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Heavy rainfall: An underestimated environmental risk for buildings?

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DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/20160708001

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E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

Heavy rainfall: An underestimated environmental risk for buildings?

1,a 1 1 2
Sebastian Golz , Thomas Naumann , Marco Neubert , Benno Günther
1
Leibniz-Institute of Ecologic Urban and Regional Development, Weberplatz 1, 01217 Dresden, Germany
2
GB1 Engineers  Office for Buildings, Building Constructions and Damage Analysis, Friedrich-Hegel-Str. 29, 01187 Dresden, Germany

Abstract. Although impacts of heavy rain on buildings in urban areas are often extensive, the public usually underes-
timates the negative consequences of that environmental risk compared e.g. to storm or hail events. However, the in-
tensification of extreme weather events due to climate change as well as the rising physical vulnerability of assets are
going to trigger the increase of impacts on the built environment. Heavy rain events are often highly localised that
makes it difficult to estimate their probability and magnitude accurately. High intensity rain affects buildings both di-
rectly as well as indirectly.
First, engineering surveys have already proven the broad variety and high physical vulnerability of building con-
structions that are directly and frequently affected by invading water during heavy rainfall events: flat roofs, roof ter-
races and balconies, connections between steep roofs and other building parts, soil-covered slabs of underground
parking, soil-contacted basement walls and bottom plates as well as windows and external doors. It became evident
that most damage is avoidable if exposed constructions become more resilient. Nevertheless, any adaptations require
expertise on the demanding damage processes in order to explore deficiencies and to reduce physical vulnerability of
building constructions exposed to heavy rainfall. In response to that challenge, the paper describes an engineering ap-
proach for the systematic classification of physical vulnerability criteria based on empirical research. A developed
classification scheme allows the ex-ante examination of typical failure modes and the evaluation of negative conse-
quences of heavy rainfall at individual building level. The topic is of high relevance, because the classification
scheme may act as a capable tool for the prospective planning of adaptations towards more resilient buildings.
Second, heavy rain may result in urban pluvial flooding due to sewer overflow that cause severe damage to build-
ings. A comprehensive study of the impacts and the consequences in Dresden (Germany), presented in the paper, re-
vealed that the potential risks of flooding from sewers due to hydraulic overload can be estimated on building scale
using the model approach IVART (Integrated Spatial Vulnerability and Risk Assessment Tool). Modelling results
provide the basis to quantify the effectiveness and efficiency of flood resilience technologies.

1 Introduction al Ministry of Education and Research, six extreme

weather conditions have been analysed based on the cli-
Global climate change is detectable and the projec- mactic situation in the sample region of Dresden (Saxo-
tions of its prospective regional impacts are critical for ny): summer heat, flooding, heavy rain, hail, storm, and
any adaptation planning. It became obvious that particu- snow. In particular, hazardous heavy precipitation events
larly the probability and magnitude of hazardous heavy will become more frequent, widespread and intense in the
rain events have been increasing in several European next decades. Therefore, this paper focuses on the im-
regions within the last 40 years (Grieser and Beck 2002). pacts of heavy rain, including moisture damage as a ma-
Against this background, the paper asks (i) how to ana- jor negative consequence, in order to develop a method
lyse the negative consequences for buildings and (ii) how for the classification of the physical vulnerability of
to describe and reduce the resulting risk. The negative building constructions.
consequences of heavy rain depend on the physical vul-
nerability of buildings, i.e. on the potential of exposed
materials and structures (e.g. roofs, façade) to be harmed 2 Heavy rain impacts on buildings
and to suffer damage.
Heavy rain events are often highly localised. It is
The adaptation of existing buildings is challenging
therefore difficult to establish their probability and mag-
due to the complexity of heavy rain impacts. Exploring
nitude accurately, as the most intensive rain may not have
those impacts in detail is a prerequisite to develop ade-
been sampled reliable by the available rain gauges. Based
quate adaptation measures. Within the collaborative re-
on the research in REGKLAM, a meteorological survey
search project REGKLAM, funded by the German Feder-
of the climate development in Saxony was conducted
a
Corresponding author: [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

incorporating collected meteorological data from the past drainage facilities and the implementation of any specifi-
decades (1961-2005) (Bernhofer et al. 2009). The survey cations for the roofing and the water proofing of exposed
proofed the increase of the annual medium precipitation constructions. Design rainfall intensities can be looked up
in the Dresden area that experienced heavy rainfall e.g. in e.g. in specific standards (DIN 1986-100) or in the KOS-
August 2002 at rates of around 160 mm/24h (recurrence TRA database of the DWD (2005). In the case of façades
interval of about 1 in more than 100 years). and their construction elements, the strains caused by
heavy rain are of particular relevance. According to DIN
With regard to the prospective amounts of rainfall, 4108-            
according to Bernhofer et al. (2011), a decrease in rain- stress groups according to wind-driven rain protection of
falls is to be expected during the summer period and an external walls; windows and doors, on the other hand,
increase during the winter period. Although it is rather wind-driven rain protection is established in accordance
difficult to predict future extreme precipitation events with to DIN 18055, which involves the height of the
based on climate projections, trend analyses carried out in building.
this region point to a likely increase of heavy rains, in
terms of both intensity and the probability of their occur-
3.2 Building element requirement
rence (Franke and Bernhofer 2009).
Because of the concentrated demands in these areas,
heavy rain impacts are mainly considered in planning and
3 Standards and codes
dimensioning algorithms for roof and façade construc-
tions. As for roofing, the generally accepted construction
3.1 Impact parameters techniques are currently laid down in the rulebook of the
Deutsche Dachdeckerhandwerk (ZVDH 2011) and within
Germany's National Meteorological Service, the the specialist rules of the ZVSHK (2009). Unutilised
Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), defines the intensity of roofs with sealing and extensively greened roof areas fall
rainfall as the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall under the jurisdiction of DIN 18531. As far as utilised
depth) falling during a given period to the duration of the and/or intensively greened roof areas as well as balconies
period. The rainfall intensity is expressed in depth units and roof terraces are concerned, DIN 18195-5 contains
per unit time, usually as mm per minute (mm/min) or mm the required specifications, though the guidelines of the
per hour (mm/h). DWD (2013) classify the rainfall inten- ZVDH (2009) regulations for flat roofs must be taken
sity according to the precipitation rate. Heavy rain events into account.
are often temporally and spatially confined and specified
by the following precipitation thresholds: The measuring of roof drainage need to be carried out
 precipitation > 5 mm / 5 min, according to methods of sampling and detection laid
 precipitation > 7,1 mm / 10 min, down in DIN EN 12056-3. In addition, additional as-
 precipitation > 10 mm / 20 min and sessment principles regarding the required design rain
 precipitation > 17,1 mm / 60 min. intensities are to be found in DIN 1986-100. Inspection
In contrast, very heavy rain is characterized by and maintenance cycles of roof drainage systems are laid
 precipitation > 25 mm / 60 min and down in DIN 1986-3. As to the planning, measuring and
 precipitation > 35 mm / 360 min. execution of windows, doors, and curtain walls, there are
However, these thresholds vary considerably between a multitude of norms and regulations. In connection with
different classification schemes. heavy rain impacts, special attention must be paid to DIN
18055, DIN 18355, DIN EN 12208, DIN EN 12154 as
The key climate-related parameters of heavy rain im- well as the manual on planning and execution for the
pact that play a role in civil engineering are the design fitting of windows and external doors of the Quality Con-
rainfall intensity and the wind-driven rain (WDR) load. trol Association (RAL 2006).
Particularly the latter has been identified as the most
important moisture source that affect e.g. the hygrother-
mal performance and the durability of building façades or 4 Physical vulnerability classification
lead to interior damage due to water penetration (e.g. The prime objective of this paper is to establish the
Baheru et al. 2014, Kubilay et al. 2014, Nik et al. 2015). cause and the effect of heavy rain by empirical research.
WDR is rain that is given a horizontal velocity compo- The developed physical vulnerability classification bases
nent by the wind and that falls obliquely (Blocken and on a systematic survey and analysis of 65 buildings that
Carmeliet 2004). experienced damage by heavy rain. According to the
current state of knowledge, this survey encompass all
Corresponding standards and codes contain character- relevant damage types and damage mechanisms (MNI
istic values for both parameters. They depend on e.g. the 2012). The survey supported the identification of the
geographical location and the height of the building. The most susceptible building constructions exposed to heavy
classification of the design rainfall intensity bases on a rain (Figure 1).
statistical analysis incorporating precipitation totals, the
duration and the return period. The design rainfall inten-
sity establish a basis parameter for the dimensioning of

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E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

Table 1. Standards and codes for the professional design of building constructions exposed to heavy rain.
Impact parameters Building element requirements

Steep roof Flat roof, Façades, windows, Soil-contacted ele-

roof terrace, balcony doors ments
Design rain intensity: Roofing: Water-proofing of External walls: Water proofing:
non-utilised roofs:

KOSTRA-DWD Regulations of the DIN 18531 DIN 4108-3 DIN 18195

DIN 1986-100 German Roofing Trade
(ZVDH 2011)

Wind-driven rain load: Water-proofing of Windows, doors: WU Elements:

utilised roofs, balco-
nies, roof terraces:

DIN 4108-3 Specialist rules of the DIN 18195 DIN 18055 WU Guideline of the
DIN 18055 ZVSHK (2009) DIN EN 12208 DAfStb

In each case valid: Manual planning and

construction (Quality
Guideline for flat
Control Association
roofs of the ZVDH
(RAL 2006))
Roof-drainage:
Curtain walls:
DIN EN 12056-3
DIN EN 12154
DIN 1986-100

4.1 Damage types and damage mechanism Due to lack of drainage for unscheduled present mois-
ture in the building elements, moisture often shows a
As a rule, building damage caused by heavy rain pre- long-term impact and can cause the material properties to
sent themselves as the sum of individual cases which are deteriorate, sometimes resulting in a loss of the bearing
often cleared by a multitude of individuals and which are capacity of building components. Static problems can be
monetarily compensated. This is the reason why these caused by pest infestation of constructions made of wood,
damages often remain invisible to the public eye, unlike or by corrosion of steel components and concrete rein-
the severe damage caused by floods, storm or hail im- forcement. When materials, which are sensitive to mois-
pacts. They are thus only rarely recognized to be related ture such as gypsiferous materials, mineral thermal barri-
events. er coatings or wood composites, are loaded with mois-
ture, the damage is often irreversible, and the construc-
Typical damage profiles caused by heavy rain include tions need to be completely replaced. The damage cases,
moisture penetration, water stains and efflorescence on which were examined required significant structural
inner building elements, as well as water influx through measures as a rule; the costs were accordingly high. Of-
the building shell (Zimmermann et al. 2008). These inci- ten, the constructions in question had to be modified, too,
dents are often accompanied by damages to the fabric of in order to minimize the future damage risk.
the building and immediate use restrictions of individual
components or of whole sections of the building, respec-
tively. The economic consequences, which these effects
4.2 Vulnerable building elements
bring about often amount to much more than the mere
efforts required to remove technical and optical incon- The survey showed that the impact of heavy rain on
veniences. buildings brought about damages with frequently identi-
cal or at least comparable causes and mechanisms for
              buildings from the same age group and, by implication,
                of comparable constructions. This means that specific
affected by heavy rain damages, the following table 2 components, which contribute to the damage can be iden-
gives an overview of all significant damage causes which tified, which allows for comparability and assessment.
were relevant within the case study in the region of Dres- The following figure shows the particularly relevant
den. Similar results were obtained for all the construction components of the fabric of the building (for buildings
elements of the fabric of the building. They can form the erected after 1990), which were identified over the course
basis for a systematic survey of the vulnerability of exist- of the survey.
ing buildings to heavy rain impacts.

3
E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

Figure 1. Typical damage areas due to heavy rain impacts. The results base on a survey of residential buildings and non-residential
buildings erected later than 1990.

Steep roofs are characterised by an increased affinity the design, construction and maintenance as well as the
to be harmed, particularly in areas of intersections (like external conditions at the building site need to be taken
chimneys), at covings and cullis as well as special units into consideration when assessing the vulnerability.
on the top floor (like dormers, transverse gables). Flat
roofs, roof terraces and balconies, on the other hand, are The vulnerability of the whole building can be signif-
more frequently damaged because of an unhindered sur- icantly influenced through each relevant construction
face distribution intruding rainwater. Amongst the soil- element of the fabric (Fig. 2: construction elements 2.1 to
contacted elements, external walls as well as bottom 2.5) and through the building services (2.6). Therefore, it
plates and soil-covered ceilings of underground garages is necessary to establish the specific damage affinity for
show characteristic damages. Refurbished old buildings each individual element and for each building compo-
erected between 1870 and 1945, by contrast, show much nent, respectively, separately. The weighting of the indi-
more damage in later installations on the top floor (dor- vidual vulnerabilities for each element follows on the
mers, roof terraces) and on soil-contacted external walls. basis of the amount of damage to be expected, in connec-
tion with the likely costs of refurbishment.
4.3 Development of a component-related
research approach
The classification of building components and of
whole buildings, respectively, with regard to their vulner-
ability to heavy rain depends on a number of structural as
well as administrative framework conditions. Unlike
other environmental factors such as hail or flooding,
heavy rain does only slight damage to, intact buildings
which are free of defects. During the ex-post evaluation
of damage cases, it could be established that building
damages usually occur when rainwaters infiltrate the
construction through existing, local hot spots of the fab- Figure 2. Evaluation scheme for the physical vulnerability of
ric. That is the reason why the vulnerability of compo- buildings exposed to heavy rain.
nents and buildings to heavy rain events is mainly charac-
terized by the prevailing risk of construction defects. The The influence of planning and execution on the vul-
assessment of the vulnerability of buildings to heavy rain nerability of construction elements and buildings is veri-
therefore follows an approach that considers construction fiably high. It is up the building planners to work out
components. Its focus is on the identification of sensitive important requirements of the building construction.
constructions and detailed solutions. Thus, there are possibilities, to reduce the vulnerability of
constructions by choosing sound structures, suitable ma-
Furthermore, the possible magnitude of the damages terials and detailed solutions. When, on the other hand,
or the intensity of damages, respectively, as well as the no such detailed requirements are worked out beforehand,
maintenance costs resulting from that are relevant criteria the results often include scenarios such as: important
of evaluation. As Figure 2 shows, quality requirements of building elements are not properly thought out during the
planning stage and the companies in question implement

4
E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

their own, more or less professional solutions. Connec- A general methodology has been developed for ana-
tions of construction details as well as interfaces between lyzing flood vulnerability of properties which uses a syn-
different trades are particularly vulnerable areas. In addi- thetic approach for the calculation of flood damage. Im-
tion, site-specific factors such as the surrounding struc- plemented in the Integrated Spatial Vulnerability and
tures, climactic conditions (design rain intensity, wind- Risk Assessment Tool (IVART), hydraulic modelling
driven           t- results are spatially interlinked with detailed information
ence of the soil are taken into consideration, too. on the physical vulnerability of buildings (Neubert et al.
2014).
4.4 Method of classification
The identification and classification of buildings is re-
By applying this approach, basically favourable alized using GIS and remote sensing data. Based on this,
framework conditions can be separated from critical ones, a building typology is created including urban structure
which allows for the identification of existing deficits. In types (UST) and building age groups. Based on refur-
order to visualise the results and to indicate a concrete bishment costs specific depth-damage functions are de-
need for action, the established degree of vulnerability is rived synthetically for all building types describing the
shown in a diagram for each examined building element. degree of damage depending on different water depths
The outcome of the entire building is depicted, too, with due to surface or ground water flooding. The IVART
the weighting of the individual components taking into model combines hydraulic modelling results representing
consideration all the important framework conditions. the flood hazard, a dataset of typified geo-referenced
buildings, and synthetic depth-damage functions deter-
The evaluation of all damage cases which were exam- mining potential impacts to building types due to flood-
ined shows that a long period of precipitation plus com- ing representing the vulnerability.
plex connections of construction details have contributed
very much to damage. This is why the focus must be on IVART calculates the exposure in form of potential
such measures of adaptation that lead to a quick, safe and damage costs for each building with its site-specific water
direct drainage of rainwater. The economic efforts re- depth. Results are risk maps for current or future situa-
quired to do that can be established and compared to the tions with both reliable damage estimates and high spatial
           !  " #  resolution. Outcomes can be aggregated for any spatial
result of the survey, there is now an instrument to estab- region of interest. The results allow to derive risk curves
lish the cost/benefit ratio of constructional options for or to carry out (spatial) statistical analyses as well as risk
action for the adaptation of constructions and buildings analyses and cost-benefit analyses.
against heavy rain impacts.
For the case study area of the inner city of Dresden a
detailed hydraulic modelling result was kindly provided
by the company ITWH (Institut für technisch-
wissenschaftliche Hydrologie GmbH, Dresden). The used
modelling approach incorporates a high resolution laser
scanner digital surface model (DSM) as well as sewer
system specifications. A 50-year rainfall with duration of
60 minutes for a future projection (2071-2100) with an
height of 51.8 mm precipitation formed the basis (com-
pared to a precipitation height of 47.6 mm for the refer-
ence period 1961-1990).

The damage calculation combined the maximum

flood water depth per building with the building type-
Figure 3. Physical vulnerability of building components
specific depth-damage functions. For every building
exposed to heavy rain.
polygon, the building losses were calculated using spatial
combination algorithms implemented in the GIS-based
5 Urban pluvial flooding IVART. The maximum water depth is reached at varying
points of times at different locations. The total damage
This study presents the methodology as well as results simulated for the modelled precipitation event in the
of a simulation of flood damage costs of residential build- study area reached 49 Million EUR. Maps of the area
ings caused by sewer flood in the centre of the city of visualize the affectedness of buildings as well as the
Dresden, Germany. The objective of this study is to cal- occurring potential damage per object.
culate potential damage to buildings by combining a
hazard data based on hydro-dynamic modelling of sewer Currently, IVART is being extended to model damage
overflows with vulnerability and risk analysis. This anal- to buildings due to further impacts, like hail, heavy rain,
ysis is performed using the GIS-based impact model storm, snow or summer heat will be considered in future.
Integrated Spatial Vulnerability and Risk Assessment These impacts are likely to raise their intensity or occur-
Tool (IVART). The results are presented in statistics, risk rence frequency under a changing climate. It is further
maps, and risk curves. intended to include damage to other receptors than built-

5
E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

up areas, e.g. vegetation (i.e. drought impact) to extend and maintenance play for the vulnerability of buildings
the approach for regional analysis. Results will be incor- and constructions must be discussed, too.
porated in web-based spatial decision support systems
(WebSDSS).
Acknowledgements
The approach has been applied in several national and The presented work is based on the project
international research projects with case studies in the REGKLAM (Development and Testing of an Integrated
Elbe River Basin (Germany), Manchester (UK) and Va- Regional Climate Change Adaption programme for the
lencia (Spain). As a result of these applications, the mod- Model Region Dresden) which forms part of the KLIM-
el is also capable to consider the effects of flood precau- ZUG agenda (Managing Climate Change in the Regions
tion and defense measures (i.e. dry proofing, wet proof- for the Future). We are indebted to the German Federal
ing, and avoidance). Methodological representation of the Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) for their
damage processes seems to be a sound basis for model financial support (Project No. 01 LR 0802).
simulations of the flood vulnerability of built-up areas
under conditions of future land-use and climate change.
7 References
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6
E3S Web of Conferences 7, 08001 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/ e3sconf/2016 0708001
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management

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