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 Bäcklund and Darboux Transformations

This book describes the remarkable connections that exist between the classi-
cal differential geometry of surfaces and modern soliton theory. The authors
explore the extensive body of literature from the nineteenth and early twen-
tieth centuries by such eminent geometers as Bianchi, Darboux, Bäcklund,
and Eisenhart on transformations of privileged classes of surfaces which leave
key geometric properties unchanged. Prominent amongst these are Bäcklund-
Darboux transformations with their remarkable associated nonlinear superposi-
tion principles and importance in soliton theory. It is with these transformations
and the links they afford between the classical differential geometry of surfaces
and the nonlinear equations of soliton theory that the present text is concerned.
In this geometric context, solitonic equations arise out of the Gauss-Mainardi-
Codazzi equations for various types of surfaces that admit invariance under
Bäcklund-Darboux transformations.
This text is appropriate for use at a higher undergraduate or graduate level
for applied mathematicians or mathematical physicists.

Professor Colin Rogers currently holds a Chair in Applied Mathematics at the

University of New South Wales. He has written some 150 research papers in
international research journals and is the co-author of the monograph Bäcklund
Transformations and Their Applications (1982).

Dr. Wolfgang K. Schief presently holds the position of Queen Elizabeth II,
ARC Research Fellow, at the University of New South Wales. Dr. Schief has
written more than 60 research papers in international research journals.
Cambridge Texts in Applied Mathematics

Maximum and Minimum Principles

M.J. SEWELL
Solitons
P.G. DRAZIN AND R.S. JOHNSON
The Kinematics of Mixing
J.M. OTTINO
Introduction to Numerical Linear Algebra and Optimisation
PHILIPPE G. CIARLET
Integral Equations
DAVID PORTER AND DAVID S.G. STIRLING
Perturbation Methods
E.J. HINCH
The Thermomechanics of Plasticity and Fracture
GERARD A. MAUGIN
Boundary Integral and Singularity Methods for Linearized Viscous Flow
C. POZRIKIDIS
Nonlinear Wave Processes in Acoustics
K. NAUGOLNYKH AND L. OSTROVSKY
Nonlinear Systems
P.G. DRAZIN
Stability, Instability and Chaos
PAUL GLENDINNING
Applied Analysis of the Navier–Stokes Equations
C.R. DOERING AND J.D. GIBBON
Viscous Flow
H. OCKENDON AND J.R. OCKENDON
Scaling, Self-Similarity and Intermediate Asymptotics
G.I. BARENBLATT
A First Course in the Numerical Analysis of Differential Equations
ARIEH ISERLES
Complex Variables: Introduction and Applications
MARK J. ABLOWITZ AND ATHANASSIOS S. FOKAS
Mathematical Models in the Applied Sciences
A.C. FOWLER
Thinking About Ordinary Differential Equations
ROBERT E. O’MALLEY
A Modern Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Water Waves
R.S. JOHNSON
Rarefied Gas Dynamics
CARLO CERCIGNANI
Symmetry Methods for Differential Equations
PETER E. HYDON
High Speed Flow
C.J. CHAPMAN
Wave Motion
J. BILLINGHAM AND A.C. KING
An Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics
P.A. DAVIDSON
Linear Elastic Waves
JOHN G. HARRIS
Infinite Dimensional Dynamical Systems
JAMES C. ROBINSON
Introduction to Symmetry Analysis
BRIAN J. CANTWELL
Vorticity and Incompressible Flow
ANDREW J. MAJDA AND ANDREA L. BERTOZZI
 Bäcklund and Darboux Transformations
Geometry and Modern Applications in Soliton Theory

C. ROGERS
Professor of Applied Mathematics
The University of New South Wales

W.K. SCHIEF
Queen Elizabeth II, ARC Research Fellow
The University of New South Wales
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
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c Cambridge University Press 2002

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2002

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Times Roman 10/13 pt. System LATEX 2ε [TB]

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Rogers, C.
Bäcklund and Darboux transformations : geometry and modern applications in
soliton theory / C. Rogers, W.K. Schief.
p. cm. – (Cambridge texts in applied mathematics)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-521-81331-X – ISBN 0-521-01288-0 (pb.)
1. Solitons. 2. Bäcklund transformations. 3. Darboux transformations.
I. Schief, W.K. (Wolfgang Karl) 1964– II. Title. III. Series.
QC174.26 W28 2002
530.124 – dc21 2001043453

ISBN 0 521 81331 X hardback

ISBN 0 521 01288 0 paperback
 Dedicated to the memory of
Professor David Crighton, FRS

Für Christel und Wolfgang

 Contents

Preface xv

Acknowledgements xvii

General Introduction and Outline 1

1 Pseudospherical Surfaces and the Classical Bäcklund

Transformation. The Bianchi System 17
1.1 The Gauss-Weingarten Equations for Hyperbolic Surfaces.
Pseudospherical Surfaces. The Sine-Gordon Equation 18
1.2 The Classical Bäcklund Transformation for the Sine-Gordon
Equation 22
1.3 Bianchi’s Permutability Theorem. Generation of
Multi-Soliton Solutions 28
1.3.1 Bianchi’s Permutability Theorem 28
1.3.2 Physical Applications 30
1.4 Pseudospherical Soliton Surfaces. Breathers 31
1.4.1 The Pseudosphere 32
1.4.2 A Pseudospherical Helicoid 35
1.4.3 Two-Soliton Surfaces 37
1.4.4 Breathers 38
1.4.5 Stationary Breather Surfaces 39
1.5 Parallel Surfaces. Induced Bäcklund Transformation
for a Class of Weingarten Surfaces 41
1.5.1 Surfaces of Constant Mean Curvature. A Theorem
of Bonnet 42
1.5.2 An Induced Bäcklund Transformation 43
1.6 The Bianchi System. Its Auto-Bäcklund Transformation 45

ix
x Contents
1.6.1 Hyperbolic Surfaces. Spherical Representation 46
1.6.2 A Bäcklund Transformation for Hyperbolic Surfaces 49
1.6.3 The Bianchi System 53

2 The Motion of Curves and Surfaces. Soliton Connections 60

2.1 Motions of Curves of Constant Torsion or Curvature.
The Sine-Gordon Connection 61
2.1.1 A Motion of an Inextensible Curve of Constant Torsion 62
2.1.2 A Motion of an Inextensible Curve of Constant Curvature 63
2.2 A 2 × 2 Linear Representation for the Sine-Gordon Equation 64
2.3 The Motion of Pseudospherical Surfaces. A Weingarten System
and Its Bäcklund Transformation 68
2.3.1 A Continuum Limit of an Anharmonic Lattice Model 71
2.3.2 A Weingarten System 71
2.3.3 Bäcklund Transformations 73
2.4 The mKdV Equation. Moving Curve and Soliton Surface
Representations. A Solitonic Weingarten System 80
2.4.1 The mKdV Equation 80
2.4.2 Motion of a Dini Surface 82
2.4.3 A Triply Orthogonal Weingarten System 85

3 Tzitzeica Surfaces. Conjugate Nets and the Toda

Lattice Scheme 88
3.1 Tzitzeica Surfaces. Link to an Integrable Gasdynamics System 89
3.1.1 The Tzitzeica and Affinsphären Equations 89
3.1.2 The Affinsphären Equation in a Gasdynamics Context 95
3.2 Construction of Tzitzeica Surfaces. An Induced
Bäcklund Transformation 101
3.3 Laplace-Darboux Transformations. The Two-Dimensional
Toda Lattice. Conjugate Nets 109
3.3.1 Laplace-Darboux Transformations 110
3.3.2 Iteration of Laplace-Darboux Transformations.
The Two-Dimensional Toda Lattice 111
3.3.3 The Two-Dimensional Toda Lattice: Its Linear
Representation and Bäcklund Transformation 113
3.3.4 Conjugate Nets 117

4 Hasimoto Surfaces and the Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation.

Geometry and Associated Soliton Equations 119
4.1 Binormal Motion and the Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation.
The Heisenberg Spin Equation 120
 Contents xi
4.1.1 A Single Soliton NLS Surface 122
4.1.2 Geometric Properties 124
4.1.3 The Heisenberg Spin Equation 128
4.2 The Pohlmeyer-Lund-Regge Model. SIT and SRS Connections.
Compatibility with the NLS Equation 129
4.2.1 The Pohlmeyer-Lund-Regge Model 130
4.2.2 The SIT Connection 132
4.2.3 The SRS Connection 134
4.2.4 Compatibility of the Maxwell-Bloch System
with the NLS Equation 135
4.3 Geometry of the NLS Equation. The Auto-Bäcklund
Transformation 137
4.3.1 The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation 142
4.3.2 The Auto-Bäcklund Transformation 146

5 Isothermic Surfaces. The Calapso and Zoomeron Equations 152

5.1 The Gauss-Mainardi-Codazzi Equations for Isothermic Surfaces.
The Calapso Equation. Dual Isothermic Surfaces 152
5.2 The Geometry of Isothermic Surfaces in Rn+2 156
5.2.1 Conjugate and Orthogonal Coordinates 157
5.2.2 Isothermic Surfaces 159
5.2.3 Specialisations and Generalisations 160
5.3 The Vector Calapso System. Its Scalar Lax Pair 162
5.3.1 The Vector Calapso System 162
5.3.2 A Scalar Lax Pair 164
5.3.3 Reductions 166
5.4 The Fundamental Transformation 167
5.4.1 Parallel Nets. The Combescure Transformation 167
5.4.2 The Radial Transformation 168
5.4.3 The Fundamental Transformation 169
5.5 A Bäcklund Transformation for Isothermic Surfaces 171
5.5.1 The Fundamental Transformation for Conjugate
Coordinates 171
5.5.2 The Ribaucour Transformation 173
5.5.3 A Bäcklund Transformation for Isothermic Surfaces 175
5.6 Permutability Theorems and Their Geometric Implications 178
5.6.1 A Permutability Theorem for Conjugate Nets. Planarity 178
5.6.2 A Permutability Theorem for Orthogonal Conjugate Nets.
Cyclicity 181
5.6.3 A Permutability Theorem for Isothermic Surfaces.
Constant Cross-Ratio 184
xii Contents
5.7 An Explicit Permutability Theorem for the Vector
Calapso System 187
5.7.1 The Ribaucour-Moutard Connection 187
5.7.2 A Permutability Theorem 189
5.8 Particular Isothermic Surfaces. One-Soliton Surfaces
and Cyclides 191
5.8.1 One-Soliton Isothermic Surfaces 191
5.8.2 A Class of Solutions Generated by the Moutard
Transformation 192
5.8.3 Dupin Cyclides 198

6 General Aspects of Soliton Surfaces. Role of Gauge

and Reciprocal Transformations 204
6.1 The AKNS 2 × 2 Spectral System 205
6.1.1 The Position Vector of Pseudospherical Surfaces 205
6.1.2 The su(2) Linear Representation and Its Associated
Soliton Surfaces. The AKNS Case r = −q̄ 209
6.2 NLS Eigenfunction Hierarchies. Geometric Properties.
The Miura Transformation 216
6.2.1 Soliton Surface Position Vectors as Solutions
of Eigenfunction Equations 217
6.2.2 The Serret-Frenet Equations and the NLS Hierarchy 220
6.3 Reciprocal Transformations. Loop Solitons 222
6.3.1 Reciprocal Transformations and the Loop
Soliton Equation 222
6.3.2 Loop Solitons 225
6.4 The Dym, mKdV, and KdV Hierarchies. Connections 229
6.4.1 Invariance under Reciprocal Transformations.
A Class of Planar Curve Motions 230
6.4.2 The Dym, mKdV, and KdV Hierarchies 233
6.4.3 A Permutability Theorem 235
6.4.4 A Geometric Derivation of the mKdV Hierarchy 237
6.5 The Binormal Motion of Curves of Constant Curvature.
Extended Dym Surfaces 240
6.5.1 Curves of Constant Curvature 242
6.5.2 Extended Dym Surfaces. The su(2) Linear
Representation 246
6.5.3 A CC-Ideal Formulation 249
6.5.4 A Matrix Darboux Transformation. A Bäcklund
Transformation for the Extended Dym and m2 KdV
Equations 252
6.5.5 Soliton Surfaces 255
 Contents xiii
6.6 The Binormal Motion of Curves of Constant Torsion.
The Extended Sine-Gordon System 258
6.6.1 The Extended Sine-Gordon System 259
6.6.2 Fundamental Forms. An su(2) Linear Representation 260
6.6.3 A Bäcklund Transformation 262
6.6.4 An Analogue of the Bianchi Transformation.
Dual Surfaces 263

7 Bäcklund Transformation and Darboux Matrix Connections 266

7.1 The Connection for Pseudospherical and Nonlinear
Schrödinger Surfaces 267
7.1.1 Pseudospherical Surfaces 267
7.1.2 NLS Surfaces 271
7.2 Darboux Matrix and Induced Bäcklund Transformations
for the AKNS System. The Constant Length Property 277
7.2.1 An Elementary Matrix Darboux Transformation 277
7.2.2 Invariance of a su(2) Constraint 280
7.2.3 The AKNS Class r = −q̄ and Its Elementary Bäcklund
Transformation 282
7.2.4 The Constant Length Property 285
7.3 Iteration of Matrix Darboux Transformations.
Generic Permutability Theorems 287
7.3.1 Iteration of Matrix Darboux Transformations 288
7.3.2 Generic Permutability Theorems 292

8 Bianchi and Ernst Systems. Bäcklund Transformations

and Permutability Theorems 297
8.1 Bianchi Surfaces. Application of the Sym-Tafel Formula 298
8.2 Matrix Darboux Transformations for Non-Isospectral
Linear Representations 300
8.3 Invariance of the su(2) Constraint. A Distance Property 302
8.4 The Ernst Equation of General Relativity 303
8.4.1 Linear Representations 305
8.4.2 The Dual ‘Ernst Equation’ 306
8.5 The Ehlers and Matzner-Misner Transformations 309
8.6 The Neugebauer and Harrison Bäcklund Transformations 311
8.7 A Matrix Darboux Transformation for the Ernst Equation 319
8.8 A Permutability Theorem for the Ernst Equation and Its Dual.
A Classical Bianchi Connection 324

9 Projective-Minimal and Isothermal-Asymptotic Surfaces 329

9.1 Analogues of the Gauss-Mainardi-Codazzi Equations
in Projective Differential Geometry 330
xiv Contents
9.2 Projective-Minimal, Godeaux-Rozet, and Demoulin Surfaces 333
9.3 Linear Representations 335
9.3.1 The Wilczynski Tetrahedral and a 4 × 4
Linear Representation 336
9.3.2 The Plücker Correspondence and a 6 × 6
Linear Representation 337
9.4 The Demoulin System as a Periodic Toda Lattice 341
9.5 A Bäcklund Transformation for Projective-Minimal Surfaces 343
9.5.1 Invariance of the so(3, 3) Linear Representation 345
9.5.2 Invariance of the sl(4) Linear Representation 350
9.6 One-Soliton Demoulin Surfaces 353
9.7 Isothermal-Asymptotic Surfaces. The Stationary
mNVN Equation 357
9.7.1 The Stationary mNVN Equation 358
9.7.2 The Stationary NVN Equation 360
9.8 A Bäcklund Transformation for Isothermal-Asymptotic
Surfaces 365
9.8.1 An Invariance of the mNVN Equation 365
9.8.2 An Invariance of the NVN Equation and a Bäcklund
Transformation for Isothermal-Asymptotic Surfaces 367

Appendix A The su(2)–so(3) Isomorphism 371

Appendix B CC-Ideals 374

Appendix C Biographies 380

Bibliography and Author Index 383

Subject Index 403

 Preface

‘Only connect’.
E.M. Forster, Howards End

The deep connections that exist between the classical differential geometry
of surfaces and modern soliton theory are by now well established. Thus,
Bäcklund transformations, together with Darboux-type transformations in the
form of the Levy transformation and the so-called Fundamental Transformation
of differential geometry, have proved to be important tools in the generation of
solutions to the nonlinear equations of soliton theory. Eisenhart, in the preface
to his monograph Transformations of Surfaces published in 1922, asserted that

During the past twenty-five years many of the advances in differential geometry of
surfaces in euclidean space have had to do with transformations of surfaces of a given
type into surfaces of the same type.

Thus, distinguished geometers such as Bianchi, Calapso, Darboux, Demoulin,

Guichard, Jonas, Ribaucour, and Weingarten all conducted detailed investiga-
tions into various privileged classes of surfaces that admit such transformations.
It is with the class of surfaces that admit invariance under Bäcklund-Darboux
transformations that the present monograph is concerned. Invariance under a
Bäcklund transformation turns out to be a generic property of all solitonic equa-
tions. In the geometric context of this monograph, solitonic equations are seen
to arise out of the nonlinear Gauss-Mainardi-Codazzi equations for various
types of surfaces that admit invariance under Bäcklund-Darboux transforma-
tions. The linear Gauss-Weingarten equations for such surfaces provide, on
injection of a Bäcklund parameter, linear representations for the underlying
nonlinear soliton equations.

xv
xvi Preface
Accordingly, Bäcklund-Darboux transformations with their origin in the
nineteenth century provide a natural bridge between classical differential geom-
etry and modern soliton theory. Pseudospherical surfaces, surfaces of constant
mean curvature, Bianchi and isothermic surfaces are amongst those shown in
the classical literature to admit Bäcklund transformations and associated non-
linear superposition principles known as permutability theorems. The latter
provide purely algebraic algorithms for the iterative generation of solutions of
the solitonic equations linked with such classes of surfaces.
Here, our aim has been to provide a monograph describing, through the
medium of Bäcklund-Darboux transformations, the many remarkable connec-
tions between results of classical differential geometry of the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries and soliton theory of modern times. The level of treat-
ment is very much that of the classical works of Darboux and Bianchi to which
this monograph owes an enormous debt. This is to be regarded as an intro-
ductory text for practitioners in soliton theory who wish to become acquainted
with underlying geometric aspects of the subject. It is appropriate for use as a
upper level undergraduate or graduate-level text for applied mathematicians or
mathematical physicists. Indeed, it has grown out of a course on the geometry
of soliton theory given over several years at the University of New South Wales.
 Acknowledgements

The authors are, above all, indebted to the late Professor David Crighton, FRS,
of Cambridge University who supported and encouraged this endeavour from
the outset. They also wish to express their gratitude to the Center for Dynamical
Systems and Nonlinear Studies, Georgia Institute of Technology, where this
project was initiated. The support of the Australian Research Council is also
gratefully acknowledged.

xvii
 General Introduction and Outline

The foundations of the differential geometry of curves and surfaces were laid in
the early part of the nineteenth century with the monumental works of Monge
(1746–1818) and Gauss (1777–1855). Monge’s major contributions were col-
lected in his Applications de l’Analyse à la Géometrie published in 1807. The
1850 edition of that work is of particular value in that it includes an annotation
by Liouville (1809–1882) detailing additional contributions to the subject by
such luminaries as Frenet (1816–1888), Serret (1819–1885), Bertrand (1822–
1900) and Saint-Venant (1796–1886), whose work in geometry was motivated
by his interest in elasticity. Gauss’ treatise on the geometry of surfaces, in-
stigated by a geodetic study sponsored by the Elector of Hanover, was the
Disquisitiones Generales Circa Superficies Curvas published in 1828. Therein,
Gauss set down the system of equations that bears his name and which time has
shown to be fundamental to the analysis of surfaces. Indeed, this Gauss system
and the symmetries that it admits for privileged classes of surfaces underpin
the remarkable connection between classical differential geometry and modern
soliton theory to be the subject of this monograph.
The origins of soliton theory are likewise to be found in the early part of the
nineteenth century. Thus, it was in 1834 that the Scottish engineer John Scott
Russell recorded the first sighting, along a canal near Edinburgh, of the solitary
hump-shaped wave to be rediscovered in 1965 in the context of the celebrated
Fermi-Pasta-Ulam problem by Kruskal and Zabusky and termed a soliton. Scott
Russell observed that his so-called great wave of translation proceeded with a
speed proportional to its height. In a vivid account of water tank experiments
set up to reproduce this large amplitude surface phenomenon, and described in
a report to the British Association in 1844, there is also depicted the creation of
two such waves. However, the limited duration of Scott Russell’s experiments
apparently did not allow him to observe the dramatic interaction properties

1
2 General Introduction and Outline
of these waves in their entirety. Moreover, at that time, neither the nonlinear
evolution equation descriptive of their propagation nor the analytic means to
predict their interaction properties were to hand.
It was in 1895 that two Dutch mathematicians, Korteweg and de Vries, de-
rived the nonlinear wave equation which now bears their name and adopts the
canonical form

u t + u x x x + 6uu x = 0. (0.1)

This models long wave propagation in a rectangular channel and provides,

through a simple travelling wave solution, a theoretical confirmation of the
existence of the controversial solitary wave observed some sixty years earlier
by Scott Russell on the Union canal. However, it is less well-known that what is
now called the Korteweg–de Vries (KdV) equation had, in fact, been set down
earlier by Boussinesq in his memoir of 1877 entitled Essai sur la Théorie des
Eaux Courantes. Indeed, a pair of equations equivalent to the KdV equation
(0.1) appeared as early as 1871 in two papers by Boussinesq devoted to wave
propagation in rectangular channels.
The KdV equation was to be rediscovered in the mid-twentieth century by
Gardner and Morikawa in 1960 in an analysis of the transmission of hydromag-
netic waves. It has since been shown to be a canonical model for a rich diversity
of large amplitude wave systems arising in the theory of solids, liquids and
gases.
The advent of modern soliton theory was heralded in 1965 by the rediscovery
of the KdV equation in the context of the celebrated Fermi-Pasta-Ulam prob-
lem. Thus, in a pioneering study by Kruskal and Zabusky, the KdV equation
was obtained as a continuum limit of an anharmonic lattice model with cubic
nonlinearity. The existence of solitary waves in this nonlinear model which pos-
sess the remarkable property that they preserve both their amplitude and speed
subsequent upon interaction was revealed via a computational study. The term
soliton was coined to describe such waves which had originally been observed
in a hydrodynamic context by Scott Russell. However, the problem of obtaining
an analytical expression descriptive of the interaction of solitons still remained.
It turns out that, remarkably, a generic method for the description of soliton
interaction has its roots in a type of transformation originally introduced by
Bäcklund in the nineteenth century to generate pseudospherical surfaces, that
is, surfaces of constant negative Gaussian curvature K = −1/␳ 2 . The study of
such surfaces goes back at least to Edmond Bour in 1862, who generated the
celebrated sine-Gordon equation
1
␻uv = sin ␻ (0.2)
␳2
 General Introduction and Outline 3
from the Gauss-Mainardi-Codazzi system for pseudospherical surfaces parame-
trised in terms of asymptotic coordinates. The sine-Gordon equation was subse-
quently rederived independently by both Bonnet in 1867 and Enneper in 1868
in a similar manner.
A purely geometric construction for pseudospherical surfaces was reformu-
lated in mathematical terms as a transformation by Bianchi in 1879. In 1882,
Bäcklund published details of his celebrated transformation B␴ which allows
the iterative construction of pseudospherical surfaces. In 1883, Lie presented
the decomposition B␴ = L−1 ␴ B␲/2 L␴ which shows that the Bäcklund transfor-
mation B␴ , in fact, represents a conjugation of Lie transformations L␴ , L−1 ␴
with the parameter-independent Bianchi transformation B␲/2 . Thus, the Lie
transformations serve to intrude the key parameter ␴ into the original Bianchi
transformation.
In 1892, under the title Sulla Trasformazione di Bäcklund per le Superfi-
cie Pseudosferiche, in a masterly breakthrough, Bianchi demonstrated that the
Bäcklund transformation B␴ admits a commutativity property B␴2 B␴1 = B␴1 B␴2
a consequence of which is a nonlinear superposition principle embodied in what
is termed a permutability theorem. The evidence that Bianchi’s permutabil-
ity theorem has important application in nonlinear physics had to await the
work of Seeger et al. in 1953 on crystal dislocations. Therein, in the context
of Frenkel and Kontorova’s dislocation theory of 1938, the superposition of
so-called eigenmotions was obtained via the classical permutability theorem.
Indeed, the interaction of what today is called a breather with a kink-type dislo-
cation was both described analytically by means of the permutability theorem
and displayed graphically. The typical solitonic features to be later discovered
numerically in 1965 for the KdV equation, namely, preservation of velocity
and shape following interaction, as well as the concomitant phase shift, were
all derived by means of the permutability theorem for the sine-Gordon equation
in this remarkable paper.
In 1958, Skyrme derived a higher-dimensional sine-Gordon equation in a
nonlinear theory of particle interaction, while in 1965 the same equation was
set down by Josephson in his seminal study of the tunnelling phenomenon in
superconductivity for which he was later to gain the Nobel Prize. In 1967, Lamb
derived the classical sine-Gordon equation in an analysis of the propagation of
ultrashort light pulses. Lamb, aware of the earlier work of Seeger et al., ex-
ploited the permutability theorem associated with the Bäcklund transformation
to generate an analytic expression for pulse decomposition corresponding to
the two-soliton solution. Later, in 1971, he used the permutability theorem to
analyse the decomposition of 2N ␲ light pulses into N stable 2␲ pulses. The ex-
perimental evidence for such a decomposition phenomenon had been provided
4 General Introduction and Outline
by Gibbs and Slusher in 1970, who recorded the decomposition of a 6␲ pulse
into three 2␲ pulses in a Rb vapour. In the same year, Scott had noted how the
permutability theorem may also be exploited in the study of long Josephson
junctions.
In 1973, Wahlquist and Estabrook demonstrated that the KdV equation,
like the sine-Gordon equation, admits invariance under a Bäcklund-type trans-
formation and moreover possesses an associated permutability theorem. The
novel pulse interaction properties observed by Zabusky and Kruskal in their
original numerical study of the KdV equation are captured analytically in the
multi-soliton solutions generated by iterative application of this permutability
theorem.
In 1974, a Bäcklund transformation for the nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS)
equation

iqt + qx x + ␯q 2 |q| = 0 (0.3)

was constructed by Lamb via a classical method developed by Clairin in 1910.

A nonlinear superposition principle may again be constructed by means of the
Bäcklund transformation. The NLS equation has important applications in fibre
optics. It seems to have been first set down independently by Kelley and Talanov
in 1965 in studies of the self-focusing of optical beams in nonlinear Kerr media.
Subsequently, in 1968, Zakharov derived the NLS equation in a study of deep
water gravity waves. Hasimoto, in 1971, obtained the same equation in an
approximation to the hydrodynamical motion of a thin isolated vortex filament.
Implicit was a geometric derivation of the NLS equation wherein it is associated
with a motion of an inextensible curve in R3 . This association of an integrable
equation with the spatial motion of an inextensible curve will arise naturally in
our study of the geometry of solitons.
Thus, by 1974, the Bäcklund transformations for the canonical soliton
equations (0.1)–(0.3) were all in place and in that year a National Science
Foundation meeting was convened at Vanderbilt University in the USA to as-
sess the status and potential role of Bäcklund transformations in soliton theory.
In 1973, the celebrated generalised ZS-AKNS spectral system had been in-
troduced by Ablowitz et al. A broad spectrum of 1+1-dimensional nonlinear
evolution equations amenable to the Inverse Scattering Transform (IST) can be
encapsulated as compatibility conditions for this ZS-AKNS system. The latter
was exploited by Chen to derive auto-Bäcklund transformations for (0.1)–(0.3)
in an elegant manner.
The linear structure of the ZS-AKNS system permits the application in soliton
theory of another important class of transformations with their origin in the
 General Introduction and Outline 5
nineteenth century, namely, Darboux transformations. The latter arose in a
study by Darboux in 1882 of Sturm-Liouville problems. However, they are
but a special case of transformations due to Moutard and introduced earlier
in 1878 in connection with the sequential reduction of linear hyperbolic equa-
tions to canonical form. Iterated Darboux transformations were constructed by
Crum in 1955 in connection with related Sturm-Liouville problems. In 1975,
the Crum transformation was taken up by Wadati et al. and used to generate
multi-soliton solutions of integrable equations associated with the ZS-AKNS
system. In geometric terms, these iterated versions of Darboux transformations
occur in the classical theory of surfaces as Levy sequences as described in
Eisenhart’s Transformations of Surfaces.
In 1976, Lund and Regge, en route to the celebrated solitonic system which
bears their name, made the crucial observation that the ZS-AKNS system for
the sine-Gordon equation is nothing but a 2 × 2 representation of the classical
Gauss-Weingarten system for pseudospherical surfaces. This connection was
made independently in the same year by Pohlmeyer.
Thus, by 1976, it was clear that Bäcklund and Darboux transformations,
with their origins in the classical differential geometry of surfaces, have deep
connections with soliton theory. The aim of the present monograph is to bring
together these strands and to give an account not only of their historical connec-
tions, but also of modern advances. It builds upon the complementary earlier
monograph by Rogers and Shadwick (1982), which presented a non-geometric
account of Bäcklund transformations and their applications in soliton theory
and continuum mechanics. The geometric viewpoint in this monograph is in-
spired in many respects by the work of Antoni Sym published in 1981 under
the title Soliton Theory is Surface Theory. It is the exploration of this theme
that, in part, motivated the present work.
Chapter 1 presents an account of the connection between the classical
Bäcklund transformation and its variants and modern soliton theory. It opens
with the derivation of a classical nonlinear system due to Bianchi which embod-
ies the Gauss-Mainardi-Codazzi equations for hyperbolic surfaces described in
asymptotic coordinates. Specialisation to pseudospherical surfaces produces the
celebrated sine-Gordon equation. There follows, in Section 1.2, a description of
the geometric procedure for the construction of pseudospherical surfaces along
with the derivation of the induced auto-Bäcklund transformation for the sine-
Gordon equation. In Section 1.3, Bianchi’s permutability theorem is derived via
this Bäcklund transformation, and a lattice is introduced whereby multi-soliton
solutions may be generated in a purely algebraic manner. Pseudospherical sur-
faces corresponding to one- and two-soliton solutions of the sine-Gordon equa-
tion are constructed in Section 1.4. Thus, the stationary single soliton solution is
6 General Introduction and Outline
seen to correspond to the pseudosphere, while the non-stationary soliton leads
to the Dini surface, namely the helicoid generated by simultaneous rotation
and translation of Huygen’s tractrix. The two-soliton solution is obtained via
the permutability theorem, and pseudospherical surfaces corresponding to en-
trapped periodic solutions known as breathers are presented. In Section 1.5, it is
shown that the Bäcklund transformation for surfaces parallel to pseudospherical
surfaces may be induced in a straightforward manner. This extends the action
of the classical Bäcklund transformation to a class of Weingarten surfaces. The
chapter concludes with a treatment of another important class of surfaces which
have a solitonic connection, namely that which bears the name of Bianchi. This
class is determined by the system of equations
1 ␳v 1 ␳u
av + a− b cos ␻ = 0,
2 ␳ 2 ␳
1 ␳u 1 ␳v
bu + b− a cos ␻ = 0,
2 ␳ 2 ␳ (0.4)



1 ␳u b 1 ␳v a
␻uv + sin ␻ + sin ␻ − ab sin ␻ = 0,
2 ␳ a u 2 ␳ b v
␳ uv = 0,

where K = −1/␳ 2 is the Gaussian curvature and u, v are asymptotic coordi-

nates. In 1890, Bianchi presented a purely geometric construction for such hy-
perbolic surfaces. The determining constraint ␳ uv = 0 was retrieved one hundred
years later by Levi and Sym (1990) in their search for the subclass of hyper-
bolic surfaces which possess an associated integrable Gauss-Mainardi-Codazzi
system. Their procedure was based on the intrusion by Lie group methods of a
spectral parameter into a 2 × 2 linear representation of the Gauss-Weingarten
system for hyperbolic surfaces. In Section 1.6, a spherical representation is
used to show that the Bianchi system (0.4) is, in fact, equivalent to the nonlin-
ear sigma-type model

(␳ N Nu )v + (␳ N Nv )u = 0, N 2 = 1l, N† = N
(0.5)
␳ uv = 0.

Thus, this important system of modern soliton theory has its origin in classical
differential geometry. Indeed, a vector version of (0.5) is implicit in the work
of Bianchi.
An elliptic variant of the Bianchi system is shown to deliver the well-known
Ernst equation of general relativity, namely
1 ␳ z̄ 1 ␳z Ez Ez̄
Ez z̄ + Ez + Ez̄ = , ␳ z z̄ = 0. (0.6)
2␳ 2␳ (E)
 General Introduction and Outline 7
To conclude, a Bäcklund transformation that connects hyperbolic surfaces is
constructed in a geometric manner. This is then specialised to provide an in-
variance which admits the constraint associated with the Bianchi system. The
resulting Bäcklund transformation is then applied to a degenerate seed Bianchi
surface to generate a one-soliton Bianchi surface.
Chapter 2 is concerned with how certain motions of privileged curves and
surfaces can lead to solitonic equations. Thus, in Section 2.1, the classical sine-
Gordon equation is arrived at by consideration of motions of an inextensible
curve of constant curvature or torsion. In the latter case, the curve sweeps
out a pseudospherical surface. In Section 2.2, the AKNS spectral problem for
the sine-Gordon equation is derived via the so(3)–su(2) isomorphism applied
to its 3×3 Gauss-Weingarten representation. In Section 2.3, the discussion
turns to privileged motions of pseudospherical surfaces which are associated
with soliton equations said to be compatible with, or symmetries of, the sine-
Gordon equation. Particular classes of motion of pseudospherical surfaces are
considered. One is linked to a continuum version of an anharmonic lattice
model which incorporates the important modified Korteweg-de Vries (mKdV)
equation

␻t + ␻x x x + 6␻2 ␻x = 0. (0.7)

This mKdV equation, like the KdV equation (0.1) to which it is connected by
the Miura transformation, is of considerable physical importance and arises,
in particular, in plasma physics in the theory of the propagation of Alfvén
waves.
Another important motion of pseudospherical surfaces, purely normal in
character, is shown to produce a classical system due to Weingarten and Bianchi
which may be found in Eisenhart’s A Treatise on the Differential Geometry of
Curves and Surfaces in connection with triply orthogonal systems of surfaces
wherein one constituent family is pseudospherical. This system adopts the form

␪x yt − ␪x ␪yt cot ␪ + ␪y ␪xt tan ␪ = 0,



␪xt 1 1 ␪y ␪yt
− sin ␪ − = 0,
cos ␪ x ␳ ␳ t sin ␪


 (0.8)
␪yt 1 1 ␪x ␪xt
+ cos ␪ + = 0,
sin ␪ y ␳ ␳ t cos ␪
1
␪x x − ␪yy = sin ␪ cos ␪.
␳2
Bäcklund transformations for both the continuum lattice model and the above
system are then shown to be induced by gauge transformations acting on an
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Florida is much improved in population and thrift in these later days
and may be enjoyable. But for all their sunshine and flowers, their
oranges and "'arly sarce," Co. G would not, in 1864, have parted
with a single square acre out of old Lenox,—not for all East Florida.

Sunday, May 22nd, while the Picolata force were drawn up for
inspection, two steamers arrived, together with the gunboat Ottawa.

Before this time, Col. Brown had been ordered to Hilton Head as
Provost Marshall of the Department of the South. That change made
Col. Carmichael ranking officer and he accordingly made requisition
for companies A and F and also for the band, all of whom were at
Fernandina.

Maj. Place had returned from imprisonment, and came up to Picolata

in charge of the two companies. When the boys marched aboard the
gunboat Ottawa the major was left in charge of the camp.

This time a landing was made opposite Pilatka, the men halting for
the night seven miles further up the river.

May 23d the column marched to Middle Haw Creek, nearly twenty
miles, reaching camp at 9 p.m. A junction was made there with
troops from St. Augustine.

May 24th was hot and sultry. One day's rations were issued and the
boys took the back-track for Picolata.

Near noon a halt was made near a large water hole and the men
were told to fill their canteens, as no more water would be found
until night. In the afternoon as they moved along the narrow trail
they grew very thirsty, so that long before night many of the
canteens were empty. As the night came on and no water was
found, Col. Carmichael suspected some trickery from the guide, and
he detailed two men with loaded pieces to escort the man and to
shoot upon the first indication of treachery. And so they moved
along, the poor guide insisting that he was right, only he had
miscalculated distance. The boys of the 144th N. Y., were suffering
from thirst and their colonel ordered his pioneers to dig for water.
The guide called out,

"You'll not get water there."

"Where will we find it?" growled back a chorus of voices.

"Jist about two mile from yere."

"Are you sure?" asked Col. Carmichael.

"Yes, cunnel, I'm dead sure."

The colonel called to several mounted officers, and away they all
went out into the darkness. Co. G sank upon the ground and waited
patiently. After a time the colonel returned and reported water a
short distance ahead and marching about a mile they reached
Middleton's and were again on familiar ground. It was midnight
before the boys had drank their coffee and were under the blankets.
They were very tired, having marched thirty miles.

March 25, an easy march was promised the men and they made
eight miles to Moccasin Branch, where they halted for dinner. Again
taking the road the march was increased to thirteen miles, part of
the way through a brisk summer shower.

The boys were halted that night in a lane not far from the shack
where the colonel was quartered. Air to breathe seemed scarce and
fleas appeared to be unusually active. At the miserable house the
officers, lying on the floor, were much annoyed by the persistent
occupation of hogs underneath them. Fleas gnawed the officers and
they scratched and scolded. Fleas tortured the saw-backs and they
humped themselves and rubbed against the floor-joists, and as they
toiled they grunted. Out in the lane the men of Co. G were too busy
to sleep. That little farm in the wilderness might have been the main
supply station for all East Florida fleadom.

It was an easy march May 26th of only nine miles to Picolata. When
the boys approached the camp Maj. Place came out to meet them
with the band. Then Co. G braced up in style and stepped off to the
good old tune of "The Girls We Left Behind Us." Co. G remembered
the girls.

The object of the expedition, besides giving the boys an outing, was
to gather up any loose rebels in the vicinity of Dunn's Lake. Probably
there were more soldiers in that command alone, than the rebels
had in the entire state of Florida at the time. There was no
accounting for novelties in the department, illustrative of
experimental or theoretical campaigning. And while Folly Island was
anchored permanently, its suggestive and appropriate title was
indelibly stamped upon nearly every expedition organized in the
Department, from September, 1863, until the close of the war.

It was an extensive experiment station for the engineer officers of

the army and for the navy. There they could study the flight of
missiles and their force; the relative difference in guns and mortars,
and resistance of sand and iron armor. In short, it was a safe school
where many a favorite matriculated and from which very few
graduated. It was called warfare, because there were hospitals there
and many graves.

Soon after the return from the second excursion, Col. Carmichael
with fifty picked men were taken across the river and landed near
Green Cove Springs. They proceeded into the country, returning next
day, having captured a rebel mail and several horses.

On Sunday, May 29th, two regiments came over from St. Augustine
and the 157th boys were ordered to be ready to move at noon with
four day's rations and sixty rounds of cartridges and rubber blanket
or piece of shelter tent. The men were drawn up in line, expecting to
move, and were finally returned to their quarters.

Next day a boat came up from below and Co. G, as night fell over
the tropical scene, stepped once again upon a steamer and near
midnight found themselves behind the works in front of Jacksonville.

The morning of the 31st the sun rose angry. Co. G still lay behind
the works. There was mystery all around them; a sort of mystery
peculiar to the climate—a lazy mystery. Co. G did not broach the
mystery—when they were wanted, was time enough for them.

As soon as darkness came, the boys were marched aboard of a

steamer and were taken about eighteen miles up the river and
landed at the mouth of a creek, on the west bank.

It was long past bedtime when the boys laid themselves down to
rest—3 o'clock in the morning. They were allowed to sleep until near
daybreak and were then aroused very quietly, lest the rebels should
hear. No fires were allowed and any boy who lighted a pipe, did so
very slyly. The men were told to eat something, then to fill their
canteens from a neighboring brook, as no more water would be
found before night—a delightful country, that land of flowers.

Col. Noble of the 17th Conn., (a dignified officer whose hair was very
gray) commanded the party. All officers were dismounted.

Soon after daylight the column started. It was composed of three or

four regiments, one of them colored.

As the day lengthened, the heat grew intense. At noon time it was
so hot the birds ceased their callings, butterflies took to cover; the
horny leaves of the palmetto scrub curled as the corn leaves curl and
twist under an August sun. Not the slightest breeze stirred the air;
there was a bluish haze in the atmosphere.
As often it occurs on such a march, some of the men drink all the
water in their canteens before the day is half gone. With care three
pints of water can be made to last a long time. And on the present
occasion, long before night, many of the men carried empty
canteens. Among the colored men the suffering was marked. They
became desperate and threatened to leave the column. Col. Noble
finally drew a revolver and ordered them into the ranks.

At nightfall Camp Milton was reached, preparations were made for a

battle. Co. G were thrown forward as skirmishers and advanced. The
rebels had retreated.

Plenty of water was found in a narrow stream and the boys enjoyed
their first cup of coffee of that day. They had marched thirty-two
miles.

While they were eating their breakfast next morning, the pickets
were driven in. As soon as possible Co. G were thrown forward.
Pickets in front of them were firing rapidly. Co. G with arms at trail
moved out in front a quarter of a mile, but saw nothing to shoot.
The boys were not surprised—they had once camped on Folly Island.

Near noon the expedition started for Jacksonville, the 157th as rear
guard. All went well until Camp Finnegan, twelve or fifteen miles
from Jacksonville was reached. (Camps Milton and Finnegan were
rebel camps). While crossing a small creek the enemy appeared on
the opposite side of the clearing and opened fire at long range. A
colored company, thrown out to cover the crossing, replied to the
rebels. Again was Co. G ordered into skirmish line and their Enfield
rifles soon closed the battle. One or two men were slightly wounded.

Many of the boys suffered on this return march, even more than on
the preceding day. But they reached Jacksonville without further
incident and were taken at once to the river and aboard a steamer.
The events of the day had excited the people at headquarters and
Col. Carmichael was ordered to again land his men and march them
to the trenches for the night. He appealed for rations and was
referred to the Sanitary Commission Agent, who issued to the 157th
a barrel of milk crackers. The boys made the most of their
opportunities, and soon were asleep in their old trenches at
Jacksonville, and for the last time.

Next day, June 3d, the regiment went aboard a steamer and
returned to Picolata.

The touring experience of Co. G in Florida was not luxurious. And

when, after about four months stay, orders came to pack up and
leave Picolata, not a regret was heard.

June 12th they swung away from the dock and the same evening
were at Fernandina, and where amidst a chorus of "hellos!" the
regiment was once more united.

On the 13th, the detachment in which was Co. G started for Hilton
Head. The wind was right ahead and the vessel, a ferryboat; she
pounded the sea like a thresher, and the captain put back to
Fernandina. There they lay until the 16th of June, when the sea
went down and the voyage was completed.

Co. G landed at Hilton Head on Thursday and went into camp. On

the Saturday following a deserter belonging to another regiment was
shot and Co. G was compelled to witness the execution. Poor
deserter. Alas, for Co. G, to be drawn up to witness the killing of a
man in cold blood! There were some phases of military life more
brutal even than battles. Some formalities in the infliction of
penalties, more horrible than the crime itself. And it is doubtful if the
lesson thus taught, is made more impressive by a display of cruel
ceremony. And the cowardice of the custom. No good soldier need
be thus reminded that desertions in the face of the enemy is death.
Let us hope, as time goes on, the nation will demand that
unnecessary torture be avoided in warfare—that in order to punish
one man, it is not necessary to torture his comrades.

Camp at Hilton Head was located out on the barren sand. During the
day the tents were intolerably hot and for guards about the camp
screens were built to shield them from the sun. At night cool breezes
came in from the ocean and then the boys forgot the hungry fleas
and slumbered.

Rigid sanitary rules were enforced. Ice was obtained from the
Sanitary Commission to cool the lips of the sick ones in the hospital
tent, and a barrel was kept supplied with iced water for general
drinking purposes. That barrel, the boys will remember, was for
some reason noticeably charged with the flavor of Tommy Reagan's
"nice swate vinegar."

There was considerable sickness among the men and several deaths
in the regiment.

The discharge of the hospital steward had left a vacancy to which W.

H. Perry of Co. G had been promoted.

As for Co. G they kept as cool as possible. While those boys were
not engaged in gathering laurels they were very watchful of those
already gained.

The brush at Finnegan's Camp had whetted the appetite of Co. G for
gore. They had fired four or five rounds at long range and unhorsed
several johnnies. Quite an achievement in the Department of the
South.

To work off their surplus ardor, or else to prevent their getting too
fat and indolent, on the 1st of July, loaded down with cartridges and
rations, the regiment marched aboard a steamer at dark and in the
morning of the 2nd found themselves on the North Edisto river, and
landed near Rockville, on John's Island. Co. G was soon on familiar
ground. For the next few days the progress up John's Island was
made under a scorching sun, estimated at 110 degrees in the shade
(compared with previous observations). By July 5th the expedition
was within six miles of Charleston. There had been but little
resistance, although considerable powder had been burned.

On a foggy morning at daybreak of the 9th the rebels advanced in

force. Capt. McWilliams and Lieut. Forbes, with detachments from
the 157th held the center of the picket line until nearly surrounded.

Then, as customary in the Department, the forces of the expedition

were "withdrawn in good order" and returned to their respective
camps.

Did Gilmore or Foster ever wish to capture Charleston? Did the War
Department desire its capture? Enough men composed that
expedition (some five or six thousand troops) to have made a telling
dash and if properly supported by the navy, a permanent footing
might have been established quite near the city. Such sneaking up in
the night, making faces at the surprised rebels next morning and
then withdrawing "in good order," was burlesque warfare.

Unfortunately, now and then, a poor fellow fell under the rain of iron
or the whistling lead, hundreds were sickening, many were dying on
those desolate sands.

And while the boys were enduring such mock warfare, the dear ones
at home thought of them only as their soldiers. One of the war poets
sang—
 "We sit at home, nor feel that they
Who fight upon the distant plain
Are falling faster, day by day,
A harvest of the slain."

Indeed, there was little poetry in life among the sand hills, no music
in the roar of old ocean, and no comfort with the fleas. The subject
becomes tedious; and yet the boys of Co. G must be followed until
the close.

The loss in the 157th on the second John's Island raid, was one
man, a prisoner. A poor fellow nick-named "Lightning," who was
considered mentally unsound. It is to be hoped the rebels did not
regard that man as representing the regiment, whatever they might
have thought of him as a representative of the Department in
general.

As to the object of the expedition, history says, Gen. Foster was

trying to draw troops to Charleston and thus relieve Gen. Sherman,
who was advancing on his famous Atlanta campaign. The success of
the movement is not known, but it is supposed troops were sent
from the rebel army. Five thousand additional enemies would have
added but little to the force before Sherman and his determined
troops.

July 24th Co. G were temporarily detached to guard fifty rebel

officers who had been sent down from the Northern prisons to be
placed under fire on Morris Island. The brig Dragoon lay out in the
stream at Hilton Head. It was the duty of Co. G to see that those
officers did not escape. Among them were Gens. Gardner, the former
commandant at Port Hudson; Ed. Johnson, a prominent officer; also
Jeff Thompson. Archer and G. W. Stuart and a long list of colonels
and subordinate officers.

Co. G did their duty and remained with their charge until an
exchange was effected, which occurred a few days later.
In the first days of September six hundred officers, ranging in rank
from colonels to lieutenants were sent down to be placed under fire
before Charleston, in retaliation for a similar piece of shrewdness on
the part of the rebels. As soon as Gilmore began to throw shells into
Charleston the righteous indignation of rebels in the field and their
sympathizers North reached the explosive point. The idea of
retaliative measures was a product of the brain of Jeff Davis.
Burning cities is legitimate warfare. Confining helpless prisoners
under fire is barbarous.

Those six hundred rebel officers were to be placed in a stockade on

Morris Island, built between Fort Strong and batteries on Cummings
Point.

On the sixth of September the prisoners were landed at the island

and were transferred to their new guard, the 54th Mass., a colored
regiment.

Sept. 5th the camp was struck at Hilton Head and by a very
accommodating order the men were permitted to take with them to
Morris Island such little useful articles as they desired, and so it
came to pass that the ferryboat conveying the camp equipage was
generously laden with bundles of boards, rude benches and tables,
wash-tubs and the like. So that a few hours' work by experienced
hands made the boys as comfortable as in their former camp. About
all they had parted with were the few fleas.

A few words in parting and the flea is given a rest. This sand-flea is
a small affair,—not the sand-flea, or chigre, of science—but a
genuine flea. Co. G became very expert catching him. When a boy
was struck, down went his stocking, the flea slid into the coarse
meshes, usually too late. Some of the sufferers became expert and
caught the little raiders in the dark. One man has been known to
awaken from his sleep with two captives, one between the thumb
and fore finger of each hand. Reader, believe this, it is correct. If you
cannot believe the story, forgive the man, for he was sorely tried.
The flea of Sweden undoubtedly was larger and more defiant.
History states the Queen Christina kept a little wee cannon for the
purpose of shooting them. The cannon is to be seen at Stockholm.
Co. G found no flea too large to handle easily and effectually.

Camp on Morris Island was very clean, very hot and when the wind
blew, quite unpleasant from the sand blowing into the eyes. Co. G,
however, had become reconciled to all denials. They amused
themselves as best they could. Drank plentifully of Levi Randall's
dried-apple beer, scoured their brass jewelry and traded with the
colored troops; read and re-read the old newspapers, wrote a little
and slept, whenever permitted. At night large details were marched
to Fort Putnam or Fort Chatfield, and there spent the night, if
undisturbed, sleeping soundly, while the city gun roared three times
every hour. Often a brisk firing between Sullivan's Island and other
rebel forts, made the place uproarious and cartloads of iron were
flying about. But they became accustomed to the shelling and paid it
slight attention. Only one member of the regiment was struck by the
shells and he persistently exposed himself.

Details were sent up to the Point, three miles from camp, on fatigue
duty working on the fortifications. One day while a party of the
regiment were thus engaged the rebels opened spitefully. By
noontime the boys were hungry. Punctual came Pat Matthews with a
kettle of Ziba's best pea soup, and Co. G were happy. The boys of
other companies waited until the firing ceased, when their food
came. This is not given to reflect upon other cooks, but to illustrate
Pat's indifference to danger.

When the regiment lay in rear of the battery at Gettysburg, July 1st,
the air was noisy with bursting shells, the pieces striking around
viciously. And during that interesting hour the men lay very close to
the earth.
"Where's Co. G? Ah, there yez are." It was Pat, who had brought
them his camp kettle filled with cool water.

"Pat, what the divil are ye doing here? Don't ye hear them fellers?"
Thus spoke his brother Jim.

Pat cocked his ear a moment, for he was quite deaf, then turned to
the boys.

"Ah, what the divil do I care for them. Say, b'ys, don't yez want
some water?"

Never did Ziba allow his boys to be neglected if he could prevent.

Sometimes the marching was hard for him and then the boys carried
his kettle. But if any company was better served, it is not known.

Much has been written of the "Swamp Angel," a gun planted away
out in the marsh on the south side of Morris Island and a mile or
more from Cummings Point. The battery consisted of one gun which
burst after firing twenty or thirty shots; afterwards the place was
occupied as an outpost. Beyond the "Angel" battery was another
post called Paine's Dock. The dock was the historic floating battery
used by the rebels in 1861, when Sumter was first attacked. Proving
a veritable slaughter-pen it was dismantled and abandoned and
floated away with the tide and grounded on the southern point of
Morris Island. It received a new name in honor of Capt. Paine, a
Union officer who, while scouting, was captured there. The pathway
which led over the soft marsh to those points, was for two miles
covered with planking. Frequently Co. G had representatives sent
there on picket, who sometimes were obliged to seek refuge under
Paine's Dock to escape the shells from a James Island battery known
as "Bull-of-the-Woods."

There were times, when snugly protected from the heavy fire, the
boys at the Point found time dragging heavily. Then the story-tellers
were called upon. Hugh O'Brien was requested to narrate the trials
and triumphs of the handsome cavalier and a princess, entitled "The
Beauty of the W-o-r-rld." John Miller was easily prevailed upon to
produce with dramatic effects, the narrow escape of a Negro from
being buried in the hay-mow at "Old Harve's" (his father's) farm. For
the boys needed some relaxation in the struggle for glory—slight
compensation for duty well-done, and fun counted big, sometimes.
History records exposures in winter's sleet, marches under a tropical
sun, sleeping on frozen ground, as well as in a climate where the
dew falls like fine mist—where fog rolls up dank from malarious
swamps. But when the boys rehearse their stories of the war, they
will cherish most the little kindnesses and words which helped to
ease their burdens and drive away the gloom.

Inspections on that barren Morris Island were very trying. A man to

stand for an hour fully accoutered, with knapsack strapped on his
back, the dress coat buttoned close to his chin, his straps drawing
his clothing tight about him—to stand thus in a hot sun on a
breezeless day, is pitiful torture. Occasionally a man fell down in the
ranks. And when the men returned to their quarters they were as
tired as though they had been marching. Of course it would not
have been the proper thing to inspect the troops in the cool of the
day—that would not have been consistent with Folly Island tactics.

And so went along the duty on Morris Island. At night when at the
Point on picket, the comrades remaining in camp saw the flying
bombs from Sullivan's Island, like meteors, rise from the mortars
and following a regulated arc, drop apparently where their comrades
were stationed. At times the display was fearfully grand and then a
monitor or two would steam up toward Fort Moultrie and take a
hand in the excitement. Suddenly, the rebel fire ceased, the
monitors and Cummings Point ceased; and all was quiet for the
night, save the regular booming of the city gun.
An interesting event occurred while the 157th lay on Morris Island. It
was casting the soldiers' vote. Gov. Seymour vetoed the bill allowing
the soldiers to vote and it was carried to the people in the spring
elections of 1864, and thus was legalized. In the district of Canastota
but two votes were cast against the privilege, thus placing the
western portion of Lenox on record as not only loyal, but true to
their boys in the field. The vote in the regiment was three hundred
and nine. Of these, Lincoln received two hundred and sixty-eight.
McClellan received forty-one.

In Co. G the vote stood, thirty for Lincoln and prosecution of the war,
and seven for McClellan and a patched-up peace. Co. G was willing
to fight for peace, but not to vote for peace.

The ballots were supplied by the State and each one of them was
enclosed by the voter, in a special envelope marked "Soldier's Vote,"
upon which the soldier wrote his name. That envelope was sealed
and inclosed in another envelope and directed to the person who
was to cast the vote.

Credit is due Col. Brown, who sent to Hilton Head and at his own
expense provided ballots for the democrats of his regiment, their
ballots not having arrived at the time. Whether those provided by
Col. Brown were used, is not known. This statement is recorded,
because there were unpleasant reflections cast upon the colonel,
who was a strong republican but was nevertheless, honorable in this
instance.

Those first fifty officers confined in Charleston jail and under fire of
Gilmore's guns as already intimated, were replaced by six hundred
Union officers. Among this last detail from the rebel prisons were
Lieuts. Coffin, Powers and Curtice of the 157th. Fortunately the
Union shells usually went beyond the prison and there were no
casualties from that source. The placing of six hundred rebel officers
under fire in a pen guarded by a colored regiment was retaliation
with insult added, according to Southern sentiment. But the 54th
Mass. were Northern men and were inferior, as soldiers, to none in
the army. It was humiliating to men of spirit,—to Southern men
taught from childhood to consider a negro little better than a brute—
when they were ordered into line by colored sergeants and
compelled to obey the rules. Verily, Jeff Davis was subjecting his
brave supporters to hard usage.

The pen was in sight from the rebel shore, and it was rare a shell
exploded near there; no prisoner was injured by shells. In one or
two instances the guards fired upon some man and unoffending
ones were slightly wounded. They had nearly the same rations as
were given the Union officers in Charleston. Had they been guarded
by white soldiers they would have been contented. At night the
calcium lamp on Fort Strong lighted the Point and enabled the
guards to keep the prisoners constantly in view.

Late in October the union officers having been removed to the rear
of Charleston, orders came to send the rebel officers to Fort Pulaski,
Ga.

The six hundred confederates had dwindled to five hundred and

forty-nine within fifty days after leaving Fort Delaware. They had
been under fire forty-five days.

Oct. 21st, 1864, the 157th were marched out on the beach and
opened ranks. The 54th Mass. came down the beach with their
prisoners, who moved in between the lines of their new guard. Two
dismasted schooners were lying at the wharf at Lighthouse Inlet,
into which were marched those rebel officers. The hulks, towed by
steamers and convoyed by a large war vessel, proceeded to Fort
Pulaski, near the mouth of Savannah River.

It was late when the boats reached the fort dock and the hulks were
anchored in mid-stream for the night.
During the night, on board the hulk where Co. G were stationed,
there was quite a sensation created by the prisoners attempting to
escape. They sawed a hole through the counter, or stern of the
vessel, and several of them dropped through into the water. Not far
distant was the salt marsh and Tybee Island; if they could have
reached land they might have gotten away, some of them, certainly.
But their calculations were wrong—the strong tide was running out
and they were carried rapidly toward the sea.

"Halt! Halt!!" sang out Hugh O'Brien.

"Don't shoot, Captain. For God's sake don't fire!" came out of the
water.

"Keep cool, gentlemen!" called out Capt. McWilliams.

Not much likelihood of sweating in the river. When the patrol boat
brought them on board, their teeth rattled like castanets. The
dripping fellows asked for something warm, as they went down
again into the hold.

In the morning they were landed at the fort and placed in the
casemates. Gratings were placed in the embrasures and at the ends
of the prison; heavy guards were on duty outside and inside. They
were fed on clean food, had abundance of pure drinking water,
received medical attendance when sick and in all respects fared very
decently. And when a number of them were exchanged they sent an
appreciative note to Col. Brown, speaking of him as "a gallant officer
and a Christian gentleman." They included the names of Col.
Carmichael and Maj. Place "and in fact, the conduct of all your
officers and men has been such as to make the name of the 157th
N.Y., a pleasant reminiscence to all Confederate prisoners from Fort
Pulaski."

Those prisoners had complained bitterly of the treatment given them

by men who had guarded them in the North. And while they were
secure in all the privileges allowed them at Fort Pulaski, they
understood their limits and thus avoided unpleasant results. Not one
escaped while under the care of the regiment.

Duty at the fort was not severe, but vigilance was exacted of all
sentries, who walked with weapons loaded. Fatigue parties brought
wood from Tybee Island, a condensing engine supplied the post with
water, the sutler was at hand with his varied assortment of pins,
needles, combs and brushes, navy plug, gingersnaps, canned goods,
etc.

Thanksgiving day came November 24th. The boys off-duty were

drawn up in bright array. The proclamation of President Lincoln was
read by the Chaplain, who added a prayer. A brief battalion drill
followed and then dinner.

Turkeys and other fowls were scarce at the fort. For dinner, Ziba
prepared such as he had in his best style. Capt. McWilliams added
small, but palatable pies to the list, with a few other luxuries. Eaten
as it was, from tin plates upon a rough but clean table, that was a
memorable dinner. Away up in the North-country—yet, never mind.
Co. G sent out over the intervening sea and land their warm
greetings, for they knew there were places vacant for them, that no
others could fill. Such thoughts made Co. G brace-up and take a new
hold. It is a very dry occupation, soldiering for the fun of the thing.
It is now known Co. G saw both soldiering and some fun, but
without the eyes of Lenox—and such eyes—upon them their service
would have paled.

Monday, Nov. 28th, loaded down with five days' rations and sixty
rounds of cartridges, Companies A, B, C, G and H, under Col.
Carmichael, were ordered away from Fort Pulaski. Soon after
sundown the little steamer left the wharf for Hilton Head, by the way
of Skull Creek.
After waiting awhile, the expedition numbering about four thousand
men, a battery of artillery and a squadron of cavalry, moved up
Broad River.

The movement was conducted after the usual and well-established

methods popular in the Department. It was the "wait-'till-'tis-dark-
and-don't-say- a-word-about-it" plan. All night long the little fleet
was endeavoring to feel its way through the fog to Boyd's Point,
forty miles above Hilton Head. The steamers appeared to get lost.
They ran awhile, then stopped. By and by whistles were heard. The
spell was broken, for rebel rockets were seen rising from their
outposts.

Near noon a landing was effected and the weary men told to get a
little rest.

After dark, with the 157th in the lead, and a few cavalrymen as
advance guard, the monkey-work began. First the column moved a
mile or two in one direction, about-faced and returned over the
same road. Then did the same caper again until, near morning, the
worn-out troops were halted at the junction of the Cambahee and
Grahamville roads, and were told to lie down in the oak leaves and
get some rest. Meanwhile, the johnnies, who had ample warning,
were preparing for a reception and to serve every thing warm, next
day. Their trains were heard distinctly near Grahamville and the boys
of Co. G understood there was to be an entertainment in the
morning.

Soon after daybreak picket-firing began. Co. G had barely time to

make coffee when they were ordered to fall-in.

Col. Carmichael threw his entire detachment of one hundred and

forty-two men, on the right of the road. The boys moved leisurely
along in skirmish order for nearly a mile.
Meanwhile a few pieces of artillery were firing from both parties.
Near noon Honey Hill was reached. The rebel redoubt there was
pierced for several guns with ample breastworks for a strong force.
A rebel account which gives the Union force at five thousand infantry
and fifteen hundred artillery, states the forces of Gen. Hatch
advanced on Honey Hill with sixteen pieces of artillery.

If Hatch had possessed much artillery he could not have used it at

Honey Hill.

The road to the foot of the bluff thus sweetly named, led through
swampy ground and deep ditches were on either side. On the left of
the road and extending to the foot of the bluff was a dense wood,
tangled with trailing briars. On the right of the road was a thick
growth of scrub timber.

The main column advanced and struck the rebels. The forces of
Hatch moved off to the right and ascended the rise of ground, where
they formed and charged the work.

When Col. Carmichael heard the firing on his left he halted his men
and sent for instructions, with the result that the Colonel was to
cross over to the south side of the road, and form on the left of the
line of battle.

When Co. G crossed the Grahamville road, close at hand was a brass
gun in the ditch, where it lodged from a recoil in the narrow road.
One piece of artillery, only, remained to assist the infantry and that
was unable to accomplish great results, although it was served
gallantly.

As soon as possible the 157th boys gained their position. Off to their
right and evidently awaiting, was formed a full battalion of rebels.
The johnnies disappeared, fell back into the woods and both parties
were soon at work.
The lines on the left were not more than eighty yards apart. The
men on both sides covered themselves behind trees and bushes and
fought thus, with but one intermission, until sunset; that interval
occurred when the 157th fell back for ammunition.

The volleys on the right and the steady firing on the left, maintained
a continuous roar, for hours; and above the musketry was heard the
sharp cracking reports of the brass piece in the road and the spiteful
replies of the rebel pieces.

So near the redoubt were the 157th that grape and canister flew far
above their heads, cutting away branches and bark which fell
harmlessly to the ground. It was the rifle balls that were doing
damage.

Capt. McWilliams was standing in an open space in rear of Co. G,

when a ball went through his thigh. He turned very pale.

"Bully boys," said he, "give it to them."

The captain was assisted to the road and left with the surgeons.

Lieut. Forbes took command of the company. He stationed himself

on the same attractive bit of grassy ground just vacated by the
captain. Lead was passing through the air very plentifully.

"Give 'em hell, boys," roared Jerome, "they've shot the captain!"

The boys were deliberately at work behind their various shields.

They watched for a puff of smoke and fired. Rarely was an enemy
seen, but they knew they were there. The young recruits on the left
of the company were just as firm as the old chaps, only a little more
noisy.

"What's the matter Amos, are you hit?" asked Lieut. Forbes of Amos
Avery.
"The blinkity-blam johnnies have hit my thumb," he replied, shaking
his hand rapidly.

"Then go to the rear."

"Not by a mill-site!" yelled Amos, still trying to comfort his thumb.

And he remained and soon was at work again. That was Amos.

About the time Amos had resumed firing, the air about the little
grass-plot was fairly blue, with very positive cursing of rebels in the
woods, or on the plain, high or low. Lieut. Forbes was seen spinning
around on one foot ready to whip the entire Confederacy. A rebel
had drawn bead on Jerome's leg and grazed his shin, giving him a
painful contusion.

Then Co. G was without an officer. Lieut. Grant had been transferred
to another company. In the midst of the fight he was returned to Co.
G.

The boys were ordered to fall back for cartridges. The 56th N.Y. took
their places. Johnny reb discovered a change in the line and drove
the 56th. Col. Carmichael took his boys in on a charge and drove the
rebels back farther than before. But the charge cost Co. G their last
officer. Lieut. Grant fell, shot through the body.

Once more the little band settled down to their work. The same
noise of battle still roared on the right. Not a foot of ground was
gained, not an inch lost. Those eyes of old Lenox should have
peeped into that tangled wood. They could have seen their boys as
cool as if by the firesides, but with a dreadfully earnest look about
them.

As darkness came on the firing ceased. A detachment of the

regiment was left in skirmish line, among them Co. G. The forces
were being withdrawn. Those woods, so lately echoing with strife,
were now perfectly quiet. And when the main column had passed, a
sergeant went from one to another of the thin line out there in the
darkness, and whispered orders to quietly fall back to the road. The
157th detachment was rear guard. The johnnies did not follow. Both
sides were fully surfeited with fighting for one day.

As stated, the five companies of the 157th one hundred and forty-
two men, lost in that hot little fight of Honey Hill, S.C., Nov. 30th,
1864, twenty-seven men and three officers. Two of the enlisted men
were fatally hurt and Lieut. Grant seriously.

The rebels claimed a glorious victory. They acknowledged they had

fourteen hundred muskets and seven pieces of artillery to begin
with; and later in the day, another regiment, a battery and a
company of cavalry arrived. And their main force were behind works.

Hatch's men did not exceed three thousand, who with the exception
of the small force on the left, fought without cover. Hatch lost in
killed and wounded that day fully eight hundred officers and men
and gained nothing. No comment is necessary.

The forces fell back, carrying their wounded and bivouaced at Boyds
Point under the protection of gunboats.

Co. G could now figure up the cost of the brisk little brush fight.

Capt. McWilliams, wounded in thigh.

Lieut. Grant, shot through side.
Lieut. Forbes, contusion.
Corporal C. A. Near, head.
Amos Avery, left hand.
John Miller, left hand.
J. McMaster, head.
Michael Miller, left hand.
Nelson Kimball, groin.
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