levels of *self-organiza-
single model may not be adequate to ex- tion of a system. In physical systems, com-
plain all the observations made of atomic plexity is associated with *broken
or subatomic systems in different experi- symmetry and the ability of a system to
ments. For example, *electron diffraction have different states between which it can
is best explained by assuming that the make *phase transitions. It is also associ-
 complex number 184

ated with having coherence in space over

a long range. Examples of complexity in-
clude *superconductivity, *superÛuidity,
*lasers, and ordered phases that arise
when a system is driven far from thermal
c equilibrium (see bénard cell). It is not
necessary for a system to have a large
number of degrees of freedom in order
for complexity to occur. The study of com-
plexity is greatly aided by computers in
systems that cannot be described analyti-
cally.
complex number A number that has a
real part, x, and an imaginary part, iy,
octahedral where i = √–1 and x and y are real (x can
also equal 0). The complex number there-
fore has the form x + iy, which can also be
written in the polar form rcosθ + irsinθ,
where r is the modulus and θ is the argu-
ment (or amplitude). A complex number
can be represented on an Argand
diagram, devised by Jean-Robert Argand
(1768–1822), in which the horizontal axis
represents the real part of the number
and the vertical axis the imaginary part
(see illustration). In the polar form the
modulus is the line joining the origin to
the point representing the complex num-
ber and the argument is the angle be-
tween the modulus and the x-axis.
tetrahedral

iy (imaginary)

P (x, iy)

square-planar r

θ
O x (real)

Argand diagram

complexometric analysis A type of

volumetric analysis in which the reaction
involves the formation of an inorganic
*complex.
component A distinct chemical species
trigonal-bipyramid
in a mixture. If there are no reactions tak-
ing place, the number of components is
Some common shapes of coordination complexes the number of separate chemical species.
185 Compton effect

A mixture of water and ethanol, for in- matidium focuses rays parallel to its long
stance, has two components (but is a sin- axis so that each gives an image of a
gle phase). A mixture of ice and water has minute part of the visual Üeld, producing
two phases but one component (H2O). If a detailed mosaic image. In superposition
an equilibrium reaction occurs, the num- eyes, typical of nocturnal insects, the pig-
ber of components is taken to be the ment separating ommatidia migrates to c
number of chemical species minus the the ends of the cells, so that each omma-
number of reactions. Thus, in tidium receives light from a larger part of
the visual Üeld and the image may overlap
H2 + I2 ˆ 2HI
with those received by many neighbour-
there are two components. See also phase ing ommatidia. This produces an image
rule. that is bright but lacks sharpness of detail.
component vectors Two or more vec- compound microscope See micro-
tors that produce the same effect as a scope.
given vector; the vectors that combine to compressibility The reciprocal of bulk
produce the effect of a resultant vector. A modulus (see elastic modulus). The com-
component vector in a given direction is pressibility (k) is given by –V –1dV/dp,
the projection of the given vector (V ) where dV/dp is the rate of change of vol-
along that direction, i.e. Vcosθ, where θ is ume (V) with pressure.
the angle between the given vector and
the direction. compression ratio The ratio of the
total volume enclosed in the cylinder of
composite fruit A type of fruit that de- an *internal-combustion engine at the be-
velops from an inÛorescence rather than ginning of the compression stroke to the
from a single Ûower. See pseudocarp; volume enclosed at the end of the com-
sorosis; strobilus; syconus. pression stroke. For petrol engines the
compost A mixture of decaying organic compression ratio is 8.5–9:1, with a recent
matter, such as vegetation and manure, tendency to the lower end of the range in
that is used as a *fertilizer. The organic order to make use of unleaded petrols. For
material is decomposed by aerobic sapro- Diesel engines the compression ratio is in
trophic organisms, mostly fungi and bac- the range 12–25:1.
teria. Some decomposition is also carried comproportionation A reaction in
out by *detritivores. Compost is used which an element in a higher oxidation
mainly on a domestic scale. state reacts with the same element in a
compound A substance formed by the lower oxidation state to give the element
combination of elements in Üxed propor- in an intermediate oxidation state. An ex-
tions. The formation of a compound in- ample is Ag2+(aq) + Ag(s) → 2Ag+(aq). It is
volves a chemical reaction; i.e. there is a the reverse of *disproportionation.
change in the conÜguration of the valence Compton, Arthur Holly (1892–1962)
electrons of the atoms. Compounds, un- US physicist, who became professor of
like mixtures, cannot be separated by physics at the University of Chicago in
physical means. See also molecule. 1923. He is best known for his discovery
compound eye The eye of insects and (1923) of the *Compton effect, for which
crustaceans, which consists of numerous he shared the 1927 Nobel Prize with C. T.
visual units, the ommatidia. Each omma- R. *Wilson. In 1938 he demonstrated that
tidium consists of an outer cuticle cover- *cosmic radiation consists of charged par-
ing a lens, beneath which are 6–8 retinal ticles.
cells surrounding a light-sensitive rhab- Compton effect The reduction in the
dom. Adjacent ommatidia are separated energy of high-energy (X-ray or gamma-
by pigment cells. The eye is convex, with ray) photons when they are scattered by
nerve Übres from the retinal cells converg- free electrons, which thereby gain energy.
ing onto the optic nerve. There are two The phenomenon, Ürst observed in 1923
types of compound eye. In apposition by Arthur Compton, occurs when the
eyes, typical of diurnal insects, each om- photon collides with an electron; some of
 Compton wavelength 186

the photon’s energy is transferred to the crete digits of the more commercially use-
electron and consequently the photon ful digital device. Hybrid computers com-
loses energy h(ν1 – ν2), where h is the bine the properties of both digital and
*Planck constant and ν1 and ν2 are the fre- analog devices. Input is usually in analog
quencies before and after collision. As ν1 > form, but processing is carried out digi-
c ν2, the wavelength of the radiation in- tally in a CPU.
creases after the collision. This type of in- Computer hardware consists of the ac-
elastic scattering is known as Compton tual electronic or mechanical devices used
scattering and is similar to the *Raman ef- in the system; the software consists of the
fect. See also inverse compton effect. programs and data. See also rom.
Compton wavelength The length concave Curving inwards. A concave
below which a particle’s quantum- mirror is one in which the reÛecting sur-
mechanical properties become relevant face is formed from the interior surface of
in relativistic *quantum mechanics. For a sphere or paraboloid. A concave lens has
a particle of rest mass m the Compton at least one face formed from the interior
wavelength is /mc, where  is the ration- surface of a sphere. A biconcave lens has
alized Planck constant and c is the speed both faces concave and is therefore
of light. The Compton wavelength is so thinnest at its centre. The plano-concave
named because of its occurrence in the lens has one plane face and one concave
theory of the *Compton effect, where its face. The concavo-convex lens (also called
value for the electron is 3.8616 × 10–13 m. a meniscus) has one concave face and one
The Compton wavelength is sometimes *convex face. See lens.
deÜned as h/mc, with h being the Planck
concavo-convex See concave.
constant, in which case the electron value
is 2.4263 × 10–12 m. concentrated Describing a solution
that has a relatively high concentration of
computer An electronic device that pro-
solute.
cesses information according to a set of
instructions, called the program. The concentration The quantity of dis-
most versatile type of computer is the dig- solved substance per unit quantity of
ital computer, in which the input is in the solvent in a solution. Concentration is
form of characters, represented within measured in various ways. The amount of
the machine in *binary notation. Central substance dissolved per unit volume (sym-
to the operation of a computer is the cen- bol c) has units of mol dm–3 or mol l–1. It is
tral processing unit (CPU), which contains now called amount concentration (for-
circuits for manipulating the information merly molarity). The mass concentration
(see logic circuits). The CPU contains the (symbol ρ) is the mass of solute per unit
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which per- volume of solvent. It has units of kg dm–3,
forms operations, and a control unit. It is g cm–3, etc. The molal concentration (or
supported by a short-term memory, in molality; symbol m) is the amount of sub-
which data is stored in electronic circuits stance per unit mass of solvent, com-
(see ram). Associated storage usually in- monly given in units of mol kg–1. See also
volves *magnetic disks or *CD-ROM. mole fraction.
There are also various peripheral input
concentration cell See cell.
and output devices, such as a keyboard,
visual-display unit (VDU), magnetic tape concentration gradient (diffusion gra-
unit, and *printer. Computers range in dient) The difference in concentration be-
size from the microprocessor with a few tween a region of a solution or gas that
thousand logic elements, to the large has a high density of particles and a re-
mainframe computer with millions of gion that has a relatively lower density of
logic circuits. particles. By random motion, particles
The analog computer is used in will move from the area of high concen-
scientiÜc experiments, industrial control, tration towards the area of low concentra-
etc. In this type of device the input and tion, by the process of *diffusion, until
output are continuously varying quanti- the particles are evenly distributed in the
ties, such as a voltage, rather than the dis- solution or gas.
187 conduction

conceptacle A Ûask-shaped cavity with conditioning A process by which ani-

a small opening (the ostiole) that is found mals learn about a relation between two
in the swollen tip of certain brown algae, events. In classical (or Pavlovian) condi-
such as Fucus. It contains the sex organs. tioning, repeated presentations of a neu-
tral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a bell or
conception The fertilization of a mam-
malian egg cell by a sperm cell, which oc-
buzzer) are followed each time by a bio- c
logically important stimulus (such as food
curs in the fallopian tube. Conception is or electric shock), which elicits a response
followed by *implantation. (e.g. salivation). Eventually the neutral
conchoidal fracture Fracture of a solid stimulus presented by itself produces a re-
in which the surface of the material is sponse (the conditional response, or con-
curved and marked by concentric rings. It ditioned reÛex) similar to that originally
occurs particularly in amorphous ma- evoked by the biologically important stim-
terials. ulus. In instrumental (or operant) condi-
tioning the animal is rewarded (or
condensation The change of a vapour punished) each time it makes a particular
or gas into a liquid. The change of phase response; this eventually causes the fre-
is accompanied by the evolution of heat quency of the response to increase (or de-
(see latent heat). crease). See learning (Feature);
condensation polymerization See reinforcement.
polymer. conductance The reciprocal of electri-
condensation pump See diffusion cal resistance in a direct-current circuit.
pump. The ratio of the resistance to the square of
the *impedance in an alternating-current
condensation reaction A chemical re- circuit. The SI unit is the siemens, for-
action in which two molecules combine merly called the mho or reciprocal ohm.
to form a larger molecule with elimina-
conducting polymer An organic poly-
tion of a small molecule (e.g. H2O). See
mer that conducts electricity. Conducting
aldehydes; ketones.
polymers have a crystalline structure in
condensed-matter physics See solid- which chains of conjugated unsaturated
state physics. carbon–carbon bonds are aligned. Exam-
ples are polyacetylene and polypyrrole.
condenser 1. A mirror or set of lenses
There has been considerable interest in
used in optical instruments, such as a
the development of such materials be-
microscope or Ülm projector, to concen-
cause they would be cheaper and lighter
trate the light diverging from a compact than metallic conductors. They do, how-
source. A common form consists of two ever, tend to be chemically unstable and,
plano-convex lenses with the plane faces so far, no commercial conducting poly-
pointing outwards. 2. A device used to mers have been developed.
cool a vapour to cause it to condense to a
liquid. In a steam engine the condenser conductiometric titration A type of
acts as a reservoir that collects the part of titration in which the electrical conductiv-
the steam’s internal energy that has not ity of the reaction mixture is continuously
been used in doing work on the piston. monitored as one reactant is added. The
The cooling water passed through the equivalence point is the point at which
condenser is warmed and is used as fresh this undergoes a sudden change. The
feedwater for the boiler. See also liebig method is used for titrating coloured solu-
condenser. 3. See capacitor. tions, which cannot be used with normal
indicators.
condenser microphone See capacitor
microphone.
conduction 1. (thermal conduction) The
transmission of heat through a substance
conditional response (conditioned from a region of high temperature to a re-
reÛex) A learned response that develops gion of lower temperature. In gases and
to an initially ineffective stimulus in clas- most liquids, the energy is transmitted
sical *conditioning. mainly by collisions between atoms and
 conduction band 188

molecules with those possessing lower ki- Again conduction results from the move-
netic energy. In solid and liquid metals, ment of free electrons. See energy band.
heat conduction is predominantly by mi-
condyle A smooth round knob of bone
gration of fast-moving electrons, followed
that Üts into a socket on an adjoining
by collisions between these electrons and
c ions. In solid insulators the absence of
bone, forming a *joint. Such a joint per-
mits up-and-down or side-to-side move-
free *electrons restricts heat transfer to ment but does not allow rotation. There
the vibrations of atoms and molecules are condyles where the lower jawbone
within crystal lattices. See conductivity. (mandible) is attached to the skull, which
2. (electrical conduction) The passage of permits chewing movements. See also oc-
electric charge through a substance under cipital condyle.
the inÛuence of an electric Üeld. See also
charge carrier; energy band. Condy’s Ûuid A mixture of calcium
and potassium permanganates (man-
conduction band See energy band. ganate(VII)) used as an antiseptic.
conductivity 1. (thermal conductivity) cone 1. (in botany) A reproductive struc-
A measure of the ability of a substance to ture occurring in gymnosperms, known
conduct heat. For a block of material of technically as a strobilus. It consists of
cross section A, the energy transferred per *sporophylls bearing the spore-producing
unit time E/t, between faces a distance, l, sporangia. Gymnosperms produce differ-
apart is given by E/t = λ A(T2 – T1)/ l, where ent male and female cones. The large
λ is the conductivity and T2 and T1 are the woody female cones of pines, Ürs, and
temperatures of the faces. This equation other conifers are made up of structures
assumes that the opposite faces are paral- called ovuliferous scales, which bear the
lel and that there is no heat loss through ovules. Cones are also produced by club-
the sides of the block. The SI unit is there- mosses and horsetails. 2. (in animal
fore J s–1 m–1 K–1. 2. (electrical conductiv- anatomy) A type of light-sensitive receptor
ity) The reciprocal of the *resistivity of a cell, found in the *retinas of all diurnal
material. It is measured in siemens per vertebrates. Cones are specialized to trans-
metre in SI units. When a Ûuid is involved mit information about colour (see colour
the electrolytic conductivity is given by vision) and are responsible for the *visual
the ratio of the current density to the acuity of the eye. They function best in
electric Üeld strength. bright light. They are not evenly dis-
conductivity water See distilled tributed on the retina, being concentrated
water. in the *fovea and absent on the margin of
the retina. Compare rod. 3. (in mathemat-
conductometric titration A type of ics) A solid Ügure generated by a line (the
*titration in which the end point is deter- generator) joining a point on the perime-
mined by detecting a sudden change in ter of a closed plane curve (the directrix)
the conductivity of the solution. It is par- to a point (the vertex) outside this plane,
ticularly useful in titrating weak acids as the line moves round the directrix. If
against weak bases or for coloured solu- the directrix is a circle, the Ügure is a cir-
tions, for which indicators cannot be cular cone standing on a circular base. If
used. the line joining the vertex to the centre of
conductor 1. A substance that has a the base (the axis) is perpendicular to the
high thermal *conductivity. Metals are base the Ügure is a right circular cone,
good conductors on account of the high which has a volume πr2h/3, where r is the
concentration of free *electrons they con- radius of the base and h is the height of
the vertex above the base. If the axis of
tain. Energy is transmitted through a
the cone is not perpendicular to the base,
metal predominantly by means of colli-
the Ügure is an oblique cone. In general,
sions between electrons and ions. Most
the volume of any cone is one third of its
nonmetals are poor conductors (good
base area multiplied by the perpendicular
thermal insulators) because there are rela-
distance of the vertex from the base.
tively few free electrons. 2. A substance
that has a high electrical conductivity. conÜguration 1. The arrangement of
189 conjugated

atoms or groups in a molecule. 2. The ar- secting plane is perpendicular to the axis
rangement of electrons in atomic *or- of a right circular cone, the Ügure formed
bitals in an atom. is a *circle. If the intersecting plane is in-
clined to the axis at an angle in excess of
conÜguration space The n-dimen-
half the apex angle of the cone it is an *el-
sional space with coordinates (q1,q2,…,qn)
associated with a system that has n *de- lipse. If the plane is parallel to the sloping c
grees of freedom, where the values q de- side of the cone, the Ügure is a *parabola.
scribe the degrees of freedom. For If the plane cuts both halves of the cone a
example, in a gas of N atoms each atom *hyperbola is formed.
has three positional coordinates, so the A conic can be deÜned as a plane curve
conÜguration space is 3N-dimensional. If in which for all points on the curve the
the particles also have internal degrees of ratio of the distance from a Üxed point
freedom, such as those caused by vibra- (the focus) to the perpendicular distance
tion and rotation in a molecule, then from a straight line (the directrix) is a con-
these must be included in the conÜgura- stant called the eccentricity e. For a
tion space, which is consequently of a parabola e = 1, for an ellipse e < 1, and for
higher dimension. See also phase space. a hyperbola e > 1.

conÜnement See quantum chromo- conidiospore See conidium.

dynamics; quark confinement. conidium (conidiospore) A spore of cer-
conformation Any of the large number tain fungi, such as moulds, that is pro-
of possible shapes of a molecule resulting duced by the constriction of the tip of a
from rotation of one part of the molecule specialized hypha, the conidiophore.
about a single bond. See illustration. Chains of conidia may be formed in this
way; they are cut off, one at a time, from
the tip of the hypha.
Coniferophyta A phylum of seed-bear-
ing plants comprising the conifers, includ-
ing the pines, Ürs, and spruces. Conifers
eclipsed staggered gauche have an extensive fossil record going back
to the late Devonian. The gametes are car-
Conformation for rotation about a single bond ried in male and female *cones, fertiliza-
tion usually being achieved by wind-borne
pollen. The ovules and the seeds into
which they develop are borne unpro-
tected (rather than enclosed in a carpel, as
are those of the *Anthophyta). Internal
chair conformation boat conformation
tissue and cell structure of these species is
not as advanced as in the angiosperms.
Conformations of cyclohexane ring Conifers are typically evergreen trees in-
habiting cool temperate regions and have
leaves reduced to needles or scales. The
congeners Elements that belong to the wood of conifers, which is called soft-
same group in the periodic table. wood in contrast to the hardwood of an-
giosperm trees, is widely used for timber
congenital Present at birth. Congenital
and pulp. See also gymnosperm.
disorders of the body may be due to ge-
netic factors, e.g. *Down’s syndrome, or conjugate acid or base See acid.
caused by injury or environmental fac-
conjugated Describing double or triple
tors, e.g. drugs (such as thalidomide),
bonds in a molecule that are separated
chemicals (such as dioxin), and infections
by one single bond. For example, the
(such as those caused by *Listeria and *cy-
organic compound buta-1,3-diene,
tomegalovirus).
H2C=CH–CH=CH2, has conjugated double
conic A Ügure formed by the intersec- bonds. In such molecules, there is some
tion of a plane and a *cone. If the inter- delocalization of electrons in the pi or-
 conjugate points 190

bitals between the carbon atoms linked which certain bases occur with a fre-
by the single bond. quency signiÜcantly greater than that
expected by chance. Although such se-
conjugate points Two points in the
quences may vary from case to case, it is
vicinity of a *lens or *mirror such that a
possible to derive the most likely se-
c bright object placed at one will form an
image at the other.
quence overall. An example is the *Prib-
now box of prokaryote promoters. The
conjugation 1. The fusion of two repro- term is also applied to sequences of amino
ductive cells, particularly when these are acids in polypeptides.
both the same size (see isogamy). 2. A
conservation The sensible use of the
form of sexual reproduction seen in some
earth’s natural resources in order to avoid
algae (e.g. Spirogyra), some bacteria (e.g.
excessive degradation and impoverish-
Escherichia coli), and ciliate protozoans. Two
ment of the environment (see desertifica-
individuals are united by a tube formed
tion). It should include the search for
by outgrowths from one or both of the
alternative food and fuel supplies when
cells. Genetic material from one cell (des-
these are endangered (as by *deforesta-
ignated the male) then passes through the
tion and overÜshing); an awareness of the
tube to unite with that in the other (fe-
dangers of *pollution; and the mainte-
male) cell.
nance and preservation of natural habi-
conjunction The alignment of two ce- tats and the creation of new ones (e.g.
lestial bodies within the solar system so nature reserves, national parks, and
that they have the same longitude as seen *SSSIs).
from the earth. A planet that orbits be-
conservation law A law stating that
tween the sun and the earth (Venus and
the total magnitude of a certain physical
Mercury) is in superior conjunction when
property of a system, such as its mass, en-
it is in line with the sun and the earth but
ergy, or charge, remains unchanged even
on the opposite side of the sun to the
though there may be exchanges of that
earth. It is in inferior conjunction when it
property between components of the sys-
lies between the earth and the sun. Con-
tem. For example, imagine a table with a
junction may also occur between two
bottle of salt solution (NaCl), a bottle of
planets or a moon and a planet.
silver nitrate solution (AgNO3), and a
conjunctiva The delicate membrane beaker standing on it. The mass of this
that covers the cornea and lines the inside table and its contents will not change
of the eyelid of a vertebrate eye. It is kept even when some of the contents of the
clean by secretions of the *lacrimal (tear) bottles are poured into the beaker. As a
gland and the reÛex blink mechanism. result of the reaction between the chemi-
cals two new substances (silver chloride
connective tissue An animal tissue
and sodium nitrate) will appear in the
consisting of a small number of cells (e.g.
beaker:
*Übroblasts and *mast cells) and Übres
and a large amount of *extracellular NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO3,
matrix (ground substance). It is widely dis-
but the total mass of the table and its con-
tributed and has many functions, in-
tents will not change. This conservation
cluding support, packing, defence, and
of mass is a law of wide and general appli-
repair. The individual constituents vary,
cability, which is true for the universe as
depending on the function of the tissue.
a whole, provided that the universe can
Different types of connective tissue in-
be considered a closed system (nothing es-
clude mesenchyme in the embryo, *adi-
caping from it, nothing being added to it).
pose tissue, loose areolar connective tissue
According to Einstein’s mass–energy rela-
for packing and support, *blood, lymph,
tionship, every quantity of energy (E) has
cartilage, and bone.
a mass (m), which is given by E/c2, where c
consensus sequence A sequence of is the speed of light. Therefore if mass is
nucleotides found in comparable regions conserved, the law of conservation of en-
of DNA or RNA, e.g. in the promoter re- ergy must be of equally wide application.
gions (see operon) of different genes, in The laws of conservation of linear momen-
191 contact potential difference

tum and angular momentum also are be- constantan An alloy having an electri-
lieved to be universally true. cal resistance that varies only very slightly
Because no way is known of either cre- with temperature (over a limited range
ating or destroying electric charge, the around normal room temperatures). It
law of conservation of charge is also a law consists of copper (50–60%) and nickel
of universal application. Other quantities (40–50%) and is used in resistance wire, c
are also conserved in reactions between thermocouples, etc.
elementary particles.
constant-boiling mixture See
conservative Üeld A Üeld of force in azeotrope.
which the work done in moving a body
constant proportions See chemical
from one point to another is independent
combination.
of the path taken. The force required to
move the body between these points in a constellation A collection of stars arbi-
conservative Üeld is called a conservative trarily grouped into a recognizable pat-
force. tern, often named by the ancients after
animals and mythological characters.
conserved sequence Any sequence of
There are 88 constellations, which divide
bases (or amino acids) in comparable seg-
up the celestial sphere into regions
ments of different nucleotides (or pro-
named after them. The smallest is Crux
teins) that tends to show similarity
(the Cross) and the largest Hydra (the Sea
greater than that due to chance alone.
Monster). Stars within a constellation are
The degree to which sequences are con-
systematically named using a Greek letter
served can indicate the extent of struc-
(alpha for the brightest, beta for the sec-
tural and functional similarities between
ond brightest, and so on) and the genitive
different genes or between different pro-
form of the constellation’s Latin name
teins and provides clues to their possible
(e.g. Alpha Crucis, Delta Cepheus).
evolutionary relations.
constitutive equations The equations
consistent histories An interpretation
D = εE and B = µH, where D is the electric
of quantum mechanics that makes use of
displacement, ε is the *permittivity of the
the concept of *decoherence to explain
medium, E is the electric Üeld intensity, B
how the classical world emerges from
is the magnetic Ûux density, µ is the *per-
quantum mechanics. The consistent-
meability of the medium, and H is the
histories interpretation avoids the prob-
*magnetic Üeld strength.
lem of observers and has greatly clariÜed
our understanding of the problem of consumer An organism that feeds upon
measurement in quantum mechanics. those below it in a *food chain (i.e. at the
preceding *trophic level). Herbivores,
consociation A climax plant *commu-
which feed upon green plants, are pri-
nity that is dominated by one particular
mary consumers; a carnivore that feeds
species, e.g. a pine forest. See dominant.
only upon herbivores is a secondary con-
Compare association.
sumer; a tertiary consumer is a carnivore
consolute temperature The tempera- that feeds on other carnivores. The con-
ture at which two partially miscible liq- sumer at the end of a food chain is known
uids become fully miscible as the as the top carnivore. Compare producer.
temperature is increased.
contact potential difference The po-
constant 1. A component of a relation- tential difference that occurs between two
ship between variables that does not electrically connected metals or between
change its value, e.g. in y = ax + b, b is a the base regions of two semiconductors. If
constant. 2. A Üxed value that has to be two metals with work functions φ1 and φ2
added to an indeÜnite integral. Known as are brought into contact, their Fermi lev-
the constant of integration, it depends on els will coincide. If φ1 > φ2 the Ürst metal
the limits between which the integration will acquire a positive surface charge with
has been performed. 3. See fundamental respect to the other at the area of contact.
constants. As a result, a contact potential difference
 contact process 192

occurs between the two metals or semi- named Pangaea and it was suggested that
conductors. this broke up into the northerly Laurasia
and the southerly Gondwanaland (see il-
contact process A process for making
lustration). The theory was not accepted
sulphuric acid from sulphur dioxide (SO2),
for about 50 years by the majority of geol-
c which is made by burning sulphur or by
roasting sulphide ores. A mixture of sul-
ogists but during the early 1960s, the
seaÛoor-spreading hypothesis of Harry
phur dioxide and air is passed over a hot Hess (1906–69) and the subsequent devel-
catalyst opment of *plate tectonics produced a
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 mechanism to explain the drift of the con-
tinents.
The reaction is exothermic and the condi-
tions are controlled to keep the tempera-
ture at an optimum 450°C. Formerly,
platinum catalysts were used but vana- Pangaea
dium–vanadium oxide catalysts are now
mainly employed (although less efÜcient,
they are less susceptible to poisoning).
The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in sul-
phuric acid
(a) 200 million years ago
H2SO4 + SO3 → H2S2O7
and the oleum is then diluted.
containment 1. The prevention of the Lauras
ia
escape of radioactive materials from a
*nuclear reactor. 2. The process of pre-
venting the plasma in a *thermonuclear Gondwan
reactor from touching the walls of the a
vessel by means of magnetic Üelds.
contig map See physical map.
(b) 135 million years ago
continent A large landmass that rises
above the deep ocean Ûoor. Geologically,
the boundary of a continent lies offshore
at the edge of the gentle slope of the con- Asia
tinental shelf. The British Isles and other
offshore islands consequently are parts of Africa
the nearby continents. It is generally ac- India
cepted that there are seven continents –
Asia, Africa, North America, South Amer-
a Australia
ica, Europe, Australia, and Antarctica – oc- Antarctic
cupying about 29% of the earth’s surface. (c) 65 million years ago

continental drift The theory that the Continental drift

earth’s continents once formed a single
mass and have since moved relative to
each other. It was Ürst postulated by continuous culture A technique used
A. Snider in 1858 and greatly developed to grow microorganisms or cells continu-
by Alfred Wegener in 1915. He used evi- ally in a particular phase of growth. For
dence, such as the Üt of South America example, if a constant supply of cells is re-
into Africa and the distribution of rock quired, a cell culture maintained in the
types, Ûora, fauna, and geological struc- log phase is best; the conditions must
tures, to suggest that the present distribu- therefore be continually monitored and
tion of the continents results from the adjusted accordingly so that the cells do
breaking up of one or two greater land not enter the stationary phase (see bacte-
masses. The original land mass was rial growth curve). Growth may also
193 control rod

have to be maintained in a particular base of the stem of a bulb or corm. The

growth phase if an enzyme or chemical new bulb or corm develops at a higher
product is produced only during that level in the soil than the old one. The con-
phase. tractile roots shorten and pull it down to
a suitable level.
continuous function A function f (x) is
continuous at x = a if the limit of f (x) as x contractile vacuole A membrane-
c
approaches a is f (a). A function that does surrounded cavity in a cell that periodi-
not satisfy this condition is said to be a cally expands, Ülling with water, and then
discontinuous function. suddenly contracts, expelling its contents
to the cell’s exterior. It is thus an organ of
continuous phase See colloids.
*osmoregulation and excretion. Contrac-
continuous spectrum See spectrum. tile vacuoles are common in freshwater
sponges and typical of freshwater protoc-
continuous variation (quantitative
tists, such as Amoeba (which has one
variation) The range of differences that
spherical vacuole) and Paramecium (in
can be observed in many characteristics
which a number of accessory vacuoles are
in a population. Characteristics resulting
attached to a main vacuole).
from *polygenic inheritance show contin-
uous variation, e.g. the wide range of foot contraction (in animal physiology) The
sizes in an adult human population. Com- shortening of muscle Übres in order to
pare discontinuous variation. exert a force on a tissue or organ of the
body. In striated muscle contraction is
continuous wave A wave that is trans-
brought about by interaction of actin and
mitted continuously rather than in pulses.
myosin Ülaments (see sarcomere; volun-
continuum A system of axes that form tary muscle): it provides a force for *lo-
a *frame of reference. The three dimen- comotion and plays a role in maintaining
sions of space and the dimension of time the balance and posture of the animal. See
together can be taken to form a four- also involuntary muscle.
dimensional continuum; this was sug-
control 1. The part of an experiment
gested by Minkowski in connection with
that acts as a standard by which to com-
special *relativity.
pare experimental observations. 2. The
contour A line drawn on a map or chart natural regulation of biological processes.
that joins points with equal elevation See control mechanism. 3. See biologi-
above (or below) a level (usually mean sea cal control; chemical control.
level). Contours thus show the relief of
control grid A wire-mesh electrode
the land surface or sea bed (below sea
placed between the cathode and anode in
level the line is called a submarine con-
a *thermionic valve or a *cathode-ray
tour). The difference in height between
tube to control the Ûow of electrons from
two consecutive contours is the contour
one to the other. A Ûuctuating potential
interval.
signal fed to the control grid produces a
contour feathers *Feathers that are ar- current signal at the anode with similar
ranged in regular rows on a bird’s body, but ampliÜed Ûuctuations. It thus forms
giving the body its streamlined shape. the basis of the electronic valve ampliÜer.
Each has a central horny shaft (the rachis) In a cathode-ray tube the grid controls the
with a Ûattened vane on each side. Each intensity of the electron beam and hence
vane is composed of two rows of Ülament- the brightness of the image on the screen.
like *barbs, which are connected to each
control mechanism (in biology) Any
other by means of hooked *barbules to
mechanism that regulates a biological
form a smooth surface. There is often a
process, such as a metabolic pathway or
small second vane, the aftershaft, near
enzyme-controlled reaction, or that helps
the base of the feather.
to maintain the *internal environment
contraception See birth control. (see homeostasis). See also feedback.
contractile root Any of the modiÜed control rod One of a number of rods of
adventitious roots that develop from the a material, such as boron or cadmium,
 control unit 194

that absorbs neutrons. Control rods can a2 + … + an tends to a Ünite (or zero) limit
be moved into or out of the core of a *nu- as n tends to inÜnity. This limit is the sum
clear reactor to control the rate of the re- of the series. For example, the series 1 +
action taking place within it. 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + … (with the general term
ai equal to (1/2)i–1) tends to the limit 2. A
c control unit (CU) The part of the central
processor of a *computer that supervises series that is not convergent is said to be a
divergent series. In such a series the par-
the execution of a computer program.
tial sum tends to plus or minus inÜnity or
convection A process by which heat is may oscillate. For example, the series 1 +
transferred from one part of a Ûuid to an- 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + … (with ai equal to 1/i) is
other by movement of the Ûuid itself. In divergent. As can be seen from this latter
natural convection the movement occurs example, a series may be divergent even
as a result of gravity; the hot part of the if the individual terms ai tend to zero as i
Ûuid expands, becomes less dense, and is tends to inÜnity.
displaced by the colder denser part of the
Ûuid as this drops below it. This is the pro- converging lens or mirror A lens or
cess that occurs in most domestic hot- mirror that can refract or reÛect a parallel
water systems between the boiler and the beam of light so that it converges at a
hot-water cylinder. A natural convection point (the principal focus). Such a mirror
current is set up transferring the hot is concave; a converging lens is thicker at
water from the boiler up to the cylinder its centre than at its edges (i.e. it is bicon-
(always placed above the boiler) so that vex, plano-convex, or convexo-concave).
the cold water from the cylinder can Compare diverging lens or mirror.
move down into the boiler to be heated. conversion electron See internal con-
In some modern systems, where small- version.
bore pipes are used or it is inconvenient
to place the cylinder above the boiler, the converter 1. An electrical machine for
circulation between boiler and hot-water converting alternating current into direct
cylinder relies upon a pump. This is an ex- current, or less frequently, vice versa. 2.
ample of forced convection, where hot The reaction vessel in the *Bessemer pro-
Ûuid is transferred from one region to an- cess or some similar steel-making process.
other by a pump or fan. 3. A computer device for converting infor-
mation coded in one form into some
conventional current A 19th-century other form.
convention, still in use, that treats any
electrical current as a Ûow of positive converter reactor A *nuclear reactor
charge from a region of positive potential that converts fertile material (e.g.
to one of negative potential. The real mo- thorium–232) into *Üssile material (e.g.
tion, however, in the case of electrons uranium–233). A converter reactor can
Ûowing through a metal conductor, is in also be used to produce electrical power.
the opposite direction, from negative to convex Curving outwards. A convex mir-
positive. In semiconductors *hole conduc-
ror is one in which the reÛecting surface
tion is in the direction of the conventional
is formed from the exterior surface of a
current; electron conduction is in the op-
sphere or paraboloid. A convex lens has at
posite direction.
least one face formed from the exterior
convergent evolution The develop- surface of a sphere. A biconvex lens has
ment of superÜcially similar structures in both faces convex and is therefore thick-
unrelated organisms, usually because the est at its centre. The plano-convex lens
organisms live in the same kind of envi- has one plane face and one convex face.
ronment. Examples are the wings of in- The convexo-concave lens (also called a
sects and birds and the streamlined bodies meniscus) has one convex face and one
of whales and Üsh. Compare adaptive ra- *concave face. See lens.
diation.
convoluted tubule See distal convo-
convergent series A series a1 + a2 + … luted tubule; proximal convoluted
+ ai + …, for which a partial sum Sn = a1 + tubule; nephron.
195 Copernican astronomy

coolant A Ûuid used to remove heat example, the Schrödinger equation for
from a system by *convection (usually the hydrogen atom can be solved using
forced), either to control the temperature spherical *polar coordinates but not using
or to extract energy. In a water-cooled car Cartesian coordinates.
engine the coolant is water (or water and
antifreeze), which is pumped around the
coordination (in animal physiology)
The processes involved in the reception of
c
engine and cooled in the radiator. In a
sensory information, the integration of
*nuclear reactor the coolant is used to
that information, and the subsequent re-
transfer the heat of the reaction from the
sponse of the organism. Coordination is
core to a heat exchanger or to the steam-
controlled by regions of the brain that
raising plant. In gas-cooled reactors the
deal with speciÜc functions, such as loco-
coolant is usually carbon dioxide. Pressur-
motion and breathing, and is carried out
ized water or boiling water is used as both
by the nervous system.
coolant and *moderator in several types
of reactor. In fast reactors, liquid sodium coordination compound A compound
is used as the coolant. in which coordinate bonds are formed (see
chemical bond). The term is used espe-
Cooper, Leon See bardeen, john.
cially for inorganic *complexes.
cooperative phenomenon A phe-
coordination number The number of
nomenon in which the constituents of a
groups, molecules, atoms, or ions sur-
system cannot be regarded as acting inde-
rounding a given atom or ion in a com-
pendently from each other. Cooperative
plex or crystal. For instance, in a
phenomena result from interactions be-
square-planar complex the central ion has
tween the constituents. Phenomena that
a coordination number of four. In a close-
can be described by the *liquid-drop
packed crystal (see close packing) the co-
model of nuclei, such as nuclear Üssion,
ordination number is twelve.
are examples of cooperative phenomena
because they involve the *nucleus as a Copepoda A class of crustaceans occur-
whole rather than individual nucleons. ring in marine and freshwater habitats.
Other examples of cooperative phenom- Copepods are usually 0.5–2 mm long and
ena occur when a substance undergoes a lack both a carapace and compound eyes.
*phase transition, as in the phenomena Copepods are important members of
of ferromagnetism (see magnetism) or plankton: some are free-living, feeding on
*superconductivity. microscopic organisms; others are para-
sitic. A familiar freshwater genus is
Cooper pairs See superconductivity.
Cyclops, so named because the members
coordinate See cartesian coordinates; have a single median eye.
polar coordinates.
Copernican astronomy The system of
coordinate bond See chemical bond. astronomy that was proposed by the Pol-
ish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in his
coordinate geometry See analytical
book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium,
geometry.
which was published in the month of his
coordinate system A system that death and Ürst seen by him on his
uniquely speciÜes points in a plane or in deathbed. It used some elements of
three-dimensional space. The simplest co- *Ptolemaic astronomy, but rejected the
ordinate system is the *Cartesian coordi- notion, then current, that the earth was a
nate system. In a plane two coordinates stationary body at the centre of the uni-
are necessary to specify a point. In three- verse. Instead, Copernicus proposed the
dimensional space three coordinates are apparently unlikely concept that the sun
required. Many coordinate systems can be was at the centre of the universe and that
used to specify a point; however, some- the earth was hurtling through space in a
times one particular coordinate system is circular orbit about it. Galileo’s attempts,
more convenient than others; indeed, cer- some 70 years later, to convince the
tain problems can be solved in one coordi- Catholic church that in spite of scriptural
nate system but not in others. For authority to the contrary, the Copernican
 Copernicus, Nicolaus 196

system was correct, resulted in De revolu- b.p. 1490°C. It is obtained by boiling a so-
tionibus being placed on the Index of for- lution containing copper(II) chloride, ex-
bidden books, where it remained until cess copper turnings, and hydrochloric
1835. acid. Copper(I) is present as the [CuCl2]–
complex ion. On pouring the solution into
c Copernicus, Nicolaus (Mikolaj
Kopernik; 1473–1543) Polish astronomer,
air-free distilled water copper(I) chloride
precipitates. It must be kept free of air
who studied mathematics and optics. By
and moisture as it oxidizes to copper(II)
1514 he had formulated his proposal that
chloride under those conditions.
the planets, including the earth, orbit the
Copper(I) chloride is essentially cova-
sun in circular paths, although it was not
lent and its structure is similar to that of
formally published until the year he died.
diamond; i.e. each copper atom is sur-
This refutation of an earth-centred uni-
rounded tetrahedrally by four chlorine
verse raised hostile opposition from the
atoms and vice versa. In the vapour phase,
church as well as from other astronomers.
dimeric and trimeric species are present.
copolymer See polymer. Copper(I) chloride is used in conjunction
with ammonium chloride as a catalyst in
copper Symbol Cu. A red-brown *transi-
the dimerization of ethyne to but-1-ene-3-
tion element; a.n. 29; r.a.m. 63.546; r.d.
yne (vinyl acetylene), which is used in the
8.92; m.p. 1083.4°C; b.p. 2567°C. Copper
production of synthetic rubber. In the lab-
has been extracted for thousands of years;
oratory a mixture of copper(I) chloride
it was known to the Romans as cuprum, a
and hydrochloric acid is used for convert-
name linked with the island of Cyprus.
ing benzene diazonium chloride to
The metal is malleable and ductile and an
chlorobenzene – the Sandmeyer reaction.
excellent conductor of heat and electric-
ity. Copper-containing minerals include copper(II) chloride A brown-yellow
cuprite (Cu2O) as well as azurite powder, CuCl2; r.d. 3.386; m.p. 620°C. It
(2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), exists as a blue-green dihydrate (rhombic;
and malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2). Native r.d. 2.54; loses H2O at 100°C). The anhy-
copper appears in isolated pockets in drous solid is obtained by passing chlorine
some parts of the world. The large mines over heated copper. It is predominantly
in the USA, Chile, Canada, Zambia, Demo- covalent and adopts a layer structure in
cratic Republic of Congo, and Peru extract which each copper atom is surrounded by
ores containing sulphides, oxides, and car- four chlorine atoms at a distance of 0.23
bonates. They are usually worked by nm and two more at a distance of 0.295
smelting, leaching, and electrolysis. Cop- nm. A concentrated aqueous solution is
per metal is used to make electric cables dark brown in colour due to the presence
and wires. Its alloys, brass (copper–zinc) of complex ions such as [CuCl4]2–. On dilu-
and bronze (copper–tin), are used exten- tion the colour changes to green and then
sively. blue because of successive replacement of
Water does not attack copper but in chloride ions by water molecules, the Ünal
moist atmospheres it slowly forms a char- colour being that of the [Cu(H2O)6]2+ ion.
acteristic green surface layer (patina). The The dihydrate can be obtained by crystal-
metal will not react with dilute sulphuric lizing the solution.
or hydrochloric acids, but with nitric acid
copper glance A mineral form of cop-
oxides of nitrogen are formed. Copper
per(I) sulphide, Cu2S.
compounds contain the element in the +1
and +2 oxidation states. Copper(I) com- copper(II) nitrate A blue deliquescent
pounds are mostly white (the oxide is solid, Cu(NO3)2.3H2O; r.d. 2.32; m.p.
red). Copper(II) salts are blue in solution. 114.5°C. It may be obtained by reacting ei-
The metal also forms a large number of ther copper(II) oxide or copper(II) carbon-
coordination complexes. ate with dilute nitric acid and crystallizing
the resulting solution. Other hydrates con-
copperas See iron(ii) sulphate.
taining 6 or 9 molecules of water are
copper(I) chloride A white solid com- known. On heating it readily decomposes
pound, CuCl; cubic; r.d. 4.14; m.p. 430°C; to give copper(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide,
197 Coriolis force

and oxygen. The anhydrous form can be hot mixture of copper and dilute sul-
obtained by reacting copper with a solu- phuric acid. In the pentahydrate each cop-
tion of nitrogen dioxide in ethyl ethano- per(II) ion is surrounded by four water
ate. It sublimes on heating suggesting that molecules at the corner of a square, the
it is appreciably covalent. Üfth and sixth octahedral positions are oc-
copper(I) oxide A red insoluble solid, cupied by oxygen atoms from the sul- c
phate anions, and the Üfth water
Cu2O; r.d. 6.0; m.p. 1235°C. It is obtained
by reduction of an alkaline solution of molecule is held in place by hydrogen
copper(II) sulphate. Since the addition of bonding. Copper(II) sulphate has many in-
alkalis to a solution of copper(II) salt re- dustrial uses, including the preparation of
sults in the precipitation of copper(II) hy- the Bordeaux mixture (a fungicide) and
droxide the copper(II) ions are complexed the preparation of other copper com-
with tartrate ions; under such conditions pounds. It is also used in electroplating
the concentration of copper(II) ions is so and textile dying and as a timber preser-
low that the solubility product of vative. The anhydrous form is used in the
copper(II) hydroxide is not exceeded. detection of traces of moisture.
When copper(I) oxide reacts with dilute Copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate is also
sulphuric acid a solution of copper(II) sul- known as blue vitriol.
phate and a deposit of copper results, i.e. copulation See sexual intercourse.
disproportionation occurs.
coral Any of a group of sedentary colo-
Cu2O + 2H+ → Cu2+ + Cu + H2O nial marine invertebrates belonging to
When dissolved in concentrated hydro- the class Anthozoa of the phylum
chloric acid the [CuCl2]– complex ion is *Cnidaria. A coral colony consists of indi-
formed. Copper(I) oxide is used in the vidual *polyps within a protective skel-
manufacture of rectiÜers and the produc- eton that they secrete: this skeleton may
tion of red glass. be soft and jelly-like, horny, or stony. The
horny skeleton secreted by corals of the
copper(II) oxide A black insoluble genus Corallium, especially C. rubrum, con-
solid, CuO; monoclinic; r.d. 6.3; m.p. stitutes the red, or precious, coral used as
1326°C. It is obtained by heating either a gemstone. The skeleton of stony, or
copper(II) carbonate or copper(II) nitrate. true, corals consists of almost pure cal-
It decomposes on heating above 800°C to cium carbonate and forms the coral reefs
copper(I) oxide and oxygen. Copper(II) common in tropical seas.
oxide reacts readily with mineral acids on
warming, with the formation of copper(II) cordite An explosive mixture of cellu-
salts; it is also readily reduced to copper lose nitrate and nitroglycerin, with added
on heating in a stream of hydrogen. Cop- plasticizers and stabilizers, used as a pro-
per(II) oxide is soluble in dilute acids pellant for guns.
forming blue solutions of cupric salts. core 1. A rod or frame of magnetic ma-
copper pyrites See chalcopyrite. terial that increases the inductance of a
coil through which it passes. Cores are
copper(II) sulphate A blue crystalline used in transformers, electromagnets, and
solid, CuSO4.5H2O; triclinic; r.d. 2.284. The the rotors and stators of electrical ma-
pentahydrate loses 4H2O at 110°C and the
chines. It may consist of laminated metal,
Üfth H2O at 150°C to form the white anhy-
ferrite, or compressed ferromagnetic par-
drous compound (rhombic; r.d. 3.6; de-
ticles in a matrix of an insulating binder
composes above 200°C). The pentahydrate
(dust core). 2. The inner part of a *nu-
is prepared either by reacting copper(II)
clear reactor in which the nuclear reac-
oxide or copper(II) carbonate with dilute
tion takes place. 3. The devices that make
sulphuric acid; the solution is heated to
up the memory in certain types of com-
saturation and the blue pentahydrate crys-
puter. 4. The central region of a star or
tallizes out on cooling (a few drops of di-
planet.
lute sulphuric acid are generally added to
prevent hydrolysis). It is obtained on an Coriolis force A Üctitious force some-
industrial scale by forcing air through a times used to simplify calculations involv-
 cork 198

ing rotating systems, such as the move- certain plants, e.g. crocus and gladiolus,
ment of air, water, and projectiles over that enables them to survive from one
the surface of the rotating earth. The con- growing season to the next (see illustra-
cept was Ürst used in 1835 by Gaspard de tion). It consists of a short swollen food-
Coriolis (1792–1843), a French physicist. storing stem surrounded by protective
c The daily rotation of the earth means that scale leaves. One or more buds in the axils
in 24 hours a point on its equator moves a of scale leaves produce new foliage leaves
distance of some 40 000 kilometres, giv- and Ûowers in the subsequent season,
ing it a tangential velocity of about 1670 using up the food stored in the stem. Com-
kilometres per hour. A point at the lati- pare bulb.
tude of, say, Rome, travels a shorter dis-
tance in the same time and therefore has bud
a lower tangential velocity – about
1340 km/hr. Air over the equator has the
full tangential velocity of 1670 km/hr and scale
as it travels north, say, it will retain this leaves
swollen
velocity; to an observer outside the earth stem
this would be clear. However, to an ob-
server in Rome it appears to be moving
eastwards, because the earth at that point winter
is moving eastwards more slowly than the
air. The Coriolis force (which is quite Ücti-
tious) is the force that a naive observer
thinks is needed to push the air east-
wards. flower and
foliage leaves
cork (phellem) A protective waterproof
plant tissue produced by the *cork cam-
bium. It develops in plants undergoing
*secondary growth and replaces the epi-
dermis. Its cells, whose walls are impreg- corm shrivels as
nated with *suberin, are arranged in food used for
radial rows and Üt closely together except growing plant
where the cork is interrupted by *lenti-
cels. Some cork cells become air-Ülled
spring
while others contain deposits of lignin,
tannins, and fatty acids, which give the
cork a particular colour. The cork oak withered new bud
(Quercus suber) produces cork that can be foliage
used commercially. leaves

cork cambium (phellogen) A type of

*cambium arising within the outer layers swelling stem
forming new
of the stems of woody plants, usually as a corm
complete ring surrounding the inner tis-
sues. The cells of the cork cambium divide
to produce an outer corky tissue (*cork or
phellem) and an inner secondary cortex
autumn
(phelloderm). Cork, cork cambium, and
phelloderm together make up the peri- Development of a corm
derm, an impermeable outer layer that
protects the inner stem tissues if the cornea A transparent layer of tissue,
outer tissues split as the stem girth in- continuous with the *sclerotic, that forms
creases with age. It thus takes over the the front part of the vertebrate eye, over
functions of the epidermis.
the iris and lens. The cornea refracts light
corm An underground organ formed by entering the eye onto the lens, thus assist-
199 corundum

ing in the focusing of images onto the ovaries but the function of these is less
*retina. See also astigmatism. well understood.
corniÜcation See keratinization. corrosion Chemical or electrochemical
attack on the surface of a metal. See also
CORN rule See absolute
configuration.
electrolytic corrosion; rusting. c
corolla The *petals of a Ûower, collec- cortex 1. (in botany) The tissue between
the epidermis and the vascular system in
tively, forming the inner whorl of the
*perianth. It encircles the stamens and plant stems and roots. It is composed of
carpels. The form of the corolla is very *parenchyma cells and shows little or no
variable. The petals may either be free structural differentiation. Cortex is pro-
(polypetalous) or united to form a tube duced by activity of the *apical meristem.
(gamopetalous or sympetalous). See also endodermis. 2. (in zoology) The
outermost layer of tissue of various or-
corona 1. The outer part of the sun’s at- gans, including the adrenal glands
mosphere. Its two main components are (adrenal cortex), kidneys (renal cortex),
the K-corona (or inner corona), with a and cerebral hemispheres (see cerebral
temperature of about 2 × 106 K at a height cortex).
of some 75 000 km, and the F-corona (or
outer corona), which is considerably corticosteroid Any of several hor-
cooler and extends for several million mones produced by the cortex of the
kilometres into space. 2. A glowing re- *adrenal glands. Glucocorticoids regulate
gion of the air surrounding a conductor the use of carbohydrates, proteins, and
when the potential gradient near it ex- fats in the body and include *cortisol and
ceeds a critical value. It is caused by *cortisone. Mineralocorticoids regulate
ionization of the air and may be ac- salt and water balance (see aldosterone).
companied by hissing sounds. Corona corticotrophin See acth.
discharge (or point discharge) occurs at
sharp points where the surface charge cortisol (hydrocortisone) A hormone (see
density is high by the attraction, charg- corticosteroid), produced by the adrenal
ing, and consequent repulsion of air mol- glands, that promotes the synthesis and
ecules. storage of glucose and is therefore impor-
tant in the normal response to stress, sup-
coronary vessels Two pairs of blood presses or prevents inÛammation, and
vessels (the coronary arteries and coro- regulates deposition of fat in the body. It
nary veins) that supply the muscles of the is used as treatment for various allergies
heart itself. The coronary arteries arise and for rheumatic fever, certain skin con-
from the aorta and divide into branches ditions, and adrenal failure (Addison’s dis-
that encircle the heart. A blood clot in a ease).
coronary artery (coronary thrombosis) is
one of the causes of a ‘heart attack’. cortisone A biologically inactive
*corticosteroid produced in the adrenal
corpus callosum The sweeping band glands from the active hormone *cortisol,
(commissure) of *white matter that pro- which is structurally very similar to it.
vides a connection between the two Cortisone is reconverted to cortisol in the
halves of the cerebrum in the brain. It en- liver and other organs. Cortisone may be
ables the transfer of information from administered therapeutically as an inac-
one cerebral hemisphere to the other. tive precursor (prodrug) of cortisol.
corpuscular theory See light. corundum A mineral form of alu-
corpus luteum (yellow body) The yel- minium oxide, Al2O3. It crystallizes in
lowish mass of tissue that forms in the the trigonal system and occurs as well-
cavity of a *GraaÜan follicle in the ovary developed hexagonal crystals. It is colour-
of a mammal after the release of the egg less and transparent when pure but the
cell. It secretes the hormone *proges- presence of other elements gives rise to a
terone. Some species of sharks, reptiles, variety of colours. *Ruby is a red variety
and birds have similar structures in their containing chromium; *sapphire is a blue
 corymb 200

variety containing iron and titanium. 10–11 J to 10 J (108 to 1020 eV) and as they
Corundum occurs as a rock-forming min- enter the earth’s atmosphere they collide
eral in both metamorphic and igneous with oxygen and nitrogen nuclei produc-
rocks. It is chemically resistant to weath- ing secondary cosmic rays. The secondary
ering processes and so also occurs in allu- rays consist of elementary particles and
c vial (placer) deposits. The second hardest gamma-ray photons. A single high-energy
mineral after diamond (it has a hardness primary particle can produce a large
of 9 on the Mohs’ scale), it is used as an shower of secondary particles. The
abrasive. sources of the primary radiation are not
all known, although the sun is believed to
corymb A type of Ûowering shoot (see
be the principal source of particles with
racemose inflorescence) in which the
energies up to about 1010 eV. It is believed
lower Ûower stalks are longer than the
that all particles with energies of less than
higher ones, resulting in a Ûat-topped
1018 eV originate within the Galaxy.
cluster of Ûowers. Examples are candytuft
and wallÛower. cosmic string See string.
cos See trigonometric functions. cosmid A hybrid *vector, used in *gene
cloning, that includes the cos gene (from
cosecant See trigonometric functions. the lambda bacteriophage). It also con-
cosech See hyperbolic functions. tains drug resistance *marker genes and
other plasmid genes. Cosmids can incor-
cosh See hyperbolic functions. porate larger DNA fragments than either
cosine See trigonometric functions. phage or plasmid vectors alone and are es-
pecially suitable for cloning large mam-
cosine rule In any triangle, with sides
malian genes or multigene fragments.
of length a, b, and c, c2 = a2 + b2 – 2abcosθ,
where θ is the angle between sides a and cosmoid scale See scales.
b. cosmological constant A term that
cosmic censorship A hypothesis con- can be added to Einstein’s Üeld equation
cerning singularities and *black holes in for general *relativity theory. The cosmo-
the general theory of *relativity. It was logical constant is independent of space
suggested in 1969 by the British physicist and time. It was put forward by Einstein
Roger Penrose (1931– ). The cosmic cen- in 1917 to allow for the possibility of a
sorship conjecture asserts that all singular- static universe. Although the discovery of
ities in general relativity are hidden the *expansion of the universe removed
behind an event horizon. The conjecture the original motivation for the cosmologi-
has never been proved mathematically, al- cal constant, the discovery that the ex-
though there is some evidence for it in pansion of the universe is accelerating
many situations. Even if cosmic censor- suggests that the constant has a non-zero
ship is not correct, singularities would not value, albeit by a factor of 10120 smaller
be seen experimentally if the singularities than expected theoretically. Explaining
are removed by *quantum gravity. It may this small non-zero value is one of the
be that in classical general relativity the main challenges for theoretical physics at
cosmic censorship hypothesis is true for the present time.
‘reasonable’ physical situations but that it cosmological principle The claim that
is possible to construct counter-examples on extremely large scales, i.e. much
to it for various special situations. greater scales than those associated with
cosmic radiation High-energy particles *large-scale structure, the universe is ho-
that fall on the earth from space. Primary mogeneous and isotropic. There is some
cosmic rays consist of nuclei of the most
evidence that the cosmological principle
is valid, notably from the cosmic micro-
abundant elements, with *protons (hydro-
wave background radiation, but it cannot
gen nuclei) forming by far the highest
be said to have been demonstrated con-
proportion; electrons, positrons, neutri-
clusively.
nos, and gamma-ray photons are also
present. The particle energies range from cosmology The study of the nature, ori-
201 cotyledon

gin, and evolution of the universe. Vari- cotyledon (seed leaf) A part of the em-
ous theories concerning the origin and bryo in a seed plant. The number of
evolution of the universe exist. See cotyledons is an important feature in clas-
Chronology. See also big-bang theory; sifying plants. Among the Ûowering
plants, the class known as *Monocotyle-
steady-state theory; early universe.
doneae have a single cotyledon and *Di- c
cotangent See trigonometric func- cotyledoneae have two. Conifers have
tions. either two cotyledons, as in Taxus (yews),
coth See hyperbolic functions. or Üve to ten, as in Pinus (pines). In seeds
without an *endosperm, e.g. garden pea
Cottrell precipitator An electrostatic and broad bean, the cotyledons store
precipitator used to remove dust particles food, which is used in germination. In
from industrial waste gases, by attracting seeds showing *epigeal germination, e.g.
them to charged grids or wires. runner bean, they emerge above the soil

COSMOLOGY

260 BC Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (c. 320–230 BC) proposes a sun-
centred universe.
c.150 AD Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (2nd century AD) proposes an earth-
centred universe.
1543 Copernicus publishes his sun-centred theory of the universe (solar
system).
1576 English mathematician Thomas Digges (c. 1546–95) proposes that the
universe is infinite (because stars are at varying distances).
1584 Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) states that the universe
is infinite.
1633 Galileo champions Copernicus’s sun-centred universe, but is forced by
the Roman Catholic Inquisition to recant.
1854 Helmholtz predicts the heat death of the universe, based on thermo-
dynamics.
1917 Einstein proposes a static universe theory.
1922 Russian astronomer Alexander Friedmann proposes the expanding
universe theory.
1927 George Lemaître proposes the big-bang theory of the universe.
1929 Edwin Hubble demonstrates the expansion of the universe.
1948 US physicists George Gamow (1904–68), Ralph Alpher (1921– ), and
Hans Bethe (1906– ) develop the big-bang theory, and the α-β-γ
theory of the origin of the elements; Alpher also predicts that the big
bang would have produced a microwave background.
British astronomers Herman Bondi (1919– ), Thomas Gold (1920–
2004), and Fred Hoyle propose the steady-state theory of the universe.
1965 US astrophysicists Arno Penzias (1933– ) and Robert Wilson (1936– )
discover the microwave background radiation.
1980 US physicist Allan Guth (1947– ) proposes the inflationary theory of
the universe.
1992 US COBE astronomical satellite detects ripples in residual cosmic
radiation (cited as evidence of the big bang).
 coudé system 202

surface and become the Ürst photosyn- now usually stated in the form F =
thetic leaves. Q 1Q 2/4πεd2, where ε is the absolute *per-
mittivity of the intervening medium. ε =
coudé system See telescope.
εrε0, where εr is the relative permittivity
coulomb Symbol C. The *SI unit of elec- (the dielectric constant) and ε0 is the elec-
c tric charge. It is equal to the charge trans- tric constant. The electric Üeld surround-
ferred by a current of one ampere in one ing a point charge is called the Coulomb
second. The unit is named after Charles Üeld and the scattering of charged parti-
de Coulomb. cles by the Coulomb Üeld surrounding an
atomic nucleus is called Coulomb scatter-
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de
ing. The law was Ürst published by
(1736–1806) French physicist, who served
Charles de Coulomb in 1785.
as an army engineer in Martinique before
returning to France. He is best known for counter Any device for detecting and
his 1785 proposal of *inverse-square laws counting objects or events, often incident
to describe the interaction between elec- charged particles or photons. The latter
trical charges and between magnets (see devices usually work by allowing the par-
coulomb’s law), which he proved experi- ticle to cause ionization, which creates a
mentally using a *torsion balance. current or voltage pulse. The pulses are
then counted electronically. See cerenkov
Coulomb explosion The sudden dis-
counter; crystal counter; geiger
ruption of a molecule from which the
counter; proportional counter; scin-
electrons have been stripped to leave only
tillation counter; spark counter.
the nuclei, which repel each other be-
These names are often applied merely to
cause of their electric charge. The tech-
the actual detectors; the ancillary count-
nique of coulomb explosion imaging uses
ing mechanism is then called a *scaler.
this effect to investigate the shape of mol-
ecules. A beam of high-energy neutral countercurrent heat exchange A
molecules is produced by Ürst adding elec- *counterÛow mechanism that enables
trons, accelerating the ions in an electric Ûuids at different temperatures Ûowing in
Üeld, and then removing the electrons. channels in opposite directions to ex-
The beam collides with a thin metal foil change their heat content without mix-
having a thickness of about 30 atoms. As ing. An example of countercurrent heat
the molecules pass through this foil their exchange occurs in the feet of penguins,
electrons are scattered and only the nuclei in which heat from blood in the arteries
of the molecules emerge. The process oc- supplying the feet is transferred to blood
curs within a very short period of time, returning to the body’s core in veins that
shorter than the time required for a com- lie close to these arteries. This helps to
plete molecular vibration, and conse- maintain the core temperature in freezing
quently the nuclei retain the molecular conditions.
shape until they are suddenly repulsed by
counterÛow The Ûow of two Ûuids in
the like charges. The nuclei then impinge
apposed vessels in opposite directions. In
on a detector that records their velocity
biological systems such an arrangement
and direction, thus enabling the spatial ar-
enables the efÜcient transfer of heat, ions,
rangement of the original molecule to be
molecules, etc., from Ûuids that are rich
derived.
in these resources to Ûuids that are deÜ-
Coulomb Üeld See coulomb’s law. cient in them.
Coulomb force See coulomb’s law. country rock (host rock) Older rock that
surrounds veins of minerals or an igneous
Coulomb’s law The force (sometimes
magma *intrusion, such as a *batholith.
called the Coulomb force) between two
The extreme heat of the intrusion may
charged particles, regarded as point
cause changes (contact metamorphism) in
charges Q 1 and Q 2 a distance d apart, is
the composition of the adjacent country
proportional to the product of the charges
rock.
and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. The law is couple Two equal and opposite parallel
203 Cowper’s glands

forces applied to the same body that do As well as ensuring that the prospective
not act in the same line. The forces create mate is of the same species, the male’s
a torque, the *moment of which is equal courtship performance allows females to
to the product of the force and the per- choose between different males. The later
pendicular distance between them. stages of courtship may involve both part-
coupling 1. (in physics) An interaction
ners in an alternating series of displays c
that inhibit *aggression and fear re-
between two different parts of a system or
sponses and ensure synchrony of sexual
between two or more systems. Examples arousal.
of coupling in the *spectra of atoms and
nuclei are *Russell–Saunders coupling, COV See crossover value.
*j-j coupling, and spin–orbit coupling. In covalent bond See chemical bond.
the spectra of molecules there are Üve
idealized ways (called the Hund coupling covalent crystal A crystal in which the
cases) in which the different types of an- atoms are held together by covalent
gular momentum in a molecule (the elec- bonds. Covalent crystals are sometimes
tron orbital angular momentum L, the called macromolecular or giant-molecular
electron spin angular momentum S, and crystals. They are hard high-melting sub-
the angular momentum of nuclear rota- stances. Examples are diamond and boron
tion N) couple to form a resultant angular nitride.
momentum J. (In practice, the coupling covalent radius An effective radius as-
for many molecules is intermediate be- signed to an atom in a covalent com-
tween Hund’s cases due to interactions, pound. In the case of a simple diatomic
which are ignored in the idealized cases.) molecule, the covalent radius is half the
In *solid-state physics an example of cou- distance between the nuclei. Thus, in Cl2
pling is electron–phonon coupling, the the internuclear distance is 0.198 nm so
analysis of which gives the theories of the covalent radius is taken to be 0.099
electrical *conductivity and *supercon- nm. Covalent radii can also be calculated
ductivity. See also coupling constant. for multiple bonds; for instance, in the
2. (in chemistry) A type of chemical reac- case of carbon the values are 0.077 nm for
tion in which two molecules join to- single bonds, 0.0665 nm for double bonds,
gether; for example, the formation of an and 0.0605 nm for triple bonds. The val-
*azo compound by coupling of a diazo- ues of different covalent radii can some-
nium ion with a benzene ring. times be added to give internuclear
distances. For example, the length of the
coupling constant A physical constant
bond in interhalogens (e.g. ClBr) is nearly
that is a measure of the strength of inter-
equal to the sum of the covalent radii of
action between two parts of a system or
the halogens involved. This, however, is
two or more systems. In the case of a
not always true because of other effects
*Üeld theory, the coupling constant is a (e.g. ionic contributions to the bonding).
measure of the magnitude of the force ex-
erted on a particle by a Üeld. In the case of covariance In *statistics, a measure of
a *quantum Üeld theory, a coupling con- the association between a pair of random
stant is not constant but is a function of variables. It equals the expected value of
energy, the dependence on energy being the product of their deviations (from the
described by the *renormalization group. mean value). For two sets _
of observations
See also coupling; asymptotic freedom. (x1,y1_),…,(xn,yn), where x is the mean of xi
and y is the mean of yi, it is given by
courtship Behaviour in animals that n _ _
plays a part in the initial attraction of a (1/n) Σ (xi – x) (yi – y)
i =1
mate or as a prelude to copulation. See also variance.
Courtship often takes the form of *dis-
plays that have evolved through *ritual-
Cowan, Clyde See pauli, wolfgang
ernst.
ization; some are derived from other
contexts (e.g. food begging in some birds). Cowper’s glands (bulbourethral glands)
Chemical stimuli (see pheromone) are also A pair of pea-sized glands that lie beneath
important in many mammals and insects. the prostate gland. Cowper’s glands se-
 coxa 204

crete an alkaline Ûuid that forms part of cranial nerves Ten to twelve pairs of
the *semen. This Ûuid neutralizes the nerves in vertebrates that emerge directly
acidic environment of the urethra, from the brain. They supply the sense or-
thereby protecting the sperm. The glands gans and muscles of the head, neck, and
are named after William Cowper viscera. Examples of cranial nerves in-
c (1666–1709). See also seminal vesicle. clude the *optic nerve (II) and the *vagus
nerve (X). With the *spinal nerves, the
coxa The Ürst segment, attached to the
cranial nerves form an important part of
thorax, of an insect’s leg. See also femur;
the *peripheral nervous system.
trochanter.
cranial reÛex See reflex.
CP invariance The symmetry generated
by the combined operation of changing Craniata See chordata.
*charge conjugation (C) and *parity (P). CP cranium (brain case) The part of the ver-
violation occurs in weak interactions in
tebrate *skull that encloses and protects
kaon decay and in *B-mesons. See also cpt the brain. It is formed by the fusion of
theorem; time reversal. several Ûattened bones, which have im-
CPT theorem The theorem that the movable joints (sutures) between them.
combined operation of changing *charge cream of tartar See potassium hydro-
conjugation C, *parity P, and *time rever- gentartrate.
sal T, denoted CPT, is a fundamental
*symmetry of relativistic *quantum Üeld creatine A compound, synthesized from
theory. No violation of the CPT theorem is the amino acids arginine, glycine, and me-
known experimentally. When C, P, and T thionine, that occurs in muscle. In the
(or any two of them) are violated, the form of creatine phosphate (or phospho-
principles of relativistic quantum Üeld creatine), it is an important reserve of en-
theory are not affected; however, viola- ergy for muscle contraction, which is
tion of CPT invariance would drastically released when creatine phosphate loses
alter the fundamentals of relativistic its phosphate and is converted to creati-
quantum Üeld theory. It is not known nine, which is excreted in the urine (at a
whether *superstrings obey versions of rate of 1.2–1.5 g/day in humans). See also
the CPT theorem. phosphagen.

CPU (central processing unit) The main creatinine See creatine.

operating part of a *computer; it includes creationist A proponent of the theory
the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic/ of *special creation.
logic unit (see alu). Its function is to fetch
instructions from memory, decode them, creep The continuous deformation of a
and execute the program. It also provides solid material, usually a metal, under a
timing signals. An *integrated circuit that constant stress that is well below its yield
has a complete CPU on a single silicon point. It usually only occurs at high tem-
chip is called a microprocessor. peratures and the creep characteristics of
any material destined to be used under
cracking The process of breaking down conditions of high stress at high tempera-
chemical compounds by heat. The term is tures must be investigated.
applied particularly to the cracking of
hydrocarbons in the kerosine fraction ob- cremocarp A dry fruit that is a type of
tained from *petroleum reÜning to give *schizocarp formed from two one-seeded
smaller hydrocarbon molecules and carpels. The carpels remain separate and
form indehiscent mericarps that are at-
alkenes. It is an important process, both
tached to a central supporting strand (car-
as a source of branched-chain hydrocar-
pophore) for some time before dispersal.
bons suitable for gasoline (for motor fuel)
It is characteristic of the Umbelliferae
and as a source of ethene and other
(Apiaceae; carrot family).
alkenes. Catalytic cracking is a similar pro-
cess in which a catalyst is used to lower crenation The shrinkage of cells that oc-
the temperature required and to modify curs when the surrounding solution is
the products obtained. *hypertonic to the cellular cytoplasm.
205 critical mass

Water leaves the cells by *osmosis, which human cadavers. During the 1990s a
causes the plasma membrane to wrinkle novel form of the disease emerged, called
and the cellular contents to condense. variant CJD, which typically affects young
healthy individuals. This is thought to be
creosote 1. (wood creosote) An almost
caused by consumption of beef products
colourless liquid mixture of phenols ob-
tained by distilling tar obtained by the de-
derived from cattle infected with *bovine c
spongiform encephalopathy.
structive distillation of wood. It is used
medically as an antiseptic and expecto- Crick, Francis Harry Compton
rant. 2. (coal-tar creosote) A dark liquid (1916–2004) British molecular biologist,
mixture of phenols and cresols obtained who in 1951 teamed up with James *Wat-
by distilling coal tar. It is used for preserv- son at Cambridge University to try to Ünd
ing timber. the structure of *DNA. This they achieved
in 1953, using the X-ray diffraction data of
cresols See methylphenols.
Rosalind Franklin (1920–58) and Maurice
Cretaceous The Ünal geological period Wilkins (1916–2004). Crick went on to in-
of the Mesozoic era. It extended from vestigate *codons and the role of transfer
about 144 million years ago, following the *RNA. Crick, Watson, and Wilkins shared
Jurassic, to about 65 million years ago, a Nobel Prize in 1962.
when it was succeeded by the Palaeocene
crista 1. See semicircular canals. 2. See
epoch. The name of the period is derived
mitochondrion.
from creta (Latin: chalk) and the Creta-
ceous was characterized by the deposition cristobalite A mineral form of
of large amounts of *chalk in western Eu- *silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2.
rope. The Cretaceous was the time of
critical angle See total internal re-
greatest Ûooding in the Mesozoic. An-
flection.
giosperm plants made their Ürst appear-
ance on land and in the early Cretaceous critical damping See damping.
Mesozoic reptiles reached their peak. At
critical density In astronomy, the
the end of the period there was a *mass
mean density of the universe below
extinction of the dinosaurs, Ûying reptiles,
which value it is an expanding and con-
and ammonites, the cause of which may
tinuously open system. The luminous ma-
be related to environmental changes re-
terial in the universe (galaxies, etc.) is
sulting from collisions of the earth with
estimated to account for about 10% of this
large meteorites (see alvarez event; irid-
Ügure. The remainder is thought to con-
ium anomaly).
sist mainly of dark matter (see missing
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) A mass).
disease of humans characterized by de-
critical group A large group of related
mentia and destruction of brain tissue,
organisms that, although variations exist
Ürst described by the German psychia-
between them, cannot be divided into
trists H. G. Creutzfeldt (1885–1964) and A.
smaller groups of equivalent taxonomic
M. Jakob (1884–1931). It is now known to
rank to the parent group. Critical groups
be caused by an abnormal *prion protein
are found among plants that reproduce by
and is transmissible, although there is
*apomixis; for example, the 400 or so
also an inherited familial form. This rare
species of Rubus (brambles, etc.) are re-
disease typically affects middle-aged and
garded as a critical group.
elderly people and leads to rapid mental
deterioration and death. The abnormal critical mass The minimum mass of Üs-
prion interferes with the structure of nor- sile material that will sustain a nuclear
mal prion protein in brain tissue, result- *chain reaction. For example, when a nu-
ing in accumulations of the protein and cleus of uranium–235 disintegrates two or
consequent tissue damage. In most cases three neutrons are released in the pro-
the source of infection is unknown. How- cess, each of which is capable of causing
ever, it is well established that infection another nucleus to disintegrate, so creat-
can result, for example, via injections of ing a chain reaction. However, in a mass
growth hormone derived from infected of U–235 less than the critical mass, too
 critical pressure 206

many neutrons escape from the surface of British chemist and physicist, who in
the material for the chain reaction to pro- 1861 used *spectroscopy to discover *thal-
ceed. In the atom bomb, therefore, two or lium and in 1875 invented the radiome-
more subcritical masses have to be ter. He also developed an improved
brought together to make a mass in ex- vacuum tube (Crookes’ tube) for studying
c cess of the critical mass before the bomb gas discharges.
will explode.
crop 1. A plant that is cultivated for the
critical pressure The pressure of a Ûuid purpose of harvesting its seeds, roots,
in its *critical state; i.e. when it is at its leaves, or other parts that are useful to
critical temperature and critical volume. humans. See agriculture. 2. An enlarged
critical reaction A nuclear *chain portion of the anterior section of the ali-
reaction in which, on average, one trans- mentary canal in some animals, in which
formation causes exactly one other trans- food may be stored and/or undergo pre-
formation so that the chain reaction is liminary digestion. The term is most com-
self-sustaining. If the average number of monly applied to the thin-walled sac in
transformations caused by one transfor- birds between the oesophagus and the
mation falls below one, the reaction is *proventriculus. In female pigeons the
subcritical and the chain reaction ceases; crop contains glands that secrete crop
if it exceeds one the reaction is supercriti- milk, used to feed nestlings.
cal and proceeds explosively. crop rotation An agricultural practice
critical state The state of a Ûuid in in which different crops are cultivated in
which the liquid and gas phases both succession on the same area of land over a
have the same density. The Ûuid is then at period of time so as to maintain soil fertil-
its *critical temperature, *critical pres- ity and reduce the adverse effects of pests.
sure, and *critical volume. Legumes are important in the rotation as
they are a source of nitrogen for the soil
critical temperature 1. The tempera- (see nitrogen fixation; root nodule). In
ture above which a gas cannot be the UK, other crops that may be included
liqueÜed by an increase of pressure. See in a typical four-stage rotation are wheat,
also critical state. 2. See transition barley, and root crops. However, the use
point. of pesticides enables the monoculture of
critical volume The volume of a Üxed crops in modern farming systems (see
mass of a Ûuid in its *critical state; i.e. agriculture).
when it is at its critical temperature and cross 1. A mating between two selected
critical pressure. The critical speciÜc vol- individuals. Controlled crosses are made
ume is its volume per unit mass in this for many reasons, e.g. to investigate the
state: in the past this has often been inheritance of a particular characteristic
called the critical volume. or to improve a livestock or crop variety.
CRO See cathode-ray oscilloscope. See also back cross; reciprocal cross;
test cross. 2. An organism resulting
Cromagnon man The earliest form of from such a mating.
modern humans (Homo sapiens), which is
believed to have appeared in Europe cross-fertilization See fertilization.
about 35 000 years ago and possibly at crossing over An exchange of portions
least 70 000 years ago in Africa and Asia. of chromatids between *homologous
Fossils indicate that these hominids were chromosomes. As the chromosomes begin
taller and more delicate than *Neander-
to move apart at the end of the Ürst
thal man, which they replaced. They used
prophase of *meiosis, they remain in con-
intricately worked tools of stone and bone
tact at a number of points (see chiasma).
and left the famous cave drawings at Las-
At these points the chromatids break and
caux in the Dordogne. The name is de-
rejoin in such a way that sections are ex-
rived from the site at Cromagnon, France,
changed (see illustration). Crossing over
where the Ürst fossils were found in 1868.
thus alters the pattern of genes in the
Crookes, Sir William (1832–1919) chromosomes. See recombination.
207 crown ethers

paired cross product See vector product.

centromere homologous
chromosomes cross section 1. A plane surface formed
by cutting a solid, especially by cutting at
right angles to its longest axis. 2. The
area of such a surface. 3. A measure of
the probability that a collision will occur
c
chiasma chiasma
between a beam of radiation and a partic-
ular particle, expressed as the effective
area presented by the particle in that par-
ticular process. It is measured in square
direction of metres or *barns. The elastic cross section
movement amounts for all elastic scattering in which
the radiation loses no energy to the parti-
cle. The inelastic cross section accounts for
all other collisions. It is further subdivided
recombinant
chromatids to account for speciÜc interactions, such
as the absorption cross section, Üssion
cross section, ionization cross section, etc.

Crossing over at two chiasmata in a pair of crown ethers Organic compounds with
homologous chromosomes molecules containing large rings of car-
bon and oxygen atoms. The crown ethers
cross linkage A short side chain of are macrocyclic polyethers. The Ürst to be
atoms linking two longer chains in a poly- synthesized was the compound 18-crown-
meric material. 6, which consists of a ring of six
–CH2–CH2–O– units (i.e. C12H24O6). The
crossover value (COV) The percentage
general method of naming crown ethers
of linked genes (see linkage) that are ex-
is to use the form n-crown-m, where n is
changed during the process of *crossing
the number of atoms in the ring and m is
over during the Ürst prophase of *meiosis.
the number of oxygen atoms. Substituted
The COV can be calculated by the percent-
crown ethers can also be made. The
age of offspring that show *recombina-
crown ethers are able to form strongly
tion and is used to map the genes on a
bound complexes with metal ions by coor-
chromosome (see chromosome map). A
dination through the oxygen atoms. The
small COV for a given pair of genes indi-
stability of these complexes depends on
cates that the genes are situated close to-
the size of the ion relative to the cavity
gether on the chromosome.
available in the ring of the particular
cross-pollination See pollination. crown ether. Crown ethers also form com-

oxygen

CH2 group

metal ion

18-crown-6 dicyclohexyl-18-crown-6 complex

Crown ethers
 crucible 208

plexes with ammonium ions (NH4+) and cryobiology The study of the effects of
alkyl ammonium ions (RNH3+). They can very low temperatures on organisms, tis-
be used for increasing the solubility of sues, and cells. The ability of some animal
ionic salts in nonpolar solvents. For exam- tissues to remain viable in a frozen state
(cryopreservation) enables them to be pre-
c ple, dicyclohexyl-18-crown-6 complexes
with the potassium ion of potassium per- served by freezing for future use as
manganate and allows it to dissolve in *grafts.
benzene, giving a purple neutral solution cryogenic pump A *vacuum pump in
that can oxidize many organic com- which pressure is reduced by condensing
pounds. They also act as catalysts in cer- gases on surfaces maintained at about
tain reactions involving organic salts by 20 K by means of liquid hydrogen or at
complexing with the positive metal cation 4 K by means of liquid helium. Pressures
and thereby increasing its separation down to 10–8 mmHg (10–6 Pa) can be main-
from the organic anion, which shows a
tained; if they are used in conjunction
consequent increase in activity. Some of
with a *diffusion pump, pressures as low
the uses of crown ethers depend on their
as 10–15 mmHg (10–13 Pa) can be reached.
selectivity for speciÜc sizes of anions.
Thus they can be used to extract speciÜc cryogenics The study of very low tem-
ions from mixtures and enrich isotope peratures and the techniques for produc-
mixtures. Their selectivity also makes ing them. Objects are most simply cooled
them useful analytical reagents. See also by placing them in a bath containing
cryptands. liqueÜed gas maintained at a constant
pressure. In general, a liqueÜed gas can
crucible A dish or other vessel in which
provide a constant bath temperature from
substances can be heated to a high tem-
its triple point to its critical temperature
perature.
and the bath temperature can be varied
crude oil See petroleum. by changing the pressure above the liq-
uid. The lowest practical temperature for
Crustacea A phylum of *arthropods
a liquid bath is 0.3 K. Refrigerators (see re-
containing over 35 000 species distributed
frigeration) consist essentially of devices
worldwide, mainly in freshwater and ma-
operating on a repeated cycle, in which a
rine habitats, where they constitute a
low-temperature reservoir is a continu-
major component of plankton. Crus-
ously replenished liquid bath. Above 1 K
taceans include shrimps, crabs, lobsters,
they work by compressing and expanding
etc. (see decapoda) and the terrestrial
suitable gases. Below this temperature liq-
woodlice, all of which belong to the class
uids or solids are used and by *adiabatic
Malacostraca; the barnacles (class Cirri-
demagnetization it is possible to reach
pedia); the water Ûeas (see daphnia), fairy
10–6 K.
shrimps, and tadpole shrimps (class Bran-
chiopoda); and the copepods (see cope- cryohydrate A eutectic mixture of ice
poda). The segmented body usually has a and some other substance (e.g. an ionic
distinct head (bearing *compound eyes, salt) obtained by freezing a solution.
two pairs of *antennae, and various
cryolite A rare mineral form of sodium
mouthparts), thorax, and abdomen, and is
aluminoÛuoride, Na3AlF6, which crystal-
protected by a shell-like carapace. Each
lizes in the monoclinic system. It is usu-
body segment may bear a pair of
ally white but may also be colourless. The
branched (biramous) appendages used for
only important occurrence of the mineral
locomotion, as gills, and for Ültering food
is in Greenland. It is used chieÛy to lower
particles from the water. Appendages in
the melting point of alumina in the pro-
the head region are modiÜed to form jaws
duction of aluminium.
and in the abdominal region are often re-
duced or absent. Typically, the eggs hatch cryometer A thermometer designed to
to produce a free-swimming nauplius measure low temperatures. *Thermocou-
larva. This develops either by a series of ples can be used down to about 1 K and
moults or undergoes metamorphosis to *resistance thermometers can be used at
the adult form. 0.01 K. Below this magnetic thermometers
209 crypts of Lieberkühn

(0.001 K) and nuclear-resonance ther- ing ether chains linked by three-coordi-

mometers (3 × 10–7 K) are required. nate nitrogen atoms. Thus cryptands are
macropolycyclic polyaza-polyethers. For
cryophyte An organism that can live in
example, the compound (2,2,2)-cryptand
ice and snow. Most cryophytes are algae,
has three chains of the form
including the green alga Chlamydomonas ni-
valis and some diatoms, but they also in- –CH2CH2OCH2CH2OCH2CH2–.
c
clude certain dinoÛagellates, mosses,
These chains are linked at each end by a
bacteria, and fungi.
nitrogen atom. Cryptands, like the
cryoscopic constant See depression of *crown ethers, can form coordination
freezing point. complexes with ions that can Üt into
the cavity formed by the open three-
cryoscopy The use of *depression of
dimensional structure, i.e. they can
freezing point to determine relative mo-
‘cryptate’ the ion. Various types of
lecular masses.
cryptand have been produced having both
cryostat A vessel enabling a sample to spherical and cylindrical cavities. The
be maintained at a very low temperature. cryptands have the same kind of proper-
The *Dewar Ûask is the most satisfactory ties as the crown ethers and the same
vessel for controlling heat leaking in by uses. In general, they form much more
radiation, conduction, or convection. strongly bound complexes and can be
Cryostats usually consist of two or more used to stabilize unusual ionic species.
Dewar Ûasks nesting in each other. For ex- For example, it is possible to produce the
ample, a liquid nitrogen bath is often negative Na– ion in the compound [(2,2,2)-
used to cool a Dewar Ûask containing a cryptand-Na]+Na–, which is a gold-
liquid helium bath. coloured crystalline substance stable at
room temperature. Cluster ions, such as
cryotron A switch that relies on *super-
Pb52–, can be similarly stabilized.
conductivity. It consists of a coil of wire of
one superconducting material surround- cryptic coloration The type of colour-
ing a straight wire of another supercon- ing or marking of an animal that helps to
ducting material; both are immersed in a camouÛage it in its natural environment.
liquid-helium bath. A current passed It may enable the animal to blend with its
through the coil creates a magnetic Üeld, background or, like the stripes of zebras
which alters the superconducting proper- and tigers, help to break up the outline of
ties of the central wire, switching its resis- its body.
tance from zero to a Ünite value. Cryotron
crypts of Lieberkühn (intestinal
switches can be made very small and take
glands) Tubular glands that lie between
very little current.
the Ünger-like projections (see villus) of
cryptands Compounds with large three- the inner surface of the small intestine.
dimensional molecular structures contain- The cells of these glands (called Paneth

N
O O O O

N N N O N

O O
O O
N
O O

(2,2,2) cryptand spherical cryptand

Cryptands
 crystal 210

cells) secrete *intestinal juice as they grad- crystalline Having the regular internal
ually migrate along the side of the crypt arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules
and the villus; they are eventually shed characteristic of crystals. Crystalline ma-
into the lumen of the intestine. terials need not necessarily exist as crys-
tals; all metals, for example, are
c crystal A solid with a regular polyhedral
shape. All crystals of the same substance crystalline although they are not usually
grow so that they have the same angles seen as regular geometric crystals.
between their faces. However, they may crystallite A small crystal, e.g. one of
not have the same external appearance the small crystals forming part of a micro-
because different faces can grow at differ- crystalline substance.
ent rates, depending on the conditions.
The external form of the crystal is re- crystallization The process of forming
ferred to as the crystal habit. The atoms, crystals from a liquid or gas.
ions, or molecules forming the crystal crystallography The study of crystal
have a regular arrangement and this is form and structure. See also x-ray crystal-
the crystal structure. lography.
crystal counter A type of solid-state crystalloids See colloids.
*counter in which a potential difference
is applied across a crystal; when the crys- crystal microphone A microphone in
tal is struck by an elementary particle or which the sound waves fall on a plate of
photon, the electron–ion pairs created Rochelle salt or similar material with
cause a transient increase in conductivity. piezoelectric properties, the variation in
The resulting current pulses are counted pressure being converted into a varying
electronically. electric Üeld by the *piezoelectric effect.
Crystal microphones have a good high-
crystal defect An imperfection in the frequency response and are nondirec-
regular lattice pattern of a crystal. See Fea- tional; they are now rarely used except
ture. when their cheapness is important.
crystal-Üeld theory A theory of the crystal oscillator (piezoelectric oscilla-
electronic structures of inorganic *com- tor) An oscillator in which a piezoelectric
plexes, in which the complex is assumed crystal is used to determine the fre-
to consist of a central metal atom or ion quency. An alternating electric Üeld ap-
surrounded by ligands that are ions. For plied to two metallic Ülms sputtered onto
example, the complex [PtCl4]2– is thought the parallel faces of a crystal, usually of
of as a Pt2+ ion surrounded by four Cl– quartz, causes it to vibrate at its natural
ions at the corners of a square. The pres- frequency; this frequency can be in the
ence of these ions affects the energies of kilohertz or megahertz range, depending
the d-orbitals, causing a splitting of en- on how the crystal is cut. The mechanical
ergy levels. The theory can be used to ex- vibrations in turn create an alternating
plain the spectra of complexes and their electric Üeld across the crystal that does
magnetic properties. Ligand-Üeld theory is not suffer from frequency drift. The de-
a development of crystal-Üeld theory in vice can be used to replace the tuned cir-
which the overlap of orbitals is taken into cuit in an oscillator by providing the
account. Crystal-Üeld theory was initiated resonant frequency or it can be coupled to
in 1929 by the German-born US physicist the oscillator circuit, which is tuned ap-
Hans Albrecht Bethe (1906–2005) and ex- proximately to the crystal frequency. In
tensively developed in the 1930s. this type, the crystal prevents frequency
crystal habit See crystal. drift. The device is widely used in *quartz
clocks and watches.
crystal lattice The regular pattern of
atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline crystal pick-up A pick-up in a record
substance. A crystal lattice can be re- player in which the mechanical vibrations
garded as produced by repeated transla- produced by undulations in the record
tions of a unit cell of the lattice. See also groove are transmitted to a piezoelectric
crystal system. crystal, which produces a varying electric
211 cumene process

Üeld of the same frequency as the sound. the highest power of the variable is three.
This signal is ampliÜed and fed to loud- It has the general form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d =
speakers in order to recreate the sound. 0 and, in general, is satisÜed by three val-
ues of x.
crystal structure See crystal.
crystal system A method of classifying
cubic expansivity See expansivity. c
crystalline substances on the basis of their cultivar A plant that has been developed
unit cell. There are seven crystal systems. and maintained by cultivation as a result
If the cell is a parallelopiped with sides a, of agricultural or horticultural practices.
b, and c and if α is the angle between b The term is derived from cultivated
and c, β the angle between a and c, and γ variety.
the angle between a and b, the systems
cultivation The planting and breeding
are:
of crop plants in *agriculture and horti-
(1) cubic a=b=c and α=β=γ=90°
culture. It involves the investigation of
(2) tetragonal a=b≠c and α=β=γ=90°
new means of increasing crop yield and
(3) rhombic (or orthorhombic) a≠b≠c and
quality.
α=β=γ=90°
(4) hexagonal a=b≠c and α=β=γ=90° culture A batch of cells, which can be
(5) trigonal a=b≠c and α=β=γ≠90° microorganisms or of animal or plant ori-
(6) monoclinic a≠b≠c and α=γ=90°≠β gin, that are grown under speciÜc condi-
(7) triclinic a=b=c and α≠β≠γ tions of nutrient levels, temperature, pH,
oxygen levels, osmotic factors, light, pres-
CSF 1. See cerebrospinal fluid. 2. See sure, and water content. Cultures of cells
colony-stimulating factor. are prepared in the laboratory for a wide
CS gas The vapour from a white solid, spectrum of scientiÜc research. A *culture
C6H4(Cl)CH:C(CN)2, causing tears and medium provides the appropriate condi-
choking, used in ‘crowd control’. tions for growth. See also continuous cul-
ture; tissue culture.
CT scanner (computerized tomography
scanner) See tomography. culture medium A nutrient material,
either solid or liquid, used to support the
CU See control unit. growth and reproduction of microorgan-
cubic close packing See close packing. isms or to maintain tissue or organ cul-
tures. See also agar.
cubic crystal A crystal in which the
unit cell is a cube (see crystal system). cumene process An industrial process
There are three possible packings for for making phenol from benzene. A mix-
cubic crystals: simple cubic, face-centred ture of benzene vapour and propene is
cubic, and body-centred cubic. See illustra- passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst at
tion. 250°C and high pressure
cubic equation An equation in which C6H6 + CH3CH:CH2 → C6H5CH(CH3)2

body-centred simple cubic face-centred

Cubic crystal structures

 212

CRYSTAL DEFECTS

A crystal *lattice is formed by a repeated arrangement of atoms, ions, or

molecules. Within one cubic centimetre of material one can expect to find up
c to 1022 atoms and it is extremely unlikely that all of these will be arranged in
perfect order. Some atoms will not be exactly in the right place with the result
that the lattice will contain *defects. The presence of defects within the crystal
structure has profound consequences for certain bulk properties of the solid,
such as the electrical resistance and the mechanical strength.
Point defects
Local crystal defects called point defects, appear as either impurity atoms or
gaps in the lattice. Impurity atoms can occur in the lattice either at interstitial
sites (between atoms in a non-lattice site) or at substitutional sites (replacing an
atom in the host lattice). Lattice gaps are called vacancies and arise when an
atom is missing from its site in the lattice. Vacancies are sometimes called
Schottky defects. A vacancy in which the missing atom has moved to an
interstitial position is known as a Frenkel defect.
Colour centres
In ionic crystals, the ions and vacancies always arrange themselves so that
there is no build-up of one type of charge in any small volume of the crystal. If
ions or charges are introduced into or removed from the lattice, there will, in
general, be an accompanying rearrangement of the ions and their outer
valence electrons. This rearrangement is called charge compensation and is
most dramatically observed in colour centres. If certain crystals are irradiated
with X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, or electrons a colour change is observed.
For example, diamond may be coloured blue by electron bombardment and
quartz may be coloured brown by irradiation with neutrons. The high-energy
radiation produces defects in the lattice and, in an attempt to maintain charge
neutrality, the crystal undergoes some measure of charge compensation. Just
as electrons around an atom have a series of discrete permitted energy levels,
so charges residing at point defects exhibit sets of discrete levels, which are
separated from one another by energies corresponding to wavelengths in the
visible region of the spectrum. Thus light of certain wavelengths can be
absorbed at the defect sites, and the material appears to be coloured. Heating
the irradiated crystal can, in many cases, repair the irradiation damage and the
crystal loses its coloration.
Dislocations
Non-local defects may involve entire planes of atoms. The most important of

Formation of a Schottky defect Formation of a Frenkel defect

Point defects in a two-dimensional crystal

213

these is called a dislocation. Dislocations are essentially line-defects; that is,

there is an incomplete plane of atoms in the crystal lattice. In 1934, Taylor,
Orowan, and Polanyi independently proposed the concept of the dislocation to
account for the mechanical strength of metal crystals. Their microscopic
studies revealed that when a metal crystal is plastically deformed, the c
deformation does not occur by a separation of individual atoms but rather by a
slip of one plane of atoms over another plane. Dislocations provide a
mechanism for this slipping of planes that does not require the bulk
movement of crystal material. The passage of a dislocation in a crystal is
similar to the movement of a ruck in a carpet. A relatively large force is
required to slide the carpet as a whole. However, moving a ruck over the
carpet can inch it forward without needing such large forces. This movement
of dislocations is called plastic flow.
Strength of materials
In practice most metal samples are polycrystalline; that is they consist of many
small crystals or grains at different angles to each other. The boundary
between two such grains is called a grain boundary. The plastic flow of
dislocations may be hindered by the presence of grain boundaries, impurity
atoms, and other dislocations. Pure metals produced commercially are
generally too weak to be of much mechanical use. The weakness of these
samples can be attributed to the ease with which the dislocations are able to
move within the sample. Slip, and therefore deformation, can then occur
under relatively low stresses. Impurity atoms, other dislocations, and grain
boundaries can all act as obstructions to the slip of atomic planes.
Traditionally, methods of making metals stronger involved introducing defects
that provide regions of disorder in the material. For example, in an alloy, such
as steel, impurity atoms (e.g. carbon) are introduced into the lattice during the
forging process. The perfection of the iron lattice structure is disturbed and the
impurities oppose the dislocation motion. This makes for greater strength and
stiffness.
The complete elimination of dislocations may seem an obvious way to
strengthen materials. However, this has only proved possible for hair-like
single crystal specimens called whiskers. These whiskers are only a few
micrometers thick and are seldom more than a few millimetres long;
nevertheless their strength approaches the theoretical value.

A E H A

G G
B D B D

F F
C C

Dislocation in a two-dimensional crystal. The extra plane of atoms AB causes strain at

bond CD. On breaking, the bond flips across to form CB. This incremental movement shifts
the dislocation across so that the overall effect is to slide the two planes BDG and CF over
each other.
 cupellation 214

The product is called cumene, and it tions. Curare is used as an arrow poison
can be oxidized in air to a peroxide, by South American Indians and was for-
C6H5C(CH3)2O2H. This reacts with dilute merly used as a muscle relaxant in
acid to give phenol (C6H5OH) and propa- surgery.
none (acetone, CH3OCH3), which is a valu-
c able by-product.
curd The solid component produced by
the coagulation of milk during the manu-
cupellation A method of separating facture of cheese. After being pasteurized,
noble metals (e.g. gold or silver) from base milk is cooled down and a culture of lactic
metals (e.g. lead) by melting the mixture acid bacteria is added to ferment the milk
with a blast of hot air in a shallow porous sugar, lactose, to lactic acid. The resulting
dish (the cupel). The base metals are oxi- decrease in pH causes casein, a milk pro-
dized, the oxide being carried away by the tein, to coagulate, a process known as
blast of air or absorbed by the porous con- curdling. The solid curds are then sepa-
tainer. rated from the liquid component, known
as whey, and inoculated with different
cuprammonium ion The tetra-
types of microbes to produce different
amminecopper(II) ion [Cu(NH3)4]2+. See
cheeses.
ammine.
curie The former unit of *activity (see
cupric compounds Compounds con-
radiation units). It is named after Pierre
taining copper in its higher (+2) oxidation
Curie.
state; e.g. cupric chloride is copper(II)
chloride (CuCl2). Curie, Marie (Marya Sklodowska;
1867–1934) Polish-born French chemist,
cuprite A red mineral cubic form of
who went to Paris in 1891. She married
copper(I) oxide, Cu2O; an important ore
the physicist Pierre Curie (1859–1906) in
of copper. It occurs where deposits of
1895 and soon began work on seeking
copper have been subjected to oxidation.
radioactive elements other than uranium
The mineral has been mined as a copper
in pitchblende (to account for its unex-
ore in Chile, Democratic Republic of
pectedly high radioactivity). By 1898 she
Congo, Bolivia, Australia, Russia, and the
had discovered *radium and *polonium,
USA.
although it took her four years to purify
cupronickel A type of corrosion- them. In 1903 the Curies shared the Nobel
resistant alloy of copper and nickel con- Prize for physics with Henri *Becquerel,
taining up to 45% nickel. who had discovered radioactivity.
cuprous compounds Compounds con- Curie point (Curie temperature) The
taining copper in its lower (+1) oxidation temperature at which a ferromagnetic
state; e.g. cuprous chloride is copper(I) substance loses its ferromagnetism and
chloride (CuCl). becomes only paramagnetic. For iron the
Curie point is 760°C and for nickel 356°C.
cupule 1. A hard or membranous cup-
shaped structure formed from bracts and Curie’s law The susceptibility (χ) of a
enclosing various fruits, such as the hazel- paramagnetic substance is proportional to
nut and acorn. 2. A structure in club the thermodynamic temperature (T), i.e.
mosses (Lycopodium species) that protects χ = C/T, where C is the Curie constant. A
the gemma (resting bud) during its devel- modiÜcation of this law, the Curie–Weiss
opment. It is composed of six leaÛike law, is more generally applicable. It states
structures. 3. The bright red tissue that χ = C/(T – θ), where θ is the Weiss
around the seed of yew (Taxus), forming constant, a characteristic of the material.
the yew ‘berry’. The law was Ürst proposed by Pierre Curie
and modiÜed by another French physicist,
curare A resin obtained from the bark of
Pierre-Ernest Weiss (1865–1940).
South American trees of the genera Strych-
nos and Chondrodendron that causes paraly- curium Symbol Cm. A radioactive metal-
sis of voluntary muscle. It acts by blocking lic transuranic element belonging to the
the action of the neurotransmitter *actinoids; a.n. 96; mass number of the
*acetylcholine at *neuromuscular junc- most stable isotope 247 (half-life 1.64 ×
215 Cuvier, George Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert

107 years); r.d. (calculated) 13.51; m.p. 3. (in mathematics) A point at which two
1340±40°C. There are nine known iso- arcs of a curve intersect.
topes. The element was Ürst identiÜed by cuticle 1. (in botany) The continuous
Glenn Seaborg (1912–99) and associates in waxy layer that covers the aerial parts of a
1944 and Ürst produced by L. B. Werner
and I. Perlman in 1947 by bombarding
plant. Composed of *cutin, it is secreted
by the *epidermis and its primary func-
c
americium–241 with neutrons. tion is to prevent water loss. 2. (in zool-
curl (rot) The *vector product of the ogy) A layer of horny noncellular material
*gradient operator with a vector. For a covering, and secreted by, the epidermis
vector u that has components u1, u2, and of many invertebrates. It is usually made
u3 in the x, y, and z directions (with re- of a collagen-like protein or of *chitin and
spective unit vectors i, j, and k), and is a its main function is protection. In arthro-
function of x, y, and z, the curl is given by: pods it is also strong enough to act as a
skeleton (see exoskeleton) and in insects
curl u = ∇ × u = (∂u3/∂y – ∂u2/∂z)i + it reduces water loss. Growth is allowed
(∂u1/∂z – ∂u3/∂x)j + (∂u2/∂x – ∂u1/∂y)k. by moulting of the cuticle (see ecdysis).
See also divergence. cuticularization The secretion by the
current Symbol I. A Ûow of electric outer (epidermal) layer of cells of plants
charge through a conductor. The current and many invertebrates of substances that
at a particular cross section is the rate of then harden to form a *cuticle.
Ûow of charge. The charge may be carried cutin A polymer of long-chain fatty acids
by electrons, ions, or positive holes (see that forms the main constituent of the
charge carrier). The unit of current is *cuticle of mature epidermal plant cells.
the ampere. See also conventional cur- Cutin polymers are cross-linked to form a
rent. network, which is embedded in a matrix
of waxes. The deposition of cutin (cutin-
current balance An instrument used to
ization) reduces water loss by the plant
measure a current absolutely, on the basis
and helps prevent the entry of pathogens.
of the deÜnition of the ampere. An accu-
See also suberin.
rate form consists of a beam balance with
similar coils attached to the ends of the cutinization The deposition of *cutin in
balance arms. Fixed coils are situated plant cell walls, principally in the outer-
above and below these two coils. The six most layers of leaves and young stems.
coils are then connected in series so that a cutis See dermis.
current passing through them creates a
torque on the beam, which is restored to cutting A part of a plant, such as a bud,
the horizontal by means of a rider. From leaf, or a portion of a root or shoot, that,
the position and weight of the rider, and when detached from the plant and in-
the geometry of the system, the current serted in soil, can take root and give rise
can be calculated. to a new daughter plant. Taking or strik-
ing cuttings is a horticultural method for
current density 1. The current Ûowing propagating plants. See also vegetative
through a conductor per unit cross- propagation.
sectional area, measured in amperes per
square metre. 2. The current Ûowing Cuvier, George Léopold Chrétien
through an electrolyte per unit area of Frédéric Dagobert (1769–1832) French
electrode. anatomist, who became professor at the
Collège de France in 1799, moving in
cusp 1. (in dentistry) A sharp raised pro- 1802 to the Jardin de Plantes. Cuvier ex-
tuberance on the surface of a *molar tended the classiÜcation system of *Lin-
tooth. The cusps of opposing molars (i.e. naeus, adding the category *phylum and
on opposite jaws) are complementary to concentrating on the taxonomy of Üshes.
each other, which increases the efÜciency He also initiated the classiÜcation of fos-
of grinding food during chewing. 2. (in sils and established the science of
anatomy) A Ûap forming part of a *valve. palaeontology.
 cyanamide 216

cyanamide 1. An inorganic salt contain- aquatic habitats. A few species Üx atmos-

ing the ion CN22–. See calcium cyana- pheric nitrogen and thus contribute to
mide. 2. A colourless crystalline solid, soil fertility (see nitrogen fixation). Oth-
H2NCN, made by the action of carbon ers exhibit symbiosis (see lichens). The
dioxide on hot sodamide. It is a weakly chloroxybacteria (grass-green bacteria or
c acidic compound (the parent acid of prochlorophytes) have been found in ma-
cyanamide salts) that is soluble in water rine and freshwater habitats. They differ
and ethanol. It is hydrolysed to urea in from the blue-green bacteria in contain-
acidic solutions. ing chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b but no
cyanamide process See calcium blue or red pigments – a combination like
cyanamide. that found in plant chloroplasts, which
they resemble. It is thought that chloroxy-
cyanate See cyanic acid. bacteria may share a common ancestor
cyanic acid An unstable explosive acid, with chloroplasts but are not their imme-
HOCN. The compound has the structure diate progenitors (see endosymbiont
H–O–C≡N, and is also called fulminic acid. theory).
Its salts and esters are cyanates (or fulmi- cyanocobalamin See vitamin b com-
nates). The compound is a volatile liquid, plex.
which readily polymerizes. In water it hy-
drolyses to ammonia and carbon dioxide. cyanogen A colourless gas, (CN)2, with a
It is isomeric with another acid, pungent odour; soluble in water, ethanol,
H–N=C=O, which is known as isocyanic and ether; d. 2.335 g dm–3; m.p. –27.9°C;
acid. Its salts and esters are isocyanates. b.p. –20.7°C. The compound is very toxic.
It may be prepared in the laboratory by
cyanide 1. An inorganic salt containing
heating mercury(II) cyanide; industrially it
the cyanide ion CN–. Cyanides are ex-
is made by gas-phase oxidation of hydro-
tremely poisonous because of the ability
gen cyanide using air over a silver cata-
of the CN– ion to coordinate with the iron
lyst, chlorine over activated silicon(IV)
in haemoglobin, thereby blocking the up-
oxide, or nitrogen dioxide over a
take of oxygen by the blood. 2. A metal
coordination complex formed with copper(II) salt. Cyanogen is an important
cyanide ions. intermediate in the preparation of various
fertilizers and is also used as a stabilizer
cyanide process A method of extract- in making nitrocellulose. It is an example
ing gold by dissolving it in potassium of a *pseudohalogen.
cyanide (to form the complex ion
[Au(CN)2]–). The ion can be reduced back cyano group The group –CN in a chem-
to gold with zinc. ical compound. See nitriles.

cyanine dyes A class of dyes that con- cyanohydrins Organic compounds

tain a –CH= group linking two nitrogen- formed by the addition of hydrogen
containing heterocyclic rings. They are cyanide to aldehydes or ketones (in the
used as sensitizers in photography. presence of a base). The Ürst step is attack
by a CN– ion on the carbonyl carbon
Cyanobacteria A phylum consisting of atom. The Ünal product is a compound in
two groups of photosynthetic eubacteria. which a –CN and –OH group are attached
The blue-green bacteria (formerly known to the same carbon atom. For example,
as blue-green algae, or Cyanophyta),
ethanal reacts as follows
which comprise the vast majority of
members, contain the photosynthetic pig- CH3CHO + HCN → CH3CH(OH)(CN)
ment chlorophyll a plus accessory pig-
The product is 2-hydroxypropanonitrile.
ments: phycocyanins, responsible for
Cyanohydrins of this type can be oxidized
their blue colour, and (in some) red pig-
to α-hydroxy carboxylic acids.
ments (phycoerythrins). Blue-green bac-
teria are unicellular but sometimes cyanuric acid A white crystalline water-
become joined in colonies or Ülaments by soluble trimer of cyanic acid, (HNCO)3.
a sheath of mucilage. They occur in all It is a cyclic compound having a six-
217 cyclone

membered ring made of alternating imide reaction induced by the hormone con-
(NH) and carbonyl (CO) groups. cerned. Cyclic AMP is also involved in con-
trolling gene expression and cell division,
CycadoÜlicales (Pteridospermales; seed
in immune responses, and in nervous
ferns) An extinct order of gymnosperms
transmission.
that Ûourished in the Carboniferous pe-
riod. They possessed characteristics of cyclic phosphorylation (cyclic photo-
c
both the ferns and the seed plants in re- phosphorylation) See photophosphoryla-
producing by means of seeds and yet re- tion.
taining fernlike leaves. Their internal
cyclization The formation of a cyclic
anatomy combined both fern and seed-
compound from an open-chain com-
plant characteristics.
pound. See ring.
Cycadophyta A phylum of seed plants
cyclo- PreÜx designating a cyclic com-
(see gymnosperm) that contains many ex-
pound, e.g. a cycloalkane or a cyclosili-
tinct species; the few modern representa-
cate.
tives of the group include Cycas and Zamia.
Cycads inhabit tropical and subtropical re- cycloalkanes Cyclic saturated hydrocar-
gions, sometimes growing to a height of bons containing a ring of carbon atoms
20 m. The stem bears a crown of fernlike joined by single bonds. They have the gen-
leaves. These species are among the most eral formula CnH2n, for example cyclohex-
primitive of living seed plants. ane, C6H12, etc. In general they behave
like the *alkanes but are rather less reac-
cyclamates Salts of the acid,
tive.
C6H11.NH.SO3H, where C6H11– is a cyclo-
hexyl group. Sodium and calcium cycla- cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione (benzo-
mates were formerly used as sweetening quinone; quinone) A yellow solid, C6H4O2;
agents in soft drinks, etc., until their use r.d. 1.3; m.p. 116°C. It has a six-membered
was banned when they were suspected of ring of carbon atoms with two opposite
causing cancer. carbon atoms linked to oxygen atoms
(C=O) and the other two pairs of carbon
cycle A regularly repeated set of changes
atoms linked by double bonds (HC=CH).
to a system that brings back all its param-
The compound is used in making dyes. See
eters to their original values once in every
also quinhydrone electrode.
set of changes. The duration of one cycle
is called its *period and the rate of repeti- cyclohexane A colourless liquid *cy-
tion of cycle, called the *frequency, is cloalkane, C6H12; r.d. 0.78; m.p. 6.5°C; b.p.
measured in *hertz. See simple harmonic 81°C. It occurs in petroleum and is made
motion. by passing benzene and hydrogen under
pressure over a heated Raney nickel cata-
cyclic Describing a compound that has a
lyst at 150°C, or by the reduction of cyclo-
ring of atoms in its molecules. In homo-
hexanone. It is used as a solvent and paint
cyclic compounds all the atoms in the ring
remover and can be oxidized using hot
are the same type, e.g. benzene (C6H6) and
concentrated nitric acid to hexanedioic
cyclohexane (C6H12). These two examples
acid (adipic acid). The cyclohexane ring is
are also examples of carbocyclic com-
not planar and can adopt boat and chair
pounds; i.e. the rings are of carbon atoms.
*conformations; in formulae it is repre-
If different atoms occur in the ring, as in
sented by a single hexagon.
pyridine (C5H5N), the compound is said to
be heterocyclic. cycloid The curve traced by a point on
the circumference of a circle as it rolls
cyclic AMP A derivative of *ATP that is
without slipping along a straight line. The
widespread in animal cells as a *second
length of the arc formed by one revolu-
messenger in many biochemical reactions
tion of the circle is 8r, where r is the ra-
induced by hormones. Upon reaching
dius of the circle. The horizontal distance
their target cells, the hormones activate
between cusps is 2πr.
*adenylate cyclase, the enzyme that catal-
yses cyclic AMP production. Cyclic AMP cyclone An area of low pressure in the
ultimately activates the enzymes of the atmosphere. Winds rotate about the low-
 cyclonite 218

pressure centre in an anti-clockwise direc- between them. The frequency of the alter-
tion in the northern hemisphere and in a nating p.d. is arranged so that the parti-
clockwise direction in the southern hemi- cles are accelerated each time they reach
sphere. In the mid- and high-latitudes the evacuated gap between the dees. The
these low-pressure systems are now com- magnetic Üeld makes them follow curved
c monly referred to as *depressions, or paths. After several thousand revolutions
lows, and the term cyclone is avoided. See inside the dees the particles reach the
also tropical cyclone. perimeter of the dees, where a deÛecting
cyclonite (RDX) A highly explosive nitro Üeld directs them onto the target. In this
compound, (CH2N.NO2)3. It has a cyclic device protons can achieve an energy of
structure with a six-membered ring of al- 10–12 J (10 MeV). The Ürst working cyclo-
ternating CH2 groups and nitrogen atoms, tron was produced in 1931 by the US
with each nitrogen being attached to a physicist Ernest Lawrence (1901–58). See
NO2 group. It is made by nitrating hexam- also synchrocyclotron.
ine, C6H12N4, which is obtained from am- cylindrical polar coordinates See
monia and methanal. Cyclonite is a very polar coordinates.
powerful explosive used mainly for mili-
tary purposes. cyme See cymose inflorescence.

cyclopentadiene A colourless liquid cymose inÛorescence (cyme; deÜnite

cyclic *alkene, C5H6; r.d. 0.8021; m.p. inÛorescence) A type of Ûowering shoot
–97.2°C; b.p. 40.0°C. It is prepared as a by- (see inflorescence) in which the Ürst-
product during the fractional distillation formed Ûower develops from the growing
of crude benzene from coal tar. It under- region at the top of the Ûower stalk (see il-
goes condensation reactions with ketones lustration). Thus no new Ûower buds can
to give highly coloured compounds (ful- be produced at the tip and other Ûowers
venes) and readily undergoes polymeriza- 4 3 4
tion at room temperature to give the 2
dimer, dicyclopentadiene. The compound 1 3
itself is not aromatic because it does not
have the required number of pi electrons. 2
However, removal of a hydrogen atom
1
produces the stable cyclopentadienyl ion,
C5H5–, which does have aromatic proper-
ties. In particular, the ring can coordinate buttercup forget-me-not
to positive ions in such compounds as
*ferrocene.
monochasial cymes
cyclopentadienyl ion See cyclopenta-
diene.
cyclopropane A colourless gas, C3H6,
1
b.p. –34.5°C, whose molecules contain a
triangular ring of carbon atoms. It is made 3
2 2
by treating 1,3-dibromopropane with zinc 3
metal, and is used as a general anaes-
thetic.
Cyclostomata See agnatha. 3 3

cyclotron A cyclic particle *accelerator

in which charged particles fed into the stitchwort
centre of the device are accelerated in an
outward spiral path inside two hollow D-
shaped conductors placed to form a split dichasial cyme
circle. A magnetic Üeld is applied at right- 1 = oldest flower
angles to the plane of the dees and an al-
ternating potential difference is applied Types of cymose inflorescence
219 cytomegalovirus

are produced from lateral buds beneath. cytogenetics The study of inheritance
In a monochasial cyme (or monochasium), in relation to the structure and function
the development of the Ûower at the tip is of cells. For example, the results of breed-
followed by a new Ûower axis growing ing experiments can be explained in
from a single lateral bud. Subsequent new terms of the behaviour of chromosomes
Ûowers may develop from the same side during the formation of the reproductive c
of the lateral shoots, as in the buttercup, cells.
or alternately on opposite sides, as in
forget-me-not. In a dichasial cyme (or cytokine Any soluble factor secreted by
dichasium), the development of the Ûower cells of the lymphoid system that acts as a
at the apex is followed by two new Ûower signal to other lymphoid cells. There are
axes developing from buds opposite one two categories: *lymphokines, secreted by
another, as in plants of the family Caryo- lymphocytes; and monokines, secreted by
phyllaceae (such as stitchwort). Compare macrophages. However, certain cytokines,
racemose inflorescence. notably *interferons and *interleukins,
are secreted by both lymphocytes and
cypsela A dry single-seeded fruit that macrophages.
does not split open during seed dispersal
and is formed from a double ovary in cytokinesis See cell cycle; mitosis.
which only one ovule develops into a cytokinin (kinin) Any of a group of plant
seed. It is similar to an *achene and *growth substances chemically related to
characteristic of members of the family the purine adenine. Among other roles,
Compositae (Asteraceae), such as the dan- cytokinins stimulate cell division in the
delion. See also pappus. presence of *auxin and have also been
cysteine See amino acid. found to delay senescence, overcome
*apical dominance, and promote cell ex-
cystine A molecule resulting from the
pansion. Zeatin is a naturally occurring
oxidation reaction between the sulphy-
cytokinin.
dryl (–SH) groups of two cysteine mol-
ecules (see amino acid). This often occurs cytology The study of the structure and
between adjacent cysteine residues in function of cells. The development of the
polypeptides. The resultant *disulphide light and electron microscopes has en-
bridges (–S–S–) are important in stabiliz- abled the detailed structure of the nucleus
ing the structure of protein molecules. (including the chromosomes) and other
cytidine A nucleoside comprising one organelles to be elucidated. Microscopic
cytosine molecule linked to a d-ribose examination of cells, either live or as
sugar molecule. The derived nucleotides, stained sections on a slide, is also used in
cytidine mono-, di-, and triphosphate the detection and diagnosis of various dis-
(CMP, CDP, and CTP respectively), partici- eases, especially *cancer.
pate in various biochemical reactions, no- cytolysis The breakdown of cells, usu-
tably in phospholipid synthesis. ally as a result of destruction or dissolu-
cytochrome Any of a group of proteins, tion of their outer membranes. Certain
each with an iron-containing *haem drugs (cytotoxic drugs) have this effect
group, that form part of the *electron and are used in the treatment of some
transport chain in mitochondria and forms of cancer.
chloroplasts. Electrons are transferred by cytomegalovirus A virus belonging to
reversible changes in the iron atom be- the herpes group (see herpesvirus). In hu-
tween the reduced Fe(II) and oxidized mans it normally causes symptoms that
Fe(III) states. See also cytochrome oxidase. are milder than the common cold, but it
cytochrome oxidase An enzyme com- can produce more serious symptoms in
plex comprising the terminal two cyto- those whose *immune response is dis-
chromes of the respiratory chain in the turbed (e.g. cancer patients and people
mitochondria (see electron transport who are HIV-positive). Infection in preg-
chain). It is responsible for the reduction nant women may cause congenital handi-
of oxygen to form water. cap in their children.
 cytoplasm 220

cytoplasm The material surrounding tive as a means of local transport in the

the nucleus of a *cell. It can be differenti- cell. The exact mechanism of streaming is
ated into dense outer ectoplasm, which is unknown but it is thought to involve the
concerned primarily with cell movement, interaction of motor proteins (attached to
and less dense endoplasm, which contains organelles) with *actin microÜlaments
c most of the cell’s structures. parallel to the direction of Ûow. A similar
cytoplasmic inheritance The inheri- streaming of cytoplasm is responsible for
tance of genes contained in the cytoplasm *amoeboid movement.
of a cell, rather than the nucleus. Only a cytosine A *pyrimidine derivative. It is
very small number of genes are inherited one of the principal component bases of
in this way. The phenomenon occurs be- *nucleotides and the nucleic acids *DNA
cause certain organelles, the *mitochon- and *RNA.
dria and (in plants) the *chloroplasts,
contain their own genes and can repro- cytoskeleton A network of Übres per-
duce independently. The female reproduc- meating the matrix of eukaryotic cells
tive cell (the egg) has a large amount of that provides a supporting framework for
cytoplasm containing many such orga- organelles, anchors the cell membrane,
nelles, which are consequently incorpo- facilitates cellular movement, and pro-
rated into the cytoplasm of all the cells of vides a suitable surface for chemical re-
the embryo. The male reproductive cells actions to take place. The Übres are
(sperm or pollen), however, consist almost composed of *microtubules and *actin
solely of a nucleus. Cytoplasmic orga- microÜlaments.
nelles are thus not inherited from the cytosol The semiÛuid soluble part of the
male parent. In plants, male sterility can cytoplasm of cells, which contains the
be inherited via the cytoplasm. The inher- components of the *cytoskeleton. The
itance of any such factors does not follow cell’s organelles are suspended in the
Mendelian laws. cytosol.
cytoplasmic streaming The direc- cytotaxonomy See taxonomy.
tional movement of cytoplasm in certain
cells, which allows movement of sub- cytotoxic Destructive to living cells. The
stances through the cell, especially term is applied particularly to a class of
around the cell’s periphery. It has been drugs that inhibit cell division and are
observed most clearly in large cells, such therefore used in chemotherapy to de-
as plant sieve elements and unicellular stroy cancer cells and to a group of *T
algae, in which simple diffusion is ineffec- cells that destroy virus-infected cells.