UNIT TWO
THE MEANING, ORIGIN, FUNCTIONS, COMPOSITION
AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere: Meaning
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases and
suspended particles of liquid and solid which
entirely envelop the earth.
It constitutes the outer most layers of the
environmental spheres.
It is a canopy over the hydrosphere and the
lithosphere, plays a crucial role in supporting
the biosphere.
Its outer limit is not exactly known (10,000
kms vs 1000 kms)
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Atmosphere is colorless, odorless, tasteless
and cannot be felt except when it is in
motion.
Moreover it is mobile, elastic, compressible
and expandable.
Origin of the Atmosphere
A variety of astronomical evidences
and insights suggest that the earth’s
original atmosphere probably
developed around the time the solar
system formed; about 4.6 billion years
ago. 2
Hence, the earth’s earliest atmosphere,
which is also called the primary
atmosphere, must have been
comprised of the same gases from
which the earth and other members of
the solar system were formed.
Nebula Theory
According to this theory, the principal
gases that constituted the original
atmosphere are believed to have been
hydrogen, helium and hydrogen
compounds (e.g. NH4, NH3 etc)
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These gases, however, believed to have
escaped the full earth’s gravitational
attraction to the extraterrestrial space for
they are extremely light molecules.
Hence, the earth is striped of its primitive
atmosphere.
However, we do also have an atmosphere
today. Where did it come from?
Scientists believe that billions of years ago
gases that might have trapped in the earth’s
hot interior during its formation expelled at
the surface latter by large number of
volcanoes, fissures, and fumaroles (steam
vent)
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Through the process of outgassing, the
outpouring of gases from the earth's interior,
many other gases were injected into the
atmosphere. These include:
• Water vapor (produced rain - rivers, lakes,
oceans)
• Carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen
As outgassing occurred over a period of
millions of years, the atmosphere evolved to
its current state.
The dominant gases in the present day
atmosphere are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%)
and Argon (0.93%).
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Functions of the Atmosphere
Atmosphere performs a number of vital
functions
It supplies oxygen to animals and CO2 to plants
during respiration and photosynthesis,
respectively. Thus, it made the earth a livable
place.
It protects our planet earth from the impact of
small falling meteors, which are usually
incinerated by friction before reaching the earth’s
surface.
The blanketing influence of the atmosphere
also protects us from most lethal ultraviolet and
cosmic radiations
Maintains the daily temperature balance by
regulating different proportions of both solar and
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earth’s radiation.
This is because the atmosphere contains
greenhouse gases (heat trapping gases).
It also regulates global temperature balance
through horizontal air circulation.
The atmosphere makes the hydrological
cycle possible, a cycle that provides water to
the surface of the earth.
It has made radio and TV communication
possible over long distances.
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PRESENT COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Major Components of the Atmosphere
The major components of the present day
atmosphere can be divided in to three major
categories.
i) Non-variable (permanent) gases,
ii) Variable gases, and
iii) Particulates
The Non- Variable (Permanent) Gases
These are gasses whose relative proportion
remains unchanged.
These are gasses that are also sufficiently stable,
both physically and chemically.
These gasses remain long enough in the
atmosphere with out taking part in certain chemical8
reactions.
They comprise 98 percent of the total
atmosphere by volume. These are gasses like
Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), Argon (Ar), Neon
(Ne), Helium (He) etc...
a. Nitrogen
Nitrogen (78%)is a relatively inert gas
produced primarily by volcanic activity.
Nitrogen, the most dominant gas in the
atmosphere that is chemically inactive and
doesn’t participate directly in the respiratory
processes.
Though it is removed by the nitrifying bacteria,
it returns to the atmosphere mainly through the
decaying of plants and animals matter. 9
b. Oxygen
Oxygen is removed from the atmosphere when
organic matter decays and when it combines
with other substances producing oxides. It is
also taken from the atmosphere during
breathing.
In contrary, the addition of oxygen to the
atmosphere occurs during photosynthesis.
c. Argon
Argon is produced by radio active decay of
K-40. When the decay of k-40 occurs nearer to
the surface it diffuses to the atmosphere. It is
one of the inert gases.
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2. Variable Gases
These are atmospheric gases that vary appreciably in
relative abundance over a short period of time.
Although they collectively comprise only a very small
proportion of the atmosphere’s total mass and volume.
Three of them are carbon dioxide, water vapor and
ozone and play a crucial role in the existence of life.
a. Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO2) makes up only 0.036% of the
atmosphere by volume.
Carbon dioxide is essential to photosynthetic
processes of plants. Huge quantities of carbon is stored
in plant tissue, deposits of coal, peat, oil, and gas.
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Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants and during
photosynthesis is combined with water and energy to
form oxygen and carbohydrates.
Because vegetation takes in so much carbon dioxide,
we often refer to plants as a "sink" for it.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere varies throughout
the year, decreasing slightly during the summer as
plants leaf out, and then increases during the winter
as plants go dormant and photosynthesis decreases.
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b. Water Vapor
Shows Spatio-temporal variation
In warm tropical locations close to the surface,
it may account up to 4 percent of the
atmospheric gases while in cold polar regions,
its concentration may dwindle to a mere trace.
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Spatio-temporal variation is ascribed to two
major factors
a) Air temperature: warm and moist air can hold
more water vapor than can cold and dry air.
b) The nature of the earth’s surface: air over
land surface is generally drier than air over
water surface.
Water vapor is important from the following
perspectives.
It is critically important to life on earth
because it is the source of all forms of the
earth’s precipitation.
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Latent heat which is an important source of
atmospheric energy especially for storms,
such as thunder storms and hurricanes are
powered by the heat released during the
condensation of water vapor
Water vapor strongly absorbs infrared
radiation given off by the earth, making it an
important green house gases in the earth’s
heat balance
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c. Ozone
Ozone is the third most abundant variable gas
which exists in triatomic form of oxygen.
The majority (about 97%) of atmospheric
ozone is found in the upper atmosphere, that is,
the stratosphere where it is formed naturally as
oxygen atoms (O) combine with oxygen
molecules (O2).
Though its concentration is less than 0.002%
by volume, ozone is important due to the fact
that it shields plants, animals and human being
from the damaging effects of ultraviolet rays.
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Had the ultraviolet radiation reached the
earth’s surface with its full intensity, (1) the
yields of many agricultural crops would be
greatly decreased; (2) the incidence of skin
cancer and eye diseases such as cataract
would be increased
Production of Ozone (03)
When oxygen atoms (0) combine with
oxygen molecules (02) forms 03
- Not destructed by the ultra violet radiation
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Although it mainly forms , above 25 kms in
the atmosphere, ozone gradually drifts
downward by mixing processes, producing a
maximum concentration near 25 km.
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Destruction of Ozone
Research results have shown that the average
global concentration of stratospheric ozone
declined by about 3 percent between 1969 and
1985.
The British Antarctic Survey also discovered a
hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. The
Ozone layer depleted over Antarctica extends
form 12 to 20 km in altitude.
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The stratospheric ozone (10-65 km) may be
upset by the CFC (Chlorofluorocarbons or
halocarbons) gasses injected in to the
atmosphere, i.e. in to the stratosphere.
What are the chemical processes (reactions)
involved in the destruction of ozone gas?
1. Individual chlorine atoms which are released
from CFC by photo dissociations are very
important in the destruction of the ozone
layer (30 kms).
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One Chlorine ion (Cl-) released combines with
ozone rapidly forming chlorine monoxide (ClO)
and molecular oxygen (O2).
The chlorine monoxide reacts with another
ozone molecule to make chlorine dioxide,
which dissociates in to oxygen and a reactive
chlorine ion that initiates the cycle over again.
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The Major Sources of Chlorofluorocarbons Gas
Propellants used in spray cans (aerosols) such
as hair spray, deodorants and fly killer
Refrigerator coolant
Air conditioner
Foam producing industries, and
Solvents
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III. Particulates
Particulates consist of liquids and solids (with
the exception of water droplets or ice crystals)
particle that are found suspended in the
atmosphere because of their small size.
Most particulates are solids rather than liquids,
and are collectively referred to as dust (aerosols)
Aerosols are usually derived from two major
sources: natural and anthropogenic sources
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Natural Sources
Natural sources releasing atmospheric dust
include:
Dust generated when meteors incinerated in the
atmosphere
Volcanic dust and ash released by volcanisms
Wind blow surface material
Salt crystals released from the evaporation of
sea spray
Dust particles of biological origin including
pollen, spores, seeds and bacteria
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Antropogenic sources
Dust generating human activities include:
Factory and automobile exhaust
Smoke from home heating and cooling
Farming areas
Airborne pesticides
Burning of grasses
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Though most particulates (or atmospheric
impurities) are nuisance, as well as, health
hazards, (or pollutants), some air born
particulates play a vital role in atmospheric
processes and in the formation of clouds and
precipitation serving as condensation
(hygroscopic) nuclei.
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VERTICAL STRUCTURE (VERTICAL LAYERING) OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
Compositional Layers
The atmosphere is divided into two major
compositional layers: homosphere and
heterosphere.
Homosphere
It lies between the earth’s surface and 80
kilometers above the surface
It contains more than 99.9 percent of the total air
In this part of the atmosphere, various gasses are
kept mixed by wind currents so that the proportion
of the non-variable gases remains constant
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Because of its relatively homogeneous
composition, this portion of the atmosphere is
some times termed as homosphere
The ability of the homosphere’s gases to remain
mixed actually attributed to the mixing action of
wind currents and the numerous collusions
between air molecules
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Heterosphere
It is part of the atmosphere above 80 kms.
Density of the atmosphere above 80 kilometer
is low so that the number of air molecules
colliding is greatly reduced
Wind flows at these higher altitude is also
predominantly horizontal
air currents are subjected to very little vertical
mixing.
At higher altitudes (i.e. above 80k.m), various
gases exhibit an increasing tendency to be
layered on the basis of density (or atomic
weight).
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Compositional Layer
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Thermal Layers
These are layers on the basis of the
vertical distribution of air temperature
Troposphere
It is lowest layer of the atmosphere.
It extends on average to about 11
kilometers from the surface.
It extends upward from the surface to
about 16 kilometers over the equator and
only to about 8 km from the surface over
the Polar Regions
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75 percent of the total molecular or
gaseous mass of the atmosphere and
virtually, water vapor and aerosols, are
concentrated in this layer.
This layer is responsible for all weather
condition (most weather phenomena
occur in this part of the atmosphere, it
is some times called the weather
sphere).
Temperature in this portion of the
atmosphere uniformly falls with
increasing altitude by 6.50C/ 1000 m
ascent /descent (normal 32
environmental lapse rate)
Vertical Thermal Layers of Atmosphere
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The Stratosphere
It extends from the tropo-pause to an
altitude of 50 kilometers.
In this layer, temperature inversion
occurs
It is the ozone gas that plays a major
part in heating the air at this altitude
(important because it absorbs energetic
ultraviolet solar radiation)
At this part of the atmosphere, increased
motions of Ozone gas represent a higher
temperature.
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The maximum concentration of ozone
in the stratosphere is observed near 25
km. Yet, the stratospheric air
temperature reaches a maximum of
near 50 kms.
The reason for this is that, the air at 50
km is less dense than that at 25 km,
and so, the absorption of intense solar
energy, at 50 km rises the temperature
of the fewer molecules to much greater
degree.
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Mesosphere
It is also called middle sphere
It represents part of the atmosphere that
lies between the stratosphere and
thermosphere (50-80km above the surface)
Air at this level is extremely thin and the
atmospheric pressure is quite low (1013
mill bars at sea level averages to1mb at 50
km above sea level)
temperature in the mesosphere decreases
with height there is little ozone in the air to
absorb solar radiation
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Consequently, there would be more
losing of energy than absorbing.
Thus, it is the coldest and the darkest
part of the atmosphere
Because of air’s low density in this
region, our brain would soon become
oxygen starved, a condition known as
hypoxia.
Thermosphere
This is the outermost layer of the
atmosphere that extends outward from
about 80 km to 1600 kms.
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At this layer, temperature gradually
rises to eventually reach about 1500 C0
This layer blocks a variety of harmful
cosmic radiation including x-rays,
gamma rays, and some ultraviolet
radiation
Ultraviolet solar radiation is absorbed
mainly by molecular nitrogen and
oxygen (O2)
This radiation supplies enough energy
to break molecular oxygen in to two
separate oxygen atoms (O).
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The energy "left over" after the
separation of the oxygen molecule
increases the speed of motion of the
atoms.
Because there are relatively few atoms
and molecules in the thermosphere,
the absorption of a small amount of
solar radiation can cause a large
increase in temperature, consequently
there is an inversion.
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The Ionosphere
An electrified region with in the upper
atmosphere primarily the thermosphere
where fairly large concentration of ions
and free electrons exist.
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What are the primary causes of Ionization
in the ionosphere?
The primary causes of ionization in the
ionosphere are:
- Ultraviolet radiation and x-ray from the sun
- High energy cosmic rays from the sun and
from super nova.
- Collusion between air molecules and
energetic particle.
The electrical regions of the ionosphere play a
major role in radio communications. This is
because ions are reflectors of radio waves.
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Exosphere
At very high altitudes above the earth the
atmosphere becomes extremely thin.
At this level, atoms and molecules move
quite a distance before they collide with
one another
At 250 km above the earth’s surface, an
atom can move an average distance
called mean free path of 1000 meter
before colliding with another atom.
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Since the chance of molecular collusion is
reduced, many of the lighter, faster moving
molecules actually escape the earth’s
gravitational pull.
Part of the atmosphere where atoms and
molecules shoot off in to space is called
exosphere, which represents the upper limit
of the earth’s atmosphere.
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