BSC-MICROBIOLOGY

SERICULTURE
UNIT -1

SERICULTURE :
➢ Sericulture in simple words is silk production mechanism by an insect.
➢ At the commercial level or the production of silk from silkworm by rearing practises on a
commercial scale is sericulture.
➢ In India major silk-producing centres are in Assam, Punjab, Kashmir and Karnataka. Silk
production in India is 2969 turn per year.
➢ India ranks 3rd in the production of silk. Mysore, Karnataka is the largest silk product producer
state.

Sericulture

Definition of Sericulture

➢ The process of breeding, growing, management of silkworms to get pure raw silk is
sericulture.

➢ There are many different species of silkworms found. For example Mulberry silkworm, airy
silkworm, giant silkworm etcetera. The insect which produces silk is called silkworm.

History of Silk
 ➢ The production of silk originates from China. At that time silk was not only in use for clothing
but also for a number of other applications.

➢ The colour of silkworm was an important guide of social classes during the tang dynasty.

➢ The Arabs also begin to manufacture silk at the same time.

➢ As a result of the spread of sericulture, Chinese silk exports became less important, although
they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market.

➢ During the 16th century France joint Italy in developing a successful silk trade, do the efforts of
most other nation to develop a silk industry of their own were unsuccessful.

Process of Sericulture
➢ To obtain silk mood are reared and their cocoons are collected to get silk thread.

Rearing of Silkworm–

➢ Silkworm farmers buy eggs and raise then they kept these under suitable conditions. Then
the eggs are warmed so that they can hatch.

➢ Then they let the caterpillars grow in that particular condition. Caterpillar eats Mulberry
leaves. After this, they kept these caterpillars in the clean bamboo tray with mulberry leaves.

➢ The caterpillars move to a chamber to build a cocoon in that tray Also small drags are
provided so cocoon get attached. And then silkworm spins the cocoon inside.

Processing Silk-

➢ As the cocoon are acquired, they are kept under some or boiled so the silk fibre can be
separated or reeling the silk process off taking out threats from the cocoon for use as silk.
➢ Silk fibre does obtain are drawn and rolled into threads.

Taxonomic position of Silkworm

➢ Phylum- Arthropoda (jointed) incision Insecta
➢ Subclass- pterygoid (have wings)
➢ Division- Endopterygota (go through distinctive larval, pupal, and adult stages)
➢ Order – Lepidoptera (4 large covered wings, bear distinctive marking, and larva that
caterpillar)
➢ Superfamily – Bombycoidae
➢ Species- Mori

Species of Sericulture
➢ More than 500 species of wild silkworms exists in the world, all do only a few are used to
produce clothes. These 2 are as follows:
Bombycidae (Bombyx Mori)

➢ Bombay Mori is popularly called The Chinese silkworm or Mulberry silk mood.
➢ It is well known for silk. Mori is caterpillars that are about 4 centimetres long, including their
horned tail.
➢ They are buff coloured and have Brown lines on their whole body. It is a native species of
China and is famous for silk in Japan, India, Korea, Italy etc. It feeds on Mulberry leaves so it is also called
Mulberry silkworm.
➢ Also, it is one type of mono figures insect which continuously feed on the Mulberry leaves.
Hence it is called Veracruz feeder.
➢ Bombyx Mori has several races and varieties.

The Life Cycle of Bombyx Mori

➢ In silk moth the sexes are separate. The development includes a complicated metamorphosis.
After fertilization, each female moth lays about 400 to 500 eggs.

➢ These eggs are placed in the cluster on the leaves of the Mulberry tree. The eggs are smaller,
over and usually yellowish.

➢ The egg contains a good amount of yolk and is covered by a smooth hard shell. After laying
the egg the female mode doesn’t take any food and dies within 4 to 5 days.

➢ In the univoltine the may take a month because overwintering takes place in this stage but the
multivoltine Broads come out after 10 to 15 days. From the egg hatches out lava called caterpillars.

➢ The larva of the silkworm is called Caterpillar larva.

➢ The newly hatched larva is about 400 to 600 mm in length. It has a rough, wrinkled, hairless
and yellowish or white worm-like body.

➢ The body of larva is the distinguished table into the prominent head, segmented thorax and
abdomen. The abdomen consists of 10 segments of which first 9 are marked while the 10th one is indistinct. The
3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 9th abdominal segment bear ventrally appear of unjointed appendices.

➢ These are called prolegs. The larval life lasts for 23 weeks. During this. The larva moults 4
times. After each moult, the larva grows rapidly, a full-grown larva is about 800 centimetres long.

➢ A pair of long sac-like silk gland now develops into the lateral side of the body. These are
modified salivary glands. The full-grown larva now stops feeding and hide in a corner under the leap.

➢ Now it begins to secret the clear and sticky fluid of its celebrity glance through a narrow pour
called spinneret situated on the hypopharynx.
 ➢ The sticky substance turns into a fine long and solid thread. The thread becomes wrapped
around the body of the Caterpillar larva farming a complete covering called a cocoon. The cocoon formation
takes about 2-3 Days.

➢ It serves a comfortable house for Caterpillar larva. The cocoon is a white or yellow thick Oval
capsule which is slightly narrow in the middle.

➢ It is formed of a single long continuous thread pull stop the outer thread which is initially
filament of the cocoon is irregular but the inner ones forming later the actual bed of the pupa.

➢ Eri Silkworm

➢ Eri silkworm is mainly reared on castor plant. The scientific name of Castor plant is Samia
Cynthia Ricini. It produces silk which is white or brick red.

➢ It is polyphagous it means that it doesn’t include a single plant but can also feed in various
plants.

➢ Castor is more prominent but Its cocoon is not continuous as compared to the Mulberry
silkworm. Its moth can emerge and pierced cocoon can be used.

➢ It’s male and female cocoon colour is Brown, black, green wings, white abdomen. In North
India Brahmaputra, Hills of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh is famous for eri
silkworm.

Type of Silk Colour

Mulberry Silk Yellow/Green

Eri Silk Creamy-White/Brick-Red

Tasar Silk Copper-Brown

Muga Silk Golden

What is the Process Followed in Sericulture?

For the production of mulberry silk, the sericulture process follows three primary steps.
 • Moriculture – the cultivation of mulberry leaves.
• Silkworm rearing – promoting the growth of the silkworm.
• Silk reeling – the extraction of silk filaments from the silkworm cocoons.
Finally, the silk filaments are woven together to form a thread. These threads are often plied
together to form a yarn.

What are the Challenges Faced in Sericulture?

➢ Silk farmers practicing sericulture are met with several challenges that could potentially
destroy their harvest. They are also prone to many health hazards.

➢ Silkworms are vulnerable to several diseases such as pebrine and flacherie. Also, several
pests threaten the healthy growth of silkworm larvae.

➢ Some important challenges faced in sericulture are listed below.

• The pebrine disease can infect the eggs, resulting in their death before the hatching of the
larvae. Any larvae affected by this disease develop dark spots and become lethargic.
• Viral infections in the larvae may result in the shrinkage of their bodies. They may also start
giving off an unpleasant odour.
• Other viral infections such as cytoplasmic polyhedrosis can cause the larvae to lose their
appetites.
• The muscardine infection, caused by fungi, can cause the larvae to become extremely feeble
and eventually die.
• The larvae of dermestid the beetlesnotepad
• can bore into the silkworm cocoons and eat the pupae. Silk cannot be reeled from these
damaged cocoons.
• Some mites produce a toxic substance that kills silkworms.

Mulberry cultivation

Mulberry (Morus spp., Moraceae)

➢ The important character of the members of the family Moraceae (especially Morus spp.)
is the presence of idioblast, an enlarged epidermal cell in the leaf.
Ecological requirements
Climate
Mulberry can be grown upto 800 m MSL. For the optimum growth of mulberry
and good sprouting of the buds, the mean atmospheric temperature should be in the
range of 13oC to 37.7oC.
➢ The ideal temperature should be between 24 and 28oC with relative humidity of 65 to
80 percent and sun shine duration of 5 to 12 hours per day.
Mulberry can be grown in a rainfall range of 600mm to 2500mm.
➢ Under low rainfall conditions, the growth is limited and requires supplemental
irrigation. On an average, 50mm once in 10 days is considered ideal for mulberry.
Soil

➢ Slightly acidic soils (6.2 to 6.8 pH) free from injurious salts are ideal for good growth of
mulberry plant. Saline and alkaline soils are not preferred.
Mulberry varieties
Irrigated : Kanva 2, MR 2, S 30, S 36, S 54, DD (Viswa), V1
Semi irrigated : Kanva 2, MR 2
Rainfed : S 13, S 34, RFS 135, RFS 175, S 1635

Propagation of mulberry

➢ Mulberry is mostly propagated through cuttings.

➢ Cuttings may be planted straight away in the main field itself or nursery may be raised
and the sprouted and rooted saplings may be planted in the main field.
➢ The latter method is advisable because of its easy establishment in the main field.

Selection of planting material

➢ Generally, the mulberry plants are raised from semi-hardwood cuttings.

➢ Cuttings are selected from well established garden of 8-12 months old.
➢ Only full grown thick main stems, free from insect and disease damages having a
diameter of 10-12mm are chosen for preparation of cuttings.
➢ The cuttings should be of 15-20 cm with 3-4 active buds and should have 45o slanting
cut at the bottom end.
➢ Care should be taken to make a sharp clean cut at both the ends of cuttings without
splitting the bark.
➢ Manually/power operated mulberry cutter (stem cutting machine) is available for quick
cutting of propagation material.
 Nursery

Nursery bed preparation

➢ Select 800 sq.m. area of red loamy soil near water source for raising saplings for
planting one hectare of main field.
➢ Apply 1600 kg of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) @ 20 t/ha and mix well with the soil.
➢ Raise nursery beds of 4m x 1.5m size.
➢ The length may be of convenient size depending upon the slope, irrigation source, etc.
➢ Provide a drainage channel and avoid shady area.

Pre-treatment of cuttings

➢ Mix one kilogram of Azospirillum culture in 40 liters of water.

➢ Keep the bottom end of the cuttings for 30 minutes in it before planting. Azospirillum is
applied for inducement of early rooting.

Nursery planting

➢ Apply VAM @ 100 g/m2 of nursery area.

➢ Irrigate the nursery bed. Plant the cuttings in the nursery at 15 cm x 7 cm spacing at an
angle of 45o.
➢ Ensure exposure of one active bud in each cutting.

Nursery management

➢ Irrigate the nursery once in three days.

➢ Dust one kg of any one of the following chemicals around the nursery bed to avoid
termite attack.
➢ 1. malathion 5D
2. quinalphos 1.5 D

To avoid root rot and collar rot, drench the soil with carbendazim 50 WP (2 g/l) or
apply Trichoderma viride 0.5 g/m2 using rose can.
➢ After weeding, apply 100 g of urea/m2 between 55 and 60 days after planting at the
time of weeding.

Age of sapling

➢ The saplings are ready for transplanting in the main field after 90-120 days of planting.
 Planting methods

➢ Paired row system : Plant the cuttings/saplings at a spacing of 75 / 105 cm x 90

cm. Raise intercrops in the wider inter row space (amenable for mechanization also).

➢ Planting ➢ Spacing (cm)

method
➢ ➢ Rainfed
➢ Irrigated
➢ Ridges and ➢ 90 x 90
➢ 60 x 60 / 90x90
furrows
➢ Pit system ➢ 90 x 90
➢ 90 x 90

➢ No. of cuttings / ha. - 27,780 (60 x 60 cm) ; 12,345 (90 x 90 cm)

Time of planting
➢ Plant during rainy season
➢ Avoid planting during winter and summer months

Planting of saplings

➢ Plant the well rooted and sprouted saplings at a depth of 15-20 cm

➢ Earth up and level the area around the saplings
➢ Gap fill during monsoon months.

Nutrient management
 ➢

o Irrigated / semi irrigated (kg/ha)

➢ Pit system
Row system
➢ ➢ K
➢ N ➢ P ➢ K ➢ N ➢ P
➢ Recomm ➢ 1
➢ 3 ➢ 1 ➢ 1 ➢ 2 ➢ 1
endation 2
0 2 2 8 2
0
0 0 0 0 0
➢ Split doses

➢ First ➢ 6
➢ 6 ➢ 6 ➢ 6 ➢ 6 ➢ 6
crop 0
0 0 0 0 0
➢ Second ➢ 6 ➢ 4 ➢ -
➢ - ➢ - ➢ -
crop 0 0
➢ Third ➢ 6 ➢ 6 ➢ 6 ➢ 4 ➢ -
➢ -
crop 0 0 0 0
➢ Fourth ➢ 6
➢ 6 ➢ 6 ➢ 6
crop ➢ - ➢ - 0
0 0 0
➢ Fifth ➢ 6 ➢ 4 ➢ -
➢ - ➢ - ➢ -
crop 0 0
➢ Sixth ➢ 4 ➢ -
➢ - ➢ - ➢ - ➢ -
crop 0

➢ For V1, fertilizer schedule is 375 : 140 : 140 kg NPK/ha.

➢ Apply fertilizers as per soil recommendation wherever possible
➢ Apply the first dose of fertilizers three months after planting
➢ Follow subsequent fertilizer application after each leaf harvest and pruning
➢ Apply straight fertilizers to minimize the cost

Rainfed (Kg/ha)
➢ ➢ N ➢ P ➢ K

➢ Recommendation ➢ 100 ➢ 50 ➢ 50

➢ First dose ➢ 50 ➢ 50 ➢ 50

➢ Second dose ➢ 50 ➢ - ➢ -

➢ Apply the first and second doses coinciding with South West and North East monsoons
respectively.

Bio-fertilizers

➢ Apply Azospirillum @ 20 kg/ha in five split doses. Apply phosphobacterium @ 10 kg/h

in two equal splits.
➢ Mix the bio-fertilizers with 50 kg of FYM for uniform distribution
➢ Ensure irrigation after application
➢ Do not mix bio-fertilizers with inorganic fertilizers
➢ Growing and insitu incorporation of sunnhemp.

Micro nutrients

➢ Apply recommended major/secondary nutrients based on the deficiency symptoms.

➢ For micro nutrients according to the deficiency symptom expressed, apply
micronutrients as foliar spary @ Zinc sulphate 5 g, Ferrous sulphate 10 g, Borax 2.5 g,
Copper sulphate 2.5 g, Manganese 2.5 g or Sodium molybdate 100 mg/lit of water using
high volume sprayer (spray fluid 500 lit/ha).
➢ Add wetting agent, Teepol @ 0.5 ml/lit. for better adherence on the foliage.

Methods of Irrigation
Ridges and furrows method

➢ Most efficient method of irrigation

➢ Comparatively requires less amount of water
➢ The furrows serve as drainage channels during heavy rainfall.

Flat bed method

➢ Rectangular beds and channels are formed

➢ Water run off is relatively low
➢ More land is wasted and requires more labour for field preparation.
 Drip Irrigation

➢ Most efficient in water use

➢ Substantial saving in irrigation water
➢ Better crop growth
➢ Suitable for undulating terrains
➢ Fertilizers can also be applied along with irrigation water
➢ Clogging of emitters by physical, chemical and biological impurities
➢ Initial cost is very high

Weed Flora

The common weed flora in the mulberry garden is given below.

➢ ➢ Tamil name ➢ English name

Botanical name
➢ 1. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS WEEDS (Grassy weeds)

➢ Cyperus rotundus ➢ Korai ➢ Nut grass

➢ Cynodon dactylon ➢ Arugampull ➢ Bermuda grass

➢ 2. DICOTYLEDONOUS WEEDS (Broad leaves)

➢ Abutilon indicum ➢ Thuthi ➢ Velvet leaf

➢ Amaranthus viridis ➢ Kuppaikeerai ➢ Pig weed

➢ Acalypha indica ➢ Kuppaimeni ➢ Copper leaf

➢ Boerhaevia diffusa ➢ Mookaratai ➢ Hog weed

➢ Croton sparsiflorus ➢ Milakai poondu ➢ Croton

➢ Parthenium ➢ Vizhachedi ➢ Carrot grass

hysterophorus
➢ Trianthema ➢ Saranai ➢ Carpet grass
portulacastrum
➢ Tridax procumbens ➢ Manjapoo ➢ Tridax
 Integrated Weed Management
Cultural method

➢ Remove the stubbles and roots of weeds while preparing the land
➢ Use well decomposed manure to avoid dissemination of weeds
➢ Clean the implements before use

Mechanical method

➢ Operate country plough after pruning in the interspace

➢ Remove the weeds by hand hoe

Chemical method

➢ As post-emergence application, use Paraquat (Grammoxone) @ 2-3 lit/ha.

➢ Spray Glycel 7.5 ml with 10 grams of ammonium sulphate per litre of water as post-
emergence application. A total of 600 litres of spray fluid is required/ha.
➢ Use flooding / deflector / fan type nozzle for spraying weedicide. Apply the weedicide
immediately after pruning or within 2-3 days after pruning.

Intercropping
Intercropping with short duration pulse crop enriches the soil, gives additional
revenue and also controls the weed growth. Grow any one of the following crops /
varieties as intercrop
Black gram - Co 5, VBN 1, VBN 3, VBN 4
Green gram - Co 5, Paiyur 1, Pusa bold, VBN 2, VRM 1, Co 6
Cowpea - Co 4, Co 5, Pusa 152

➢ Seed rate : 10 kg/ha

➢ Sow the intercrop after pruning and earthing up

Mulching
Mulching with pruned mulberry twigs and other materials like straw and dried
leaves will have the following advantages

➢ Controls weed growth

➢ Conserves soil moisture by reducing run-off
➢ Increases the infiltration of water
➢ Reduces the soil temperature
➢ Pruning methods
i) Bottom pruning
The plants are cut at ground level leaving 10-15 cm stump above the ground.
This type of pruning is done once in a year.
ii) Middle pruning
The branches are cut at 40-60 cm above the ground level. After bottom pruning,
subsequent cuts are made at 45-50 cm height.
iii) Kolar or Strip system
In closely planted area, this type of pruning is done. The branches are cut at
ground level every time. Thus, it receives five prunings every year. This type of severe
pruning requires heavy fertilization and irrigation.
Harvesting
The method of leaf harvest depends on the type of rearing practiced. It is
preferable to harvest the leaves during morning hours. There are three methods of
harvesting of mulberry leaves
Leaf picking

➢ Individual leaves are harvested with or without petiole. Leaf picking starts 10 weeks
after bottom pruning and subsequent pickings are done at an interval of 7 - 8 weeks.
Branch cutting
The entire branches are cut and fed to the worms. Before that, topping is done to ensure
uniform maturity of the lower leaves.

Whole shoot harvest

 ➢

➢ The branches are cut at ground level by bottom pruning. Shoots are harvested at an
interval of 10-12 weeks and thus 5 to 6 harvests are made in a year.

Time of harvest
It is preferable to harvest the leaves during morning hours.

Preservation of leaves
Use leaf preservation chamber or wet gunny bags to store the leaves or cover the
bamboo basket with wet gunny bags to keep it cool and fresh.

UNIT II

SILK WORM

Silkworm
Silkworm
 Introduction
A material which is composed of thin and continuous strands is known as fibre. Fibre can be of two
types: natural fibre and synthetic fibre. The fibres which are obtained from plants and animals are
known as natural fibres whereas synthetic fibres are man-made fibres. Examples of natural fibres
are cotton and silk whereas examples of synthetic fibres are: nylon, polyester, etc. Silk is a type of
natural fibre or animal fibre. Silkworm is responsible for spinning of silk and it is reared to obtain
silk.

History of silk
➢ Silk was discovered around 3500 BC in China. For a long period of time, silk was shipped
to other parts of the world through trade.

➢ Technological advancement and new developments have enabled manufacturers to produce

different types of silk from different silkworms on the basis of lustre and texture.

➢ Mulberry silk is the most common silk moth that is used for producing silk. Rearing of the
silkworm is known as sericulture.

History of
silk

The life cycle of silkworm

➢ The life cycle of silk moth starts when a female silk moth lays eggs. The caterpillar or
larvae are hatched from the eggs of the silk moth.

➢ The silkworms feed on mulberry leaves and give rise to pupa. In the pupa stage, a weave is
netted around by the silkworm to hold itself.

➢ After that it swings its head, spinning a fibre made of a protein and becomes a silk fibre.
Several caterpillars form a protective layer around pupa and this covering is known as the
cocoon.
 ➢ The silk thread (yarn) is obtained from the silk moth’s cocoon. The life cycle of the
silkworm is explained below in detail.

Stage 1: Egg
An egg is the first stage of the life cycle of the silkworm. The egg is laid by a female moth which is
mostly the size of small dots. A female moth lays more than 350 eggs at a time. In the springtime,
the eggs hatch due to the warmth in the air. This procedure happens once in every year.

Stage 2: Silkworm
A hairy silkworm arises after the eggs crack. In this stage of silkworms, the growth happens. they
feed on mulberry leaves and consume a large amount of these leaves for around 30 days before
going to the next stage.

Stage 3: Cocoon
In this stage, silkworms spin a protective cocoon around itself. It is the size of a small cotton ball
and is made of a single thread of silk.
 Stage 4: Pupa
The pupa stage is a motionless stage. In this stage, people kill the pupa by plunging the cocoon into
boiling water and unwind the silk thread.

Stage 5: Moth
In this stage, the pupa changes into an adult moth. The female moth lays eggs after mating and thus
the life cycle of silkworm begins again.

Processing of silk
Extracting silk from the cocoon is known as the processing of silk. Silk is separated from the
cocoon by exposing it to sunlight. After the reeling of silk is done, the process of unwinding silk
from a cocoon takes place. Silk thread is then bleached. The silk fibre is then spun into silk threads.

UNIT III
SILK WORM PATHOLOGY

What is the pathology of silkworms?

❖ Some bacteria enter the body of silkworm through mouth i.e., consumption of contaminated
leaf. Some bacteria are pathogenic when entered through wound and the disease symptoms
appear in 2-3 days.

Parasitism Definition
“Parasitism is defined as the relationship between different species in which one organism lives
on or in the other organism and benefits from it by causing some harm.”

What is Parasitism?

❖ The word parasite is derived from the Latin form of the Greek word, meaning “one who
eats at the table of another”.

❖ Parasitism is generally defined as a relationship between the two living species in which
one organism is benefitted at the expense of the other.

❖ The organism that is benefitted is called the parasite, while the one that is harmed is called
the host.
 ❖ A few examples of parasites are tapeworms, fleas, and barnacles. Tapeworms are flatworms
that are found attached to the insides of the intestines of animals such as cows, pigs, etc..
They feed on the host’s partly digested food, depriving it of the nutrients.

Types of Parasitism
There are various types of parasitism and are classified based on their size, characteristics,
interactions with their hosts and their life cycles.

Obligate Parasitism
This is the kind of parasitism in which the parasite is completely dependent on the host to complete
its life cycle. Obligate parasites cannot survive without the host. Therefore, they do not severely
harm the host. Fungi, bacteria and viruses exhibit obligate parasitism. For eg., head lice, when
removed from the human scalp, dies.

Facultative Parasitism

In this kind of parasitism, the parasite is not completely dependent on the host to complete its life
cycle and can survive without the host. A nematode species Strongyloides stercoralis is found free-
living but causes a disease strongyloidiasis when it infects humans.

Ectoparasitism
The parasites that live outside the body of the host exhibit ectoparasitism. For eg., lice and ticks

Endoparasitism
Parasites that live inside the body of a host exhibit endoparasitism. For eg., hookworms and
nematodes.

Mesoparasitism
The parasites that enter the external openings of the host exhibit mesoparasitism.

Examples of Parasitism
There are many examples of parasites, as it is a type of interaction between the two
species. Listed below are some of the common examples of parasitism.

Parasitism in Humans
The organisms that parasitize humans include fungi, leeches, lice, viruses, protozoa, tapeworm, etc.
Few organisms such as Helminthes live inside the intestine of the host and causes
several infectious diseases, such as jaundice, malnutrition, diarrhoea, etc. All the infections are
caused by viruses and bacteria.

Parasitism in Plants
Small green insects called aphids, parasitize plants by eating their sap. Several types of fungi
parasitize crops ad spoil fruits, vegetables and food grains.

The parasitic plants contain modified roots called haustoria which connect to the host xylem or
phloem and drain it of nutrients and water.

Parasitism in Insects
Parasitism is very common in insects. Entomophagous parasites attack larva and young insects. A
few insects deposit their eggs within the body of the larva of other insect species. When the eggs
hatch, the young one eats the larva and derives nutrition from it.

Commensalism:

❖ Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one organism is

benefited from the other, whereas the other is neither harmed nor benefited. It is a
biological interaction that organisms form, in the quest of food and shelter.

❖ Commensalism is in contrast with mutualism, where both organisms benefit from each
other; ammensalism, where one organism is harmed and the other is unaffected; and
parasitism, where one organism is harmed and the other is benefited.

❖ The organism that benefits from this biological interaction is known as the commensal and
the other is known as the host species. The commensal, in such cases, is usually a small
organism and the host species is often larger in size. The commensal benefits in
transportation, food, shelter and support from the host species.

❖ The host species remains unmodified in this relationship; however, the commensal shows
great adaptations related to its habit and habitat.

Examples of Commensalism

❖ Staphylococcus and Aspergillus: Staphylococcus is a bacteria with numerous pathogenic

species that cause infections and illnesses in humans.
❖ However, some of them are metabolic commensals that reside as a part of skin flora. S.
aureus is found living in ambient conditions in nasal and oral cavities.
❖ Aspergillus is one of the few microbial species that can survive in the highly changing
(alkaline and acidic) environment of the gastrointestinal tract.
 ❖ This fungal species does not produce any illness in normal conditions; however, if the
person is immunocompromised or suffering from conditions such as tuberculosis, it can
cause aspergillosis.

Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas

❖ Nitrobacter and Nitrosomomas are two bacterial species that take part in nitrification
(oxidation of ammonium to nitrate). Commensal relationships also take place when waste
produced by one organism serves as the substrate for another species.

❖ In the first step of nitrification, Nitrosomonas sp. converts ammonia to nitrite. This nitrite
serves as the substrate of growth for Nitrobacter that later converts it into nitrate.

❖ Similarly, commensalistic interaction can also occur when one organism modifies the
environment to make it more hospitable for the other organism to survive in.

❖ During fermentation, the release of acidic waste increases the proliferation of acid-tolerant
bacteria.

❖ Similar examples include proliferation of the microbe during milk spoilage and production
of biofilm.

Types

Phoresy

Phoresis or phoresy is a commensalistic interaction where one organism attaches to another

organism solely for the purpose of locomotion. It is a non-permanent type of interaction. Examples
of phoresy include mites on insects, false scorpions on mammals and millipedes on birds.

Inquilinism

Inquilinism is a type of commensalism where one organism lives permanently on the second
organism. The organism that uses the second organism for housing is known as inquiline.
Examples include orchids that grow as epiphytes on other trees, birds that live on trees, and insects
that live in the burrows of rodents.
Metabiosis

Metabiosis is a type of commensalistic interaction where indirect dependency is observed, one

organism produces a suitable environment for the other organism. Examples include maggots that
feed on corpses and hermit crabs that use shells of gastropods to protect their bodies.

Parasitic Symbiosis Definition

“Parasitic symbiosis is a close and long-term symbiotic interaction between two organisms, where
one lives in the body of the host causing it some harm.”

Let’s have a glimpse of parasites, symbiosis, and parasitic symbiosis along with its types and
examples.

Parasites
❖ The word “parasite” is derived from the Greek word meaning, “the one that eats at the table
of others”, and is estimated to be from around 5900 BC.

❖ Parasites are an incredibly varied group of organisms that live within host cells. They are
smaller than their host organism and reproduce faster by causing more damage to the host.
They receive all sorts of benefits like food and shelter from the host. Their size ranges from
tiny, single-celled organisms to worms over 20- 30 m in length.
❖ For example- Tapeworms, that are flat, segmented worms, live in the intestines of animals
by absorbing the host’s nutrients.

Parasitic Symbiosis

❖ Symbiosis refers to a long period interaction between two different species. In some cases,
both species benefit from the interaction and this is known as mutualism.

❖ The larger organism is considered a host because, in a symbiotic relationship, it is the larger
organism on which the smaller organism depends. The smaller organism is considered to be
a symbiont, that lives inside the host.

❖ Parasitism is the type of symbiotic relationship or long-term relationship between any

two species either plants or animals.

❖ Here the parasite gains benefits from the host which in turn harms the host without killing
it.

❖ Leeches, fleas, ticks, and lice are a few examples of parasites that don’t normally cause
disease directly. They suck blood from the host without causing any harm to their host.

Parasitic Symbiosis Examples

❖ Following are the examples of parasitic symbiosis:

❖ Fasciola hepatica

❖ This is also known as Liver fluke. It attaches itself onto the liver and makes way to the
tissue and bile.

❖ Plasmodium

❖ There are different species of Plasmodium that are picked up by the mosquitoes and
transmitted to different people causing Malaria.

❖ Hirudinea

❖ Leeches usually depend on different animals to complete their life cycle. The animals that
leeches depend upon include, freshwater fish, slugs, snails, mice bear, etc.

Taenia solium
❖ It can live in the human gastrointestinal tract for years. It spreads through under-cooked
pork. These are more than three meters long.
History of Mulberry Silkworm:
❖ Bombyx mori is popularly called the Chinese silkworm or Mulberry silkworm moth. It is
well known for genuine silk.

❖ The importance of silkworm in silk production was known in China during 3500 B.C. The
Chinese people knew the methods for cultivating silk and of preparing cloth from it for
more than 2000 years.

❖ The rearing of silk moth and production of raw silk is known as sericulture.

❖ The art of sericulture was held by Chinese a very close secret, so much so, that the leakage
of any information or attempt to export eggs or living cocoons was punishable with death.

❖ Even then silk was after all introduced in Europe by two monks, who were sent to China as
spies.

❖ External Features of Mulberry Silkworm:

❖ The adult moth is about 25.00 mm long with a wing-span of 40.00 to 50.00 mm. The female
silk moths are larger than the males.

❖ The moth is quite robust and creamy-white in colour. The body is distinctly divisible into
three regions, namely head, thorax and abdomen.

❖ The head bears a pair of compound eyes, a pair of branched or feathery antennae and the
mouth parts.

❖ The thorax bears three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The cream-coloured wings are
about 25.00 mm long and are marked by several faint or brown lines.

❖ The entire body is covered by minute scales.

❖ Life Cycle of Mulberry Silkworm:

❖ The silk moth is dioecious, i.e., the sexes are separate.
❖ Fertilisation is internal, preceded by copulation.
❖ The development includes a complicated metamorphosis.
❖ Eggs:
❖ After fertilisation, each female moth lays about 300 to 400 eggs. These eggs are placed in
clusters on the leaves of mulberry tree.

❖ The female covers the eggs by a gelatinous secretion which glues them to the surface of the
leaves.
❖ The eggs are small, oval and usually slightly yellowish in colour. The egg contains a good
amount of yolk and is covered by a smooth hard chitinous shell.

❖ After laying the eggs the female moth does not take any food and dies within 4-5 days.

❖ In the univoltine (a single brood per year) they may take months because overwintering
takes place in this stage but the multivoltine broods come out after 10-12 days.

❖ From the egg hatches out a larva called the caterpillar.

LARVA
❖ The larva of
silkworm moth is
called caterpillar
larva. The newly hatched larva is about 4.00 to 6.00 mm in length.

❖ It has a rough, wrinkled, hairless and yellowish white or greyish worm-like body. The full
grown larva is about 6.00 to 8.00 cm in length.

❖ The body of larva is distinguishable into a prominent head, distinctly segmented thorax and
an elongated abdomen. The head bears mandibulate mouth and three pairs of ocelli.

❖ A distinct hook-like structure, the spinneret, is present for the extrusion of silk from the
inner silk-gland. The thorax forms a hump and consists of three segments. Each of the three
thoracic segments bears pair of jointed true legs. The tip of each leg has a recurved hook for
locomotion and ingestion of leaves.
❖ The abdomen consists of ten segments of which first nine are clearly marked, while the
tenth one is indistinct. The third, fourth, fifth, sixth and ninth abdominal segments bear
ventrally a pair of un-jointed stumpy appendages each.

❖ These are called pro-legs or pseudo-legs. Each leg is retractile and more or less cylindrical.
The eighth segment carries a short dorsal anal horn. A series of respiratory spiracles or ostia
are present on either lateral side of the abdomen.

❖ The larva is a voracious eater and strongly gregarious. In the beginning chopped young
mulberry leaves are given as food but with the advancement of age entire and matured
leaves are provided as food.

❖ The caterpillar moves in a characteristic looping manner. The larval life lasts for 2-3 weeks.
During this period the larva moults four times.

❖ After each moult, the larva grows rapidly. A full-grown larva is about 8.00 cm long and
becomes transparent and golden brown in appearance.

❖ A pair of long sac-like silk-glands now develops into the lateral side of the body. These are
modified salivary glands.

Pupa:
❖ The full-grown larva now stops feeding and hides itself in a corner under the leaves.

❖ It now begins to secrete the clear and sticky fluid of its salivary glands through a narrow
pore called the spinneret situated on the hypo pharynx.

❖ The sticky substance turns into a fine, long and solid thread or filament of silk into the air.

❖ The thread becomes wrapped around the body of the caterpillar larva forming a complete
covering or pupal case called the cocoon.

❖ The cocoon-formation takes about 3-4 days. The cocoon serves a comfortable house for the
protection of the caterpillar larva for further development.
 ❖ The cocoon is a white or yellow, thick, oval capsule which is slightly narrow in the middle.

❖ It is formed of a single long continuous thread.

❖ The outer threads, which are initial filaments of the cocoon, are irregular but the inner ones
forming later the actual bed of the pupa, is one long continuous thread about 300 metres in
length, wound round in concentric rings by constant motion of the head from one side to the
other about 65 times per minute.

❖ The irregular surface threads are secreted first and the inner continuous thread later. The
silk thread is secreted at the rate of 150 mm per minute. Within a fortnight the caterpillar
larva transforms into a conical brownish creature called the pupa or the chrysalis.

❖ The pupa lies dormant, but undergoes very important active changes which are referred to
as metamorphosis. The larval organs such as abdominal pro-legs, anal horn and mouth parts
are lost. The adult organs such as antennae, wings and copulatory apparatus develop. The
pupa finally metamorphoses into the imago or adult in about 2-3 weeks time.

Imago or Adult:
❖ The adult moth emerges out through an opening at the end of the cocoon in about 2 to 3
weeks time, if allowed to live.

❖ Immediately before emergence, the pupa secretes an alkaline fluid, that softens one end of
the cocoon and after breaking its silk strands, a feeble crumpled adult squeezes its way out.
Soon after emergence, the adult silk moths mate, lay eggs and die.

Economic Importance of Mulberry Silkworm:

The mulberry silkworm moth is a very useful and valuable insect. It provides two very
important products such as silk and gut to the mankind.

1. Silk:
The true silk of commerce is the secretion of the caterpillars of silkworm moth. Silk is a secretion
in the form of fine threads, produced by caterpillars in preparing cocoons for their pupae. Long sac-
like silk- glands, which are, in fact, modified salivary glands, secrete a thick pasty substance, which
is passed out through a pair of fine ducts that open on the lower lip.

This secretion is spun by the caterpillar into fine threads which harden on exposure to air to form
fairly strong and pliable silk-strands. The caterpillar larva prepares silk filaments several thousand
metre in length at the rate of 15.00 cm per minute.

2. Gut:
❖ Another economic value of the silkworm is the preparation of gut used for surgical and
fishing purposes. For preparing the gut, the intestines of silkworms are extracted, made into
strings, dried, treated and packed. This industry has good prospects and is growing in Italy,
Spain, Formosa, Japan and India.

❖
❖ Diseases in Silkworms:
❖ Silkworms suffer form several diseases. Chief of these is pebrine caused by a protozoan
parasite Nosema bombycis of the microsporidian group.

❖ In this disease the caterpillars turn pale brown and later on shrink and die. This disease is
highly infectious, transmittable through eggs and responsible for very heavy economic
losses. The control is brought about by a microscopic examination of the body fluids of the
female, in which the parasites (pebrine corpuscles) are met with.

❖ ADVERTISEMENTS:

❖ The eggs may be discarded or retained according to the presence or absence of parasites.
Other diseases are fletcherie and grasserie but of minor importance. Sometimes caterpillars
exhibit symptoms like jaundice disease, i.e., losing appetite, showing irregular growths, etc.
❖
❖ Other Silkworm Moths:
❖ There are two other silkworm moths which also yield silk. These are Attacus receni, B, the
Eri silkworm moth and Antherea paphia, B, the tassar silkworm moth. Both these moths
belong to the family Saturnidae are large-sized and their caterpillars are also considerably
monstrous, stout and about 10.00 cm long.

❖ The Eri silkworm which lives upon castor, is a domesticated form, cultivated in warm damp
places. It is found in South-East Asia. Its life history resembles that of the mulberry worm.
Its cocoon has loose texture and silk is not reliable, hence, this is carded and spun. The
gloss on the thread is inferior. Adults are stout dark moths with dark brown white spotted
and striped wings.

❖ The tassar silkworm resembles the Eri but the caterpillars feed upon Dalbergia, Shorea, and
Terminalia, etc. The cocoon is hard shell-like of the size of a hen’s egg and is generally
found attached to a plant by a stalk.

❖ The moth has yellowish or deep brown wings with an eye-spot on each one. It is found in
China, India and Sri Lanka. Cocoon has reelable silk. This is a wild variety but can be
domesticated. The silk produced by Eri silkworm and tassar silkworm is not of very good
quality.

❖ Other silkworms, viz., Moon moth, Atlas moth, Cashew caterpillars and Ficus worm,
although produce silk cocoons but the quality of filament produced is inferior and weak,
hence, they have no economic value.
❖ Protozoan Diseases-
o Pebrine- This is one of the most virulent protozoan disease. The disease is caused
by protozoa- Nosema bombycis. NIK-2r, NIK-3h and NIK – 4m are the three
most virulent strain of this pathogen found in India. The protozoa complete its life
cycle through two stages- infective spore stage and vegetative stage.
o Symptoms- symptoms exhibited by the different stages of life cycle of silkworms
are –
o Egg- i) infected egg exhibit less attachment with the egg cards due to improper
deposition of glue.
▪ ii) Eggs turn pale yellow and may fail to hatch.
❖ Larvae-
❖ Primarily infected larvae normally die before exhibiting any prominent symptoms, while
secondary and tertiary infected larvae shows symptoms like loss of appetite, unequal body
growth, clean worm symptom due to irregular and incomplete moulting
❖ Infected worm also shows some piper like black spots on the body, irregular brown
patches resulted due to dead hypodermal cells, spitting or wasting of silk instead of
spinning cocoon, passing of soft faeces and generally die after spinning pupating .
o Pupa- Live infected pupa if present inside cocoon or if they infected at the pupal
stage only they show black colour, swollen body with black spote on either sides
of the abdomen.
❖ Adult moth-
❖ Infected adult moth show black spots on the abdomen, deformed antennae, unstretched
and discoloured wing.

i) Adult female usually laid eggs in irregular loose heaps. Body scales also falloff
easily.

❖ Mode of transmission-

o The disease is transmitted to silkworm in three different ways-

❖ Oral- The leaves in the rearing bed normally get contaminated with the spores liberated
through the faeces of infected worms or dead larvae. So, when such food is consume by
healthy larvae, they get infected. Contamination may also occur at the time of oviposition
or after oviposition.

❖ Direct contact- Infection may occur through the skin of larvae in the rearing bed when
 contacted with the Nosema spores contained in the faecal matter or dead tissues.

❖ Transovarial- when infection occurs in the 5th instar larvae the adult moth immerges
normally from the pupa. Under that situation the spores of Nosema Sporulate within the
oocyte and pass on to the egg. Thus the eggs acquires infection from the mother and
hatched into primary infected larvae. However, most of these infected larvae grown up to
3rd instar only. These larvae again act as the source of secondary infection through dead
larvae and contamination by faecal matter. Secondarily infected larvae exhibit pebrine
symptoms, unable to spin healthy cocoon and produce tertiary infection to 5th instar
larvae.

o Detection of pebrine- Disease can be detected by keen observation to the rearing

bed, the symptions and by microscopic observation of the homogenate, fluid from
the body and faecal pellets, where the presence of the spores of nosema can be
detected. Nowadays, by advance immune-enzymatic method presence of pebrine
spores can be detected quickly.

o Control measure- Following techniques are adopted generally to get-rid of

Pebrine-
o Only disease free layings are allowed for rearing in the grainages.

o If diseased larvae detected in the rearing bed they should be removed immediately
and burnt.

o All rearing appliances including the rearing room should be dis infected
with 4-5% formalin or bleaching powder. For rearing accessories instead of routine
formalin benomyl/ Bavistin/Bengard etc. can be used.

o Disease resistant races ( eg. Nistari) can be considered for rearing.

❖ Body colour changes to brown.
o Larvae release liquid excreta.

o Loss of clasping power and death occurs frequently.

o Control measure- Proper sanitation an hygiene should be maintain in the rearing

room. Infected larvae should be immediately removed from the bed to prevent
spreading of the disease. Handling of larvae should be done carefully to reduce
skin wounds.

❖ Sotto- This disease is caused by some bioinsecticidal bacteria. For eg, Bacillus
thuringiensis , which is widely use as a bioinsecticide release some endotoxin thuricide.
When the larva consume the toxin two types of affects occur. In one type the larvae of B.
mori stop feeding, haemolymph urn alkaline and papalysis occurs within 60-80 minutes of
intact. In another type lepidopteran larva only show rapid inhibition of feeding.

▪ Symptoms- Loss of appetite, sluggish movement, shrinkage of skin,

diarrhea, Loss of clasping power of prologs, Body turns black after death
and foul smell emit from the body.

▪ Control measure- Cleaning of rearing room with hot water to inactive the
toxins, immediate removal of the infected or dead larvae for the rearing
bed, bacterial spores should be destroyed by exposing to 2% formaldehyde
for 3hrs or 1000C for 5minutes.

❖ Court disease-In this bacterial disease the affected dead larvae turn flaccid and the colour
changes to crimson red. This disease is also commonly known as Rrangi due to this
formation of colour.

▪ Causative bacteria- disease is caused by the infection of bacteria Serratia

marcescans and S. piscavotar following the primary infection with
Streptococcus faecalis.
• Infection occur through oral route or the skin wound.

o Control measure- maintenance of the hygienic rearing room, removal of dead or

infected larvae, cleaning of appliances with 2% formaldehyde are the measures for
the diseases.
❖ Viral diseases-

❖ Grasserie- Symptoms-This disease is characterized by the jaundice like symptoms which

are collectively known as Grasserie- or Polyhedrosis. Other symptoms includes-

o Loss of appetite
o Formation of loose and shiny white skin with swellings in the inter- segmental
zones.

o Release of milky white of yellowish fluid from the body containing polyhedral.

i) Infected larvae turn restless and do not undergo moulting.

ii) Translucent cephalothorax and opaque mid gut observed due to accumulation of
polyhedral in the cytoplasm.
Causative organism- nuclear polyhedrosis of B. mori is caused by Nuclear
Polyhedrosis Virus strain Bm ( NPV Bm).
\This DNA virus multiplys only in the nucleus of the host cell. the virus embedded in
a proteinaceous mayrix called PIB ( Polyhedral Inclusion Bodies).
In midut polyhedrosis , the RNA Smithia virus form polyhedra in cytoplasm in case
of midgut cytoplasmic polyhedrosis or in nucleus in case of midgut nuclear
plyhedrosis.

Mode of transmission-
i) Orally through contaminated leave with PIB from dead larvae or their excreta.
ii) High temperature and Humidity may enhance the transmission of latent stage of
virus to virulent stage.
iii) Blocking of spiracle by some agents like dust , exposure to formalin etc. may
enhance the spreading of the disease.
iv) Skin wound also enhance the disease.
Control Measure-
i) Maintenance of hygienic environment, proper ventilation in the rearing room.
ii) Sterilization of the rearing room with 2% formaldehyde or Bleaching powder or
Resham Keed Ouzhad (RKO) or Labex.
iii) Immediate removal of dead or infected larvae from the rearing bed.
iv) Oral administration of nalidixic acid, P- aminobutyric acid etc. or topical
application of imanine can control NPV to some extant.
b) Infectious Flascerie- Infecious flasceri Virus(IFV) causes a type of flascerie of the
silkworm,. This virus enter to the body of animal through the oral route along with
the leaves.
Vomiting and shrinkage of the body along with appearance of transparent body
are the symptom of this disease.
The disease can be control by the following measures-
i) Feeding the larvae with healthy and hygienic leaves.
ii) Maintanence of proper hygiene of the rearing room.
 iii) Disinfection of rearing appliances with formalin.
Gattine- This disease is also known as Clear head disease as the ffacted worm shows
transparent, particularly the anterior part of the body.
Causative organism is primarily some virus while Streptococcus bombycis act as the
secondary agent. Loss of appetite and vomiting of alkaline clear fluid are the other symptoms.

NON MULBERRY SILK WORM DISEASE

Diseases of Tasar and Oak Tasar Silkworms

i) Microsporidiosis (Pebrine Disease) in Tasar Silkworms

It is an important protozoan disease in non-mulberry silkworms popularly known as “Pebrine

disease” world over, meaning “Pepper Disease”.

❖ The symptoms resembling the black spots of pepper sprinkled over the skin of
silkworms.
❖ Causal Organism: Pebrine is caused by Nosema species, Nosema mylittensis belonging
to the Class Sporozoa. The single-celled spores appear as thick-walled shining rice-
grain like structures under a microscope showing zig-zag movement.
❖ Occurrence: Pebrine disease occurs throughout the year irrespective of the area and
climate. It is a trans-ovarian disease.
❖ Symptoms: The visible symptoms of Pebrine as listed below are seen only in the
advanced stages of the disease.
❖ Infected eggs have less muconium and a majority remains unfertilized.
❖ The silkworm larvae are pale, sluggish in movement and unequal in growth and size. z
Irregular moulting and high mortality is common.
❖ From third instar onwards, peppery black spots are seen on the larval body.
❖ Infected larvae spin flimsy cocoons.
❖ Pebrine infected pupae are light in weight with high mortality in pupae. z Infected
moths are generally deformed with crumpled wings.
❖ Damage: The disease causes severe crop losses.
❖ Factors Causing the Disease: The disease is caused through ingestion of food,
when the young larvae eat a portion of egg shell and also through trans-ovarial mode.
❖ Control Measures: Thermal control by treating the infected eggs after 24 hours of
oviposition at 40º C for 10 hours.
❖ Chemical control is by feeding Benomyl (a fungicide, 100-150 ppm) sprayed leaves to
the infected worms.
❖ Administration of 0.1% Bengard and 0.005% Carbestin / Carbendazim to the infected
worms from II stage onwards is highly effective in controlling the disease.
❖ Treatment of eggs (72 hours old) with HCl (1.05 sp. gr.) at 40º C for 10 minutes gives
good results.

❖ Precautions: Maintenance of hygienic conditions during rearing by sprinkling a thin

layer of Bleaching powder and regular spraying of 2% Formaldehyde solution.

❖ Microscopic examination of the dead worms to be conducted regularly.

❖ The left-over leaves on the plants where infected silkworms were observed should be
plucked and burnt.

❖ The host plants are disinfected by spraying 2% Formaldehyde solution and Bleaching
powder. ii) Virosis (Tasar and Oak Tasar Silkworms)

❖ Causal Organism: The virosis disease is otherwise known as “Polyhedrosis”. Virosis of

Tropical Tasar silkworm is caused by cytoplasmic polyhedral bodies belonging to
family Reoviridae. Virosis in Antheraea proylei (Oak Tasar) is caused by Polyhedral
Inclusion Bodies (PIB).

❖ In Antheraea pernyi, both Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis virus have been
observed. This is a hexagonal mutant strain of the virus.

❖ Occurrence: Viral disease in Tasar silkworm occurs in all rearing seasons. Damage: The
disease causes loss up to 25-30% or more. Worm died due to Virosis infection and hanging
upside down
❖ Symptoms: Larvae infected with Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis show poor growth and
development.
❖ Small size, loss of appetite and sometimes disproportionate large head or long bristles.
❖ The feeding ceases/stops and the larvae become immobile.
❖ The body looses its natural shape, distends lengthwise and turns brownish. Finally, the worm
dies and hangs head downwards , attached to the twig with its claspers.
❖ Secretion from mouth oozes out as drops which emit obnoxious odour.
❖ In A. proylei also, the usual mode of transmission is oral and trans-ovum. But, transovarian
transmission is encountered in A. pernyi and A. polyhemus. A. proylei larvae exhibit symptoms
similar to those in A. mylitta.
❖ Predisposing Factors: Transmission of the pathogen is oral. High humidity associated with high
temperature are the predisposing factors for the disease occurrence.
❖ Imbalance between nitrogen and carbohydrates in the food also induces Polyhedrosis.
❖ Control Measures: Spray of 0.01% Sodium hypochlorite solution on the bushes with
silkworm larvae once in II, III, IV instars and twice in V instar.
❖ Application of Tasar keet oushadh (Para formaldehyde: Benzoic Acid : Lime in the
ratio of 0.5:2.0:97.5) protects the larvae from Virosis.
❖ As a biological means, foliar application of Leaf surface microbes during II and III
instar effectively controls Virosis. iii) Bacteriosis (Tasar and Oak Tasar Silkworms)
❖ Causal Organism: Different bacteria cause different types of bacterial diseases to the
non-mulberry silkworms.
❖ Gram-positive Bacillus and gram-negative Micrococcus causes Sealing of Anal Lips
(SAL). Another species of Bacterium relates to infection to cause Chain Type Excreta
(CTE).
❖ Thirdly, Gram-negative Micrococcus and Grampositive Bacillus cause Rectal
Protrusion (RP), where the rectum protrudes out from the anal opening.
❖ Occurrence: Though occurs in all the three rearing seasons, first crop is most susceptible
due to high fluctuations in weather conditions.
❖ Symptoms: The infection through the mouth is common in Bacteriosis. The worm
becomes restless, reduces / stops feeding. As the disease progresses, three types of
symptoms can be observed.
❖ a) Sealing of Anal Lips (SAL): Larva becomes immobile, shrinks lengthwise and excretes
brown sticky fluid that seals anal lips. Ultimately, the larva looses its grip, falls-off from the
twig and dies
 o Infected larvae turn restless and do not undergo moulting.

o Translucent cephalothorax and opaque mid gut observed due to accumulation of

polyhedral in the cytoplasm.

▪ Causative organism- nuclear polyhedrosis of B. mori is caused by Nuclear

Polyhedrosis Virus strain Bm ( NPV Bm). This DNA virus multiplys only
in the nucleus of the host cell. the virus embedded in a proteinaceous
mayrix called PIB ( Polyhedral Inclusion Bodies). In midut polyhedrosis ,
the RNA Smithia virus form polyhedra in cytoplasm in case of midgut
cytoplasmic polyhedrosis or in nucleus in case of midgut nuclear
plyhedrosis.

o Mode of transmission-

❖ Orally through contaminated leave with PIB from dead larvae or their excreta.

❖ High temperature and Humidity may enhance the transmission of latent stage of virus to
virulent stage.

❖ Blocking of spiracle by some agents like dust , exposure to formalin etc. may enhance the
spreading of the disease.

❖ Skin wound also enhance the disease.

o Control Measure-

❖ Maintenance of hygienic environment, proper ventilation in the rearing room.

❖ Sterilization of the rearing room with 2% formaldehyde or Bleaching powder or Resham

Keed Ouzhad (RKO) or Labex.

❖ Immediate removal of dead or infected larvae from the rearing bed.

❖ Oral administration of nalidixic acid, P- aminobutyric acid etc. or topical application of

imanine can control NPV to some extant.

❖ Infectious Flascerie- Infecious flasceri Virus(IFV) causes a type of flascerie of the

silkworm,. This virus enter to the body of animal through the oral route along with the
leaves.

▪ Vomiting and shrinkage of the body along with appearance of transparent

body are the symptom of this disease.

▪ The disease can be control by the following measures-

o Feeding the larvae with healthy and hygienic leaves.

o Maintanence of proper hygiene of the rearing room.

 o Disinfection of rearing appliances with formalin.

❖ Gattine- This disease is also known as Clear head disease as the ffacted worm shows
transparent, particularly the anterior part of the body. Causative organism is primarily
some virus while Streptococcus bombycis act as the secondary agent. Loss of appetite and
vomiting of alkaline clear fluid are the other symptoms.
 • Supplying of proper healthy leaves, hygiene in the rearing room
and Disinfection of rearing appliances are the measures to be
taken for the controlling of the disease.

❖ Fungal diseases-

❖ Muscardine

❖ In muscardine the body of the larvae get mummified due to deposition of calcium
oxalate . Hence the disease is also called as ‘calcino’. Symptoms includes- Sluggish
movement of the larvae, loss of appetite, vomiting

shrinkage of body with loose cuticle are observed. Larvae infected at the early
stage do not spin, but those infected late may spin cocoon where the pupa die
inside. Dead larvae generally covered with the spores of the infected fungi
or may be mummified with white powdery material.

o Causative fungi is different muscardine. Depending on the colour of the

o conidiospores name of muscardine is different.

• Name of muscardine causative fungi

o White muscardine Beauveria bassiana,
o Black muscardine Metarrhizium arisopliae.
o Yellow muscardine Poecilomyces farinosus
o Brown muscardine Aspergillus flavus and
o oryzel

o Red muscardine Sorosporella uvella

o Mode of transmission- all types of muscardine infection occurs through

contaminated leaves, through skin and spiracles. The fungal spores germinate
after falling on the silkworm skin and gradually penetrate the cuticle by
mechanical and enzymatic forces.

❖ Control measures-

❖ Proper light, humidity and aeration should be maintained in the rearing room. Any
factors that may help the growth of fungi should be avoided. Temperature should be kept
above 220C.
❖ Infected larvae should be remove immediately and buried in a deep pits.

❖ For the preparation of bed 0.45 formalinised husk can be use for 1 st and 2nd instars,
0.5% for 2nd and 3rd instars. 0.6% for 4th instars and 0.8% for for 5th instars.

❖ During moulting after every cleaning operation dithane-M45and kaoline can be applied
to prevent the germination of fungal spores if any.

❖ For every 100layings, 3-4kg of Resham Keed Ouzhad (RKO) can be spread after each
moulting and 30 minutes before the larvae resume feeding.

❖ Laabex, a mixture of lime and bleaching powder has anti-muscardine and grasserie
effects, also improve larval growth.