50 Landmark Papers Every Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgeon Should Know 1st Edition Sam Wiseman Sebastian Aspinall Instant Download
50 Landmark Papers Every Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgeon Should Know 1st Edition Sam Wiseman Sebastian Aspinall Instant Download
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-thyroid-
and-parathyroid-surgeon-should-know-1st-edition-sam-wiseman-
sebastian-aspinall-50792198
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-thyroid-and-
parathyroid-surgeon-should-know-sam-wiseman-sebastian-
aspinall-50859622
50 Landmark Papers Every Breast Surgeon Should Know Lynda Wyld Ramsey
Cutress Jenna Morgan
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-breast-surgeon-
should-know-lynda-wyld-ramsey-cutress-jenna-morgan-55924116
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-oral-and-
maxillofacial-surgeon-should-know-niall-mh-mcleod-peter-a-
brennan-22272656
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-intensivist-
should-know-1st-edition-stephen-m-cohn-35060546
50 Landmark Papers Every Spine Surgeon Should Know Paperback Alexander
R Vaccaro Jefferson R Wilson Charles G Fisher
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-spine-surgeon-
should-know-paperback-alexander-r-vaccaro-jefferson-r-wilson-charles-
g-fisher-7364014
50 Landmark Papers Every Acute Care Surgeon Should Know 1st Edition
Stephen M Cohn Editor Peter Rhee Editor
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-acute-care-
surgeon-should-know-1st-edition-stephen-m-cohn-editor-peter-rhee-
editor-11906434
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-vascular-and-
endovascular-surgeon-should-know-1st-edition-juan-carlos-jimenez-
editor-samuel-eric-wilson-editor-11906436
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-trauma-surgeon-
should-know-1st-edition-stephen-m-cohn-editor-ara-feinstein-
editor-12052618
https://ebookbell.com/product/50-landmark-papers-every-oral-and-
maxillofacial-surgeon-should-know-niall-mh-mcleod-peter-a-
brennan-27059272
Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgeon
Should Know
This book provides an expert perspective from some of the world’s leading surgeons
on the papers that have had the greatest impact in the field of thyroid and parathyroid
surgery over recent years.
The broad range of topics covered will enable the reader to understand how recent
research developments have led to changes in current thyroid and parathyroid surgical
practice and represents an excellent resource for trainees at all levels preparing for
specialty examinations.
• Concise review and analysis of key papers by expert clinicians, with each chapter
focused on the most important aspects of the surgical management of thyroid
and parathyroid disease
• Essential reading for students, residents, fellows, and surgeons studying for their
professional exams or wanting an update on the current thyroid and parathyroid
surgery literature
• Critical distillation of the diverse and expanding research over a broad
range of topics from this field, including that includes investigation and
management of benign and malignant thyroid disease; primary, secondary, and
tertiary hyperparathyroidism; thyroid and parathyroid surgery; and surgical
complications
• Expert analysis of the key contemporary papers and topics underlying the
practice of endocrine neck surgery for general surgeons, otolaryngologists,
head and neck surgeons, endocrine surgeons, trainees, and other healthcare
professionals
Thyroid and Parathyroid
Surgeon Should Know
EDITED BY
DOI: 10.1201/9781003196211
Typeset in Times
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
To Natalie, Jacob, Isabel, Nicole, and my parents.
SAM
Preface xxi
Acknowledgment xxiii
Contributors xxv
1 Ultrasound 1
Review by Julia E. Noel and Lisa A. Orloff
Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System for Us Features of
Nodules: A Step in Establishing Better Stratification of Cancer
Risk
Kwak JY, Han KH, Yoon JY, Moon HJ, Son EJ, Park SH, Jung HK,
Choi JS, Kim BM, Kim EK. Radiology. 2011;260(3):892–899.
2 Cytology 7
Review by William G. Albergotti and Emad Al Haj Ali
The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology
Cibas ES, Ali SZ. Thyroid. 2009;19(11):1159–65.
doi:10.1089/thy.2009.0274
3 Molecular Diagnostics 12
Review by Todd McMullen
Integrated Genomic Characterization of Papillary Thyroid
Carcinoma: Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network
Cancer Genome Atlas Network. Cell. 2014;159(3):676–690.
doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.050
vii
viii Contents
4 Ablation 18
Review by Hannah Nieto and Neil Sharma
Us-Guided Percutaneous Radiofrequency versus
Microwave Ablation for Benign Thyroid Nodules:
A Prospective Multicenter Study
Cheng Z, Che Y, Yu S, Wang S, Teng D, Xu H, Li J, Sun D, Han Z, Liang P.
Sci Rep. 2017;7:9554. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09930-7
5 Surgeon Volume 23
Review by Akie Watanabe and Sam M. Wiseman
Is There a Minimum Number of Thyroidectomies a Surgeon Should
Perform to Optimize Patient Outcomes?
Adam MA, Thomas S, Youngwirth L, Hyslop T, Reed S, Scheri D,
Randall P, Roman SA, Sosa JA. Ann Surg. 2017;265(2):402–407.
doi: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000001688
9 Parathyroid Autofluorescence 45
Review by Paulina Kuczma, Marco Demarchi, and Frederic Triponez
Near-Infrared Autofluorescence for the Detection of Parathyroid
Glands
Paras C, Keller M, White L, Phay J, Mahadevan-Jansen A. J Biomed
Opt. 2011;16(6):067012. doi: 10.1117/1.3583571
11 Robotic Thyroidectomy 57
Review by Mahmoud Omar, Mohamed Aboueisha, Mohamed Shama, and
Emad Kandil
Differences in Postoperative Outcomes, Function, and Cosmesis:
Open versus Robotic Thyroidectomy
Lee J, Nah KY, Kim RM, Ahn YH, Soh E-Y, Chung WY. Surg Endosc.
2010;24:3186–3194. doi: 10.1007/s00464-010-1113-z
x Contents
12 Graves’ Disease 63
Review by Rajam Raghunathan, Jacques How, Roger Tabah, and Elliot
Mitmaker
Outcome of Graves’ Disease Patients Following Antithyroid
Drugs, Radioactive Iodine, or Thyroidectomy as the First-Line
Treatment
Liu X, Wong CKH, Chan WWL, Tang EHM, Woo YC, Lam CLK,
Lang BHH. Ann Surg. 2021;273(6):1197–1206. doi: 10.1097/
SLA.0000000000004828
13 Goiter 69
Review by Lucinda Duncan-Were and Carla Pajak
Five-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Clinical Trial
of Total Thyroidectomy versus Dunhill Operation
versus Bilateral Subtotal Thyroidectomy for Multinodular
Nontoxic Goiter
Barczyński M, Konturek A, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, Gołkowski F,
Cichoń S, Nowak W. World J Surg. 2010;34(6):1203–1213. doi:10.1007/
s00268-010-0491-7
14 Complications 74
Review by Sendhil Rajan, Muhammad Shakeel,
and Sebastian Aspinall
A Multi-Institutional International Study of Risk Factors for
Hematoma after Thyroidectomy
Campbell MJ, McCoy KL, Shen WT, Carty SE, Lubitz CC, Moalem
J, Nehs M, Holm T, Greenblatt DY, Press D, Feng X, Siperstein AE,
Mitmaker E, et al. Surgery. 2013;154(6):1283–1291. doi:10.1016/j.
surg.2013.06.032
15 Hypoparathyroidism 79
Review by Richard D. Bavier and David Goldenberg
Low Parathyroid Hormone Levels after Thyroid Surgery:
A Feasible Predictor of Hypocalcemia
Lindblom P, Westerdahl J, Bergenfelz A. Surgery. 2002;131(5):515–520.
doi:10.1067/msy.2002.123005
Contents xi
16 Parathyroid Autotransplantation 84
Review by Helen E. Doran
Failure of Fragmented Parathyroid Gland Autotransplantation
to Prevent Permanent Hypoparathyroidism after Total
Thyroidectomy
Lorente-Poch L, Sancho J, Muñoz JL, Gallego-Otaegui L, Martínez-
Ruiz C, Sitges-Serra A. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2017;402(2):281–287.
doi:10.1007/s00423-016-1548-3
17 Epidemiology 91
Review by Charles Meltzer
Increasing Incidence of Thyroid Cancer in the United States,
1973–2002
Davies L, Welch HG. JAMA. 2006;295(18):2164–2167. doi: 10.1001/
jama.295.18.2164
21 Staging 111
Review by Bianka Saravana-Bawan and Jesse D. Pasternak
An International Multi-Institutional Validation of
Age 55 Years as a Cutoff for Risk Stratification in the
AJCC/UICC Staging System for Well-Differentiated
Thyroid Cancer
Nixon IJ, Wang LY, Migliacci JC, Eskander A, Campbell MJ, Aniss
A, Morris L, Vaisman F, Corbo R, Momesso D, Vaisman M, Carvalho
A, Learoyd D, et al. Thyroid. 2016;26(3):373–380. doi: 10.1089/
thy.2015.0315
31 Epidemiology 174
Review by Brendan C. Stack Jr.
Incidence and Prevalence of Primary Hyperparathyroidism in a
Racially Mixed Population
Yeh MW, Ituarte PH, Zhou HC, Nishimoto S, Liu IL, Harari A, Haigh
PI, Adams AL. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(3):1122–1129. doi:
10.1210/jc.2012-4022. Epub 2013 Feb 15. PMID: 23418315; PMCID:
PMC3590475
Contents xv
41 Autofluorescence 230
Review by John Phay
Intraoperative Parathyroid Autofluorescence Detection in Patients
with Primary Hyperparathyroidism
Squires MH, Jarvis R, Shirley LA, Phay JE. Ann Surg Oncol.
2019;26(4):1142–1148. doi: 10.1245/s10434-019-07161-w
Index 287
Preface
Recently, it was estimated that between 2016 and 2019 there were, on average, 367 surgical
papers published daily, which is equivalent to approximately one paper every 4 minutes.1
This exponential growth in the literature has occurred across all surgical specialties.
Identifying the key papers that have had the greatest impact on the practice of thyroid
and parathyroid surgeons represents a particular challenge. Not only do thyroid and
parathyroid surgeons come from diverse specialty (general surgery and otolaryngology)
and subspecialty (endocrine surgery, surgical oncology, head and neck surgery)
backgrounds, practice in varied clinical settings, and treat a broad spectrum of disease, but
the management of their patients is often complex and is usually multidisciplinary.
Awareness of the published papers that are most important to thyroid and parathyroid
surgical practice in terms of their impact on patient management is critical. Nothing
replaces an intimate knowledge of neck surgical anatomy, sound clinical judgment,
training, experience, and meticulous surgical technique, but there are many exciting
recent developments that have revolutionized the way thyroid and parathyroid operations
are performed and also how the underlying diseases are managed. Employment of
vessel sealing devices, intraoperative parathyroid hormone measurement, and utilization
of recurrent laryngeal nerve monitoring technology are all examples of changes that
have impacted current surgical practice. New approaches and developments continue
to emerge, including parathyroid autofluorescence, remote access thyroidectomy, and
robotic thyroidectomy, all of which show promise in continuing to transform the field.
The intention of the “50 Landmark Papers” series is to serve as a valuable resource
by assisting busy clinicians, surgical trainees, and other healthcare professionals with
identifying and interpreting the important literature in a specific surgical specialty or
subspecialty. The aim of this book is to give surgeons and other healthcare professionals
an expert overview of the landmark papers in thyroid and parathyroid surgical practice
and a review of their underlying evidence. It will assist the practicing surgeon in “wading
through” the expanding thyroid and parathyroid literature to find the “diamonds in
the rough” or “landmark papers”. We also believe this book will be especially helpful
for trainees in preparing for their final surgical specialty or subspecialty certification
examinations and healthcare professionals wanting to learn more about thyroid and
parathyroid surgery.
Perhaps the most challenging part of putting this book together was determining what
constituted a “landmark paper.” To accomplish this we first created a comprehensive
xxi
xxii Preface
list of 50 topics of interest to thyroid and parathyroid surgeons for inclusion in the book
by review of the current literature, specialty and subspecialty texts, and expert opinion.
Then we identified a diverse group of recognized experts in the field, who came from
centers throughout the world and were willing to contribute chapters to the book.
Remarkably, the 50 chapters in this book have a total of 101 authors from 64 centers
located in 16 different countries. Specific topics were then assigned to each chapter
author, who was then tasked with identifying its landmark paper. While ultimately
landmark paper selection was subjective, some general guiding principles were applied.
These included favoring more recent papers (those published since 2000); considering
total and/or annual paper citations; avoiding review articles, editorials, commentaries,
and most guidelines; excluding papers not published in English or in peer-reviewed
journals; avoiding retracted or duplicate papers; and preferring papers relevant to current
clinical practice, those referenced by national guidelines, and those that provide a high
scientific level of evidence. Once chosen by the chapter authors, with input from the
editors and feedback from other chapter authors (who were made aware of all landmark
paper selections but blinded to the identity of the chapter authors), the landmark paper
selection was finalized. To limit bias, the editors discouraged chapter authors from
selecting landmark papers that they had authored themselves except in exceptional
circumstances. In the end a wide variety of types of landmark papers were chosen that
we consider best addressed the key topics covered in the book. Remarkably, and to their
credit, all the invited authors completed their assigned chapters, and none defaulted.
There will inevitably be surgeons and other healthcare professionals who disagree with
the choice of some of the selected landmark papers, though the chapters all present a
discussion of other relevant literature in the subject area to ensure a balanced review
of the specific topic. In the future, as surgical practice continues to progress, new
landmark papers will emerge and older papers will be confined to historical interest.
We believe that the landmark papers selected for inclusion in this book are important
not only because of their current impact but also because of the insight they provide
into the discourse of modern surgical practice, and thus they are a testament to the
intelligence and creativity of the thyroid and parathyroid surgeons and others who are
their contributors.
Sam M. Wiseman
Sebastian Aspinall
REFERENCE
1. Choi, J, Stave, C, Spain, DA. The weight of surgical knowledge: Navigating information overload. Ann
Surg. 2022; 275(4): e612–e614. doi: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000005365
Acknowledgment
xxiii
Contributors
xxv
xxvi Contributors
Frederic Triponez
Mohamed Shama
University Hospitals of Geneva
Tulane University School of Medicine
Geneva, Switzerland
New Orleans, Louisiana
Peter Truran
Neil Sharma
Royal Victoria Infirmary
University Hospitals Birmingham
Newcastle, UK
Birmingham, UK
Timothy M. Ullman
Arif Adnan Shaukat Albany Medical College
Aberdeen Royal Infirmary Albany, New York
Aberdeen, UK
Rongzhi Wang
Susannah L. Shore University of Alabama at Birmingham
Royal Liverpool University Hospitals Birmingham, Alabama
NHS Foundation Trust
Liverpool, UK Akie Watanabe
University of British Columbia
Yi Sia Vancouver, Canada
Oxford University Hospitals
NHS Foundation Trust Che-Wei Wu
Oxford, UK Kaohsiung Medical University
Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Stan Sidhu
The Royal North Shore Hospital Jonn Wu
New South Wales, Australia University of British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada
Ricard Simo
Guy’s and St Thomas’ Hospital Tal Yalon
NHS Foundation Trust Mayo Clinic Health System
London, UK La Crosse, Wisconsin
Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
Chapter 1
Ultrasound
Review by Julia E. Noel and Lisa A. Orloff
Landmark Paper
THYROID IMAGING REPORTING AND DATA SYSTEM FOR
US FEATURES OF NODULES: A STEP IN ESTABLISHING
BETTER STRATIFICATION OF CANCER RISK
Kwak JY, Han KH, Yoon JY, Moon HJ, Son EJ, Park SH, Jung HK, Choi JS, Kim BM,
Kim EK. Radiology. 2011;260(3):892–899.
RESEARCH QUESTION/OBJECTIVES
The widespread use of ultrasonography (US) has led to the increased detection of
thyroid nodules that are highly prevalent in the global adult population. However, the
vast majority (90% or greater) of nodules are benign and may not require biopsy or
intervention. As recognition of specific sonographic features associated with malignancy
has progressed, the need for a standardized reporting system for ultrasound findings
combined with a risk stratification mechanism has also grown. The objective of this
landmark paper1 is to develop a practical, user-friendly Thyroid Imaging Reporting And
Data System (TI-RADS) by which to classify, report, and stratify thyroid nodules for risk
of malignancy and the need for fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB).
STUDY DESIGN
This is a retrospective cohort study of thyroid nodules that underwent surgery and/or
FNAB as well as real-time US at Yonsei University College of Medicine in Korea
between May and December 2008. US features were categorized by internal component
(solid or mixed solid/cystic); echogenicity (hyperechoic, isoechoic, hypoechoic, or
markedly hypoechoic); margins (well-circumscribed, microlobulated, or irregular);
calcifications (microcalcifications, macrocalcifications); and shape (taller than wide or
wider than tall in transverse view).
SAMPLE SIZE
In total, 1,658 nodules were reported to be from a population of 3,414 consecutive
patients with thyroid nodules who underwent a total of 3,674 (FNABs) and/or follow up.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003196211-1 1
2 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
INCLUSION/EXCLUSION CRITERIA
All nodules with US data, a maximum diameter of at least 1 cm, and either benign or
malignant cytology results by FNAB, or pathology results from surgery performed for
non-definitive cytology (either suspicious for papillary thyroid carcinoma, indeterminate,
or inadequate), were included in the study population. Nodules were excluded if they did
not meet size criteria or if they did not undergo surgery despite non-definitive cytology
results. The study did include some minors (<18 years old) and some patients with more
than one nodule.
RESULTS
Of the 1,658 nodules included, 275 (16.6%) were malignant (238 confirmed by surgical
pathology and 37 confirmed by cytology). By univariate analysis, the US features
significantly associated with malignancy were solid, hypoechoic, markedly hypoechoic,
irregular margins, microcalcifications, and taller-than-wide shape. By multivariate
analysis, the risk of malignancy increased as the number of suspicious US characteristics
increased. The US nodule feature with the highest risk of malignancy was the presence
of a microlobulated margin followed by microcalcifications, both of which were
considered to be of a higher risk than the combination of solid and hypoechoic. Based on
these analyses, the authors created TI-RADS categories, modeled after the precedent of
Breast Imaging Reporting And Data System (BI-RADS),2 as follows: Thyroid Imaging
Reporting And Data System (TI-RADS) 3 (no suspicious US features); TI-RADS 4a, 4b,
and 4c (one, two, and three or four suspicious US features, respectively); and TI-RADS
5 (five suspicious US features). These categories were associated with an increasing risk
of malignancy, with a TI-RADS 3 lesion carrying a 1.7% risk; 4a, b, and c with 3.3%,
9.2%, and 44.4–72.4% risk, respectively; and a TI-RADS 5 lesion carried an 87.5% risk
of malignancy. Acknowledging the first use of the “TI-RADS” terminology by Horvath
et al.,3 as well as a prior attempt by Park et al.4 to create an equation for predicting the
probability of malignancy based on US features, the authors attempted to create a new,
practical, and convenient TI-RADS that would allow for standardization of reporting
of thyroid US, as well as establish criteria to minimize unnecessary biopsies of
Chapter 1 • Ultrasound 3
thyroid nodules. Emphasis on the ability to count the number of suspicious US features
was intended to simplify the clinical application of TI-RADS in the field. Subsequent
studies have supported the validity and reproducibility of the TI-RADS system,5,6 while
expanding the basis for categorization of nodules to include larger overall numbers and
types of pathology.
STUDY LIMITATIONS
This was a single-institution study (albeit with seven participating radiologists) that had
follow-up data on only a subset of their population, resulting in a potential selection bias.
Real-time imaging was not included; rather, previously captured images were reviewed
retrospectively. Some thyroid nodules did not undergo surgery but had cytology (thyroid)
results only. Furthermore, only nodules that underwent US-guided FNAB were included,
meaning they were either suspicious nodules or the largest non-suspicious nodule in
a multinodular gland. The fitted probability of malignancy for each suspicious US
feature in this study had a wide range, reducing overall specificity and sensitivity. The
overwhelming majority of patients in the study with malignancy (95%) had papillary
thyroid carcinoma, limiting the application of TI-RADS to other malignant histological
diagnoses. Also, the use of BI-RADS categories to stratify thyroid nodules into TI-RADS
categories oversimplified the similarities between breast and thyroid cancers, which can
behave very differently. Of note, this landmark paper also predated the implementation
of the Bethesda System for reporting thyroid cytopathology,7 a contemporary, parallel
advancement in reporting and communication regarding thyroid nodular disease.
STUDY IMPACT
This paper represents a landmark study, among a host of important investigations, that
has aided in the movement to develop a common language for reporting suspicious and
non-suspicious thyroid US features and guide decisions about when to biopsy thyroid
nodules. Along with refinement in US resolution has come progressive sophistication
in pattern and feature recognition. A generation of thyroidologists has come to realize
the need to avoid excessive diagnosis and intervention for potential or even real but
indolent thyroid cancers, while avoiding under-recognition and under-treatment of
aggressive thyroid malignancies. The most prominent such “risk stratification systems”
in current use include the American Thyroid Association (ATA) guidelines system8 and
the American College of Radiology (ACR) TI-RADS system,9 but globally there are
similar systems including the Korean K TI-RADS,10 European Union (EU) TI-RADS,11
American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE), American College of
Endocrinology (ACE) and Associazione Medici Endocrinologi (AME) guidelines,12
British Thyroid Association guidelines,13 and Chinese C TI-RADS.14 Though based upon
similar US features, these systems were developed in different patient populations and
vary in emphasis upon each feature in determining the risk of malignancy and, therefore,
in sensitivity and specificity.15 Even so, nodules assigned to each category within
any of these systems are associated with a range of risks rather than a precise risk of
malignancy, especially for indeterminate nodules, owing to their prospective application
in diverse practices.16 Similarly, each system establishes minimum size cutoffs for biopsy
4 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
in an effort, even if imperfect, to reduce the risk of overdiagnosis of small cancers and
biopsy of indeterminate lesions that will lead to more surgery and morbidity. Important
precursors to all of the above-mentioned systems were publications by Bonavita et al.,17
which analyzed patterns associated with benign thyroid nodules and coined the term
“spongiform,” and by Moon et al.,18 which retrospectively reviewed the US images of
849 nodules with tissue diagnoses to identify US features associated with malignancy.
The Kwak study1 assembled individual features into a system whereby risk could be
assigned according to the sum of these features.
REFERENCES
1. Kwak, JY, Han, KH, Yoon, JH, et al. Thyroid imaging reporting and data system for US features of
nodules: A step in establishing better stratification of cancer risk. Radiology. 2011; 260: 892–899. doi:
10.1148/radiol.11110206
2. Magny, SJ, Shikhman, R, Keppke, AL. Breast imaging reporting and data system. In: StatPearls
[Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. 2022. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/books/NBK459169/
3. Horvath, E, Majlis, S, Rossi, R, et al. An ultrasonogram reporting system for thyroid nodules stratifying
cancer risk for clinical management. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009; 94(5): 1748–1751. doi: 10.1210/
jc.2008-1724
4. Park, JY, Lee, HJ, Jang, HW, et al. A proposal for a thyroid imaging reporting and data system for
ultrasound features of thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2009; 19(11): 1257–1264. doi: 10.1089/thy.2008.0021
5. Basha, MAA, Alnaggar, AA, Refaat, R, et al. The validity and reproducibility of the thyroid imaging
reporting and data system (TI-RADS) in categorization of thyroid nodules: Multicentre prospective
study. Eur J Radiol. 2019; 117: 184–192. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2019.06.015
6. Zhang, J, Liu, BJ, Xu, HX, et al. Prospective validation of an ultrasound-based thyroid imaging reporting
and data system (TI-RADS) on 3980 thyroid nodules. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2015; 8(4): 5911–5917.
7. Cibas, ES, Ali, SZ. The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology. Am J Clin Pathol. 2009;
132(5): 658–665. doi: 10.1309/AJCPPHLWMI3JV4LA
8. Haugen, BR, Alexander, EK, Bible, KC, et al. 2015 American thyroid association management
guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer: The American
thyroid association guidelines task force on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid.
2016; 26(1): 1–133. doi: 10.1089/thy.2015.0020
9. Tessler, FN, Middleton, WD, Grant, EG, et al. ACR thyroid imaging, reporting and data system
(TI-RADS): White paper of the ACR TI-RADS committee. J Am Coll Radiol. 2017; 14(5): 587–595.
doi: 10.1016/j.jacr.2017.01.046
10. Shin, JH, Baek, JH, Chung, J, et al. Ultrasonography diagnosis and imaging-based management
of thyroid nodules: Revised Korean society of thyroid radiology consensus statement and
recommendations. Korean J Radiol. 2016; 17(3): 370–395. doi: 10.3348/kjr.2016.17.3.370
11. Russ, G, Bonnema, SJ, Erdogan, MF, et al. European Thyroid Association guidelines for ultrasound
malignancy risk stratification of thyroid dodules in adults: The EU-TIRADS. Eur Thyroid J. 2017; 6(5):
225–237. doi: 10.1159/000478927
12. Gharib, H, Papini, E, Garber, JR, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American
College of Endocrinology, and Associazione Medici Endocrinologi medical guidelines for clinical
practice for the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules-2016 update. Endocr Pract. 2016;
22(Suppl 1): 622–639. doi: 10.4158/EP161208.GL
13. Perros, P, Boelaert, K, Colley, S, et al. Guidelines for the management of thyroid cancer. Clin Endocrinol
(Oxf). 2014; 81(Suppl 1): 1–122. doi: 10.1111/cen.12515
14. Zhou, J, Yin, L, Wei, X, Z, et al. 2020 Chinese guidelines for ultrasound malignancy risk stratification of
thyroid nodules: The C-TIRADS. Endocrine. 2020; 70(2): 256–279. doi: 10.1007/s12020-020-02441-y
15. Russ, G, Trimboli, P, Buffet, C. The new era of TIRADSs to stratify the risk of malignancy of thyroid
nodules: Strengths, weaknesses and pitfalls. Cancers (Basel). 2021; 13(17): 4316. doi: 10.3390/
cancers13174316
16. Dickey, MV, Nguyen, A, Wiseman, SM. Cancer risk estimation using American College of Radiology
thyroid imaging reporting and data system for cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules. Am J Surg.
2022; 224(2): 653–656. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2022.02.061
17. Bonavita, JA, Mayo, J, Babb, J, et al. Pattern recognition of benign nodules at ultrasound of the
thyroid: Which nodules can be left alone? AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2009; 193(1): 207–213. doi: 10.2214/
AJR.08.1820
18. Moon, WJ, Jung, SL, Lee, JH, et al. Benign and malignant thyroid nodules: US differentiation–
multicenter retrospective study. Radiology. 2008; 247(3): 762–770. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2473070944
19. Grani, G, Lamartina, L, Ascoli, V, et al. Reducing the number of unnecessary thyroid biopsies while
improving diagnostic accuracy: Toward the “right” TIRADS. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019; 104(1):
95–102. doi: 10.1210/jc.2018-01674
6 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
20. Ha, EJ, Na, DG, Baek, JH, et al. US fine-needle aspiration biopsy for thyroid malignancy: Diagnostic
performance of seven society guidelines applied to 2000 thyroid nodules. Radiology. 2018; 287(3):
893–900. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2018171074
21. Maddaloni, E, Briganti, SI, Crescenzi, A, et al. Usefulness of color Doppler ultrasonography in the risk
stratification of thyroid nodules. Eur Thyroid J. 2021; 10(4): 339–344. doi: 10.1159/000509325
22. Swan, KZ, Nielsen, VE, Bonnema, SJ. Evaluation of thyroid nodules by shear wave elastography:
A review of current knowledge. J Endocrinol Invest. 2021; 44(10): 2043–2056. doi: 10.1007/
s40618-021-01570-z
23. Fresilli, D, David, E, Pacini, P, et al. Thyroid nodule characterization: How to assess the malignancy
risk. Update of the literature. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021; 11(8): 1374. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics11081374
24. Ha, EJ, Baek, JH. Applications of machine learning and deep learning to thyroid imaging: Where do we
stand? Ultrasonography. 2021; 40(1): 23–29. doi: 10.14366/usg.20068
25. Hoang, JK, Asadollahi, S, Durante, C, et al. An international survey on utilization of five thyroid nodule
risk stratification systems: A needs assessment with future implications. Thyroid. 2022; 32(6): 675–681.
doi: 10.1089/thy.2021.0558
Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
Chapter 2
Cytology
Review by William G. Albergotti and Emad Al Haj Ali
Landmark Paper
THE BETHESDA SYSTEM FOR REPORTING THYROID CYTOPATHOLOGY
Cibas ES, Ali SZ. Thyroid. 2009;19(11):1159–65. doi:10.1089/thy.2009.0274
RESEARCH QUESTION/OBJECTIVES
Thyroid nodules are frequently identified either during a physical examination or, more
commonly, incidentally by imaging modalities. The prevalence of thyroid nodules
identified by imaging in the general population has been shown to be as high as 68%,
with an increasing prevalence with age.1 Their identification leads to a challenge in
classifying and treating nodules with a risk of malignancy (ROM), while also not
overtreating benign thyroid nodules, which account for 85–90% of all thyroid nodules.2
Fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNA) plays an important role in stratifying the ROM of
thyroid nodules. FNA can help avoid unnecessary surgery in patients with benign thyroid
nodules, while also guiding appropriate surgery for those nodules that are potentially
malignant. Historically, interpretation of thyroid FNA results was difficult, with different
terminology reported by different laboratories, which limited both the interpretation of
individual results and the sharing of data between institutions, which was identified as
a significant problem.3,4 Therefore, there was a need to develop a cytology classification
system to better stratify the different types of cytological findings yielded by FNA.
In 2007 the National Cancer Institute (NCI) organized the NCI Thyroid Fine Needle
Aspiration State of the Science Conference, which ultimately led to the creation of the
Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (BSRTC).
The primary aim of this landmark study was to develop a uniform but flexible reporting
system for thyroid FNA cytopathology to both provide clinically relevant information to
help guide patient management and “facilitate research into the epidemiology, molecular
biology, pathology and diagnosis of thyroid diseases.”5
STUDY DESIGN
This landmark paper was a consensus statement. Summary documents were developed
with literature review and expert opinion subject to open review followed by an in-person
conference that included pathologists, endocrinologists, surgeons, and radiologists held
in October 2007 in Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003196211-2 7
8 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
SAMPLE SIZE
Not applicable.
INCLUSION/EXCLUSION CRITERIA
English-language publications in PubMed dating back to 1995 with keywords
determined by committee members.
INTERVENTION/TREATMENT RECEIVED
Not applicable.
RESULTS
The BSRTC was created. Six diagnostic categories were developed, which are
summarized here:
STUDY LIMITATIONS
The primary limitation of this manuscript is that it is based on a relatively low level
of evidence (level 5, expert opinion). Although the statement was developed through a
rigorous literature review, multiple drafts, and discussion periods, as well as in-person
presentations and debates, there is inherent bias in these types of publications.
Furthermore, there was no interpathologist or intrapathologist variability reported or
suggestions for training of cytopathologists.
STUDY IMPACT
Given that the main purpose of its terminology is clarity of communication, the
importance of the BSRTC can be appreciated in its facilitation of communication among
cytopathologists, endocrinologists, surgeons, and radiologists. As a result of this high-
fidelity classification system, diagnoses are made more accurately, a higher percentage
of thyroid nodules that undergo surgery are for malignancy (i.e., fewer diagnostic
operations), and ultimately patients receive better care. Following the 2009 publication of
the BSRTC, it has been widely adopted and is considered the standard-of-care guidelines
both in the United States and internationally.6 Because of its high sensitivity and high
negative predictive value (NPV), it has proven to be an effective and robust thyroid
cytopathology classification system to guide the clinical management of patients with
thyroid nodules.7 Beyond the direct impact on clinical care, it has in turn spurred better
research into the epidemiology, molecular biology, diagnosis, and treatment of thyroid
diseases and facilitated research collaborations across institutions. However, despite
its widespread adoption, there has been shown to only be 64% concordance in BSRTC
classification between local cytopathologists and expert thyroid cytopathologists, with
less experienced cytopathologists more commonly providing indeterminate diagnoses
(55% vs. 41%), suggesting a need for further education and experience.8
Molecular testing – with Afirma (Veracyte, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA) and
ThyroSeq (Sonic Healthcare USA, Rye Brook, NY, USA) being the two most prominent
10 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
and widely used examples – was commercially introduced in the early 2010s with the
goal of improved risk stratification of indeterminate thyroid nodules, and especially
ruling out potential malignancy in this situation (high sensitivity and NPV) and thus
justify a nonsurgical, observational approach rather than a diagnostic thyroidectomy.
These molecular tests were initially developed as rule-out tests but have been refined
over the years with multiple iterations, most recently ThyroSeq v3.0 and Afirma GSC,
which have shown improved positive predictive value (PPV) but still remain primarily
used as rule-out tests with NPV rates of up to 97%.11 As a result of these advances,
molecular testing was included in the 2015 American Thyroid Association (ATA)
guidelines as an option for further workup of indeterminate cytological diagnoses
(AUS/FLUS and FN/SFN) and have become widely adopted for management planning,
and occasionally as a reflexive test.6,12,13
Each of the six diagnostic categories remained the same, with changes including updated
ROM estimates based on additional years of data, as well as the inclusion or exclusion of
NIFTP as a malignancy. For instance, the ROM for AUS/FLUS is noted to be 10–30%
(as compared with 5–15% in the 2009 publication); however, the authors note that a large
percentage of this risk is due to NIFTPs, which if considered benign, would lower the
ROM to 6–18%. The higher ROM estimate, however, may be more clinically useful as
that number defines the lesions that are felt to be best surgically managed. On the other
hand, the ROM may be overstated due to selection bias of surgically treated lesions with
a higher ROM, such as concerning ultrasound features, abnormal molecular features,
or larger tumor size. Within the FN/SFN category, cytological features observed that
could be consistent with NIFTP or follicular variant of PTC (such as a predominance of
microfollicles or focal nuclear changes) are now included in this category: A sub-note
may be offered by the cytopathologist suggesting that these two entities do remain in
the differential diagnosis. The updated 2017 BSRTC also offers a “usual management”
option for AUS/FLUS and FN/SFN with molecular testing.
Since the 2009 publication of BSRTC, the classification of thyroid nodule FNA cytology
has grown more nuanced and more consistent. Nearly every work in this field can trace
its origins back to this expert opinion–based landmark paper, which has facilitated
consistent reporting, more tailored management, and advanced research on the
classification of thyroid nodules.
REFERENCES
1. Guth S, Theune U, Aberle J, et al. Very high prevalence of thyroid nodules detected by high
frequency (13 MHz) ultrasound examination. Eur J Clin Invest. 2009; 39(8): 699–706. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2362.2009.02162.x
Chapter 2 • Cytology 11
2. Kamran SC, Marqusee E, Kim MI, et al. Thyroid nodule size and prediction of cancer. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab. 2013; 98(2): 564–570. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-2968
3. Cochand-Priollet B, Schmitt FC, Totsch M, Vielh P; European Federation of Cytology Societies’
Scientific Committee. The Bethesda terminology for reporting thyroid cytopathology: From theory to
practice in Europe. Acta Cytol. 2011; 55(6): 507–511. doi: 10.1159/000334687
4. American Thyroid Association Guidelines Taskforce on Thyroid N, Differentiated Thyroid C, Cooper DS,
et al. Revised American Thyroid Association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules
and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2009; 19(11): 1167–1214. doi: 10.1089/thy.2009.0110
5. Cibas ES, Ali SZ. The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology. Thyroid. 2009; 19(11):
1159–1165. doi: 10.1089/thy.2009.0274
6. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, et al. 2015 American Thyroid Association management
guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer: The American
Thyroid Association guidelines task force on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid.
2016; 26(1): 1–133. doi: 10.1089/thy.2015.0020
7. Bongiovanni M, Spitale A, Faquin WC, Mazzucchelli L, Baloch ZW. The Bethesda system for reporting
thyroid cytopathology: A meta-analysis. Acta Cytol. 2012; 56(4): 333–339. doi: 10.1159/000339959
8. Cibas ES, Baloch ZW, Fellegara G, et al. A prospective assessment defining the limitations of thyroid
nodule pathologic evaluation. Ann Intern Med. 2013; 159(5): 325–332. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-159-5-
201309030-00006
9. Nikiforov YE. Thyroid carcinoma: Molecular pathways and therapeutic targets. Mod Pathol. 2008;
21(Suppl 2): S37–43. doi: 10.1038/modpathol.2008.10
10. Roth MY, Witt RL, Steward DL. Molecular testing for thyroid nodules: Review and current state.
Cancer. 2018; 124(5): 888–898. doi: 10.1002/cncr.30708
11. Silaghi CA, Lozovanu V, Georgescu CE, et al. Thyroseq v3, Afirma GSC, and microRNA panels
versus previous molecular tests in the preoperative diagnosis of indeterminate thyroid nodules: A
systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021; 12: 649522. doi: 10.3389/
fendo.2021.649522
12. Nikiforova MN, Wald AI, Roy S, Durso MB, Nikiforov YE. Targeted next-generation sequencing
panel (ThyroSeq) for detection of mutations in thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013; 98(11):
E1852–E1860. doi: 10.1210/jc.2013-2292
13. Krane JF, Cibas ES, Endo M, et al. The Afirma Xpression Atlas for thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer
metastases: Insights to inform clinical decision-making from a fine-needle aspiration sample. Cancer
Cytopathol. 2020; 128(7): 452–459. doi: 10.1002/cncy.22300
14. Nikiforov YE, Seethala RR, Tallini G, et al. Nomenclature revision for encapsulated follicular variant of
papillary thyroid carcinoma: A paradigm shift to reduce overtreatment of indolent tumors. JAMA Oncol.
2016; 2(8): 1023–1029. doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.0386
15. Cibas ES, Ali SZ. The 2017 Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology. Thyroid. 2017; 27(11):
1341–1346. doi: 10.1089/thy.2017.0500
Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
Chapter 3
Molecular Diagnostics
Review by Todd McMullen
Landmark Paper
INTEGRATED GENOMIC CHARACTERIZATION
OF PAPILLARY THYROID CARCINOMA
Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network. Cell. 2014;159(3):676–690. doi: 10.1016/
j.cell.2014.09.050
RESEARCH QUESTION/OBJECTIVES
Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC), the most prevalent cancer derived from the follicular
cells of the thyroid, is a disease with a pathological preponderance for lymphatic spread.
For many individuals, a diagnosis of PTC will not engender a poor outcome; however,
predicting those patients at risk of more aggressive disease requiring more invasive
surgical or medical therapy has been a challenge to physicians for more than 50 years.1
The American Joint Commission on Cancer (TNM) system of cancer classification, first
developed in the late 1960s, reflects attempts to classify cancers and provide common
syntax and definitions.2 These clinicopathologic descriptions were anchored for thyroid
carcinoma by variables such as tumor size and patient age.2 However, patients with
similar demographic features and cancer presentations often will have dramatically
different responses to therapy and dissimilar outcomes.1,3 The landmark paper outlined
here, “Integrated Genomic Characterization of Papillary Thyroid Cancer,” (Cell 2014),4
sought to identify the dominant role and nature of the driving somatic genetic alterations
in PTC. This effort was part of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) genomics program
that has since examined over 20,000 primary cancer and matched normal specimens
spanning dozens of cancer types. The goal was to classify this common thyroid neoplasm
into molecular subtypes that better reflect the underlying properties of differentiation that
drive its response to therapy and determine patient outcomes.
STUDY DESIGN
This was a multiplatform analysis of 496 cases of PTC (324 classic type, 99 follicular
variant, 35 tall cell, and 9 uncommon variants) designed to represent the most common
thyroid carcinoma seen clinically worldwide and excluding poorly differentiated or
dedifferentiated specimens. These cancer specimens with matched germline DNA from
blood or normal thyroid tissue were submitted for whole exome DNA sequencing, RNA
sequencing, microRNA (miRNA) sequencing, single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
arrays, DNA methylation arrays, and reverse-phase protein arrays. The data, publicly
12 DOI: 10.1201/9781003196211-3
Chapter 3 • Molecular Diagnostics 13
SAMPLE SIZE
In total, 496 cases of PTC (324 classic type, 99 follicular variant, 35 tall cell, and
9 uncommon variants) designed to represent the most common thyroid carcinoma
seen clinically worldwide.
INCLUSION/EXCLUSION CRITERIA
Poorly differentiated and undifferentiated cancers were excluded from this study in order
to better study signaling, differentiation, and drivers of malignancy in the “quiet” PTC
genome.
RESULTS
In this compendium the authors identified oncogenic drivers (somatic single-nucleotide
variants/insertions/deletions, gene fusions, or somatic copy number alterations) in
96.5% (388/402) of cases with informative DNA exome sequence data, a substantial
advance relative to the prior literature. They identified new oncogenic drivers such as
EIF1AX, which encodes a protein involved in protein translation, and PPM1D, and
CHEK2, which encodes proteins involved in DNA repair. The multiplatform analysis
revealed that oncogenic driver mutations were associated with different thyroid cancer
clinical, pathological, and differentiation characteristics. The most common driver
mutations, BRAF and RAS, were defined by classic subtype and follicular variant
histological patterns, respectively. Follicular variant histology was also associated with
perturbations in PTEN, PPARG, and TSHR genes. The number and density of mutations
in this cohort correlated highly with age, as well as risk of recurrence, as outlined in
the 2009 American Thyroid Association (ATA) guidelines and the traditional clinical
14 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
risk stratification system for differentiated thyroid cancer, the MACIS score. The work
confirmed prior signaling studies indicating the critical role of MAPK pathway signaling
in PTC. The genetic analysis also identified TERT promoter mutations in less well-
differentiated PTC tumors, and these mutations were not associated with BRAF gene
mutations. Of note, unlike some other endocrine tumors, viral drivers of oncogenesis
were not identified in PTC.
The authors postulated that the relatively low overall density of somatic mutations in
PTC, compared to other cancer types, may explain the underlying mechanism for the
generally indolent clinical behavior of this carcinoma type. The authors also provided
conclusive evidence that the driving mutations are typically clonal events and that
differences in driver mutations can lead to profound and important changes in genomics
signatures and signaling such that some cancers may signal exclusively through MAPK
(i.e., BRAF) while others signal through both MAPK and the PI3K pathways (i.e.,
RAS). To explore signaling and differentiation, a 71-gene signature was derived from
391 samples with exome and RNA sequencing data from BRAFV600E and RAS-mutated
tumors to show how gene profiling from each tumor resembled BRAFV600E or RAS-
mutant profiles, and a BRAFV600E-RAS (BRS) score was calculated. All BRAF mutations
other than BRAFV600E, PAX8/PPARG fusions, and 4/6 EIF1AX were RAS-like, whereas
BRAF fusions and RET fusions were BRAFV600E-like. Lastly, a thyroid differentiation
score (TDS) based on 16 thyroid metabolism and functional genes was calculated, which
was highly correlated with global changes in gene expression that could be correlated
with tumor grade, risk, and MACIS score. TDS and BRS were highly correlated, though
independently derived, validating their use and suggesting these scores reflect similar
biological behavior determined by the gene expression of PTC.
Cluster analysis was undertaken on four genomic datasets and identified two meta-
clusters with BRAFV600E and RAS-like profiles, which were further divided into
distinct subtypes based on messenger RNA (mRNA) and miRNA expression and DNA
methylation. These subtypes differed in terms of gene mutations, histology, and risk
profiles, e.g., one cluster in the BRAFV600E-like meta-cluster contained most of the
tall-cell variant PTCs.
STUDY LIMITATIONS
The prognostic value of the genetic signatures identified relies on accurate clinical
annotation. Ideally, this would include detailed historical variables collected over long
time periods, as well as details related to treatment responses. However, the TCGA
Chapter 3 • Molecular Diagnostics 15
project was not designed for detailed annotations of patient outcomes, and the clinical
follow-up was relatively short.5 The extensive volume of data is also challenging to
analyze and requires a priori knowledge of gene function that may not represent, in
magnitude or nature, the role of individual genes in the context of different tumors and
their unique gene expression signatures.6 The choice to exclude follicular thyroid and
Hurthle cell carcinoma cases from this analysis deprives the study of an opportunity
to highlight other important unique genetic drivers. Lastly, high-dimensional single-
cell technologies will likely extend the work of the TCGA project to provide increased
resolution for clinically relevant gene expression signatures.7
STUDY IMPACT
At the time of publication of this landmark paper, the application of surgery and
radioactive iodine for PTC was guided by clinical and pathological characteristics
that included tumor size, patient age, and the extent of lymphatic spread.1,2 Molecular
markers in thyroid cancer guidelines were neither dissuaded nor recommended,
and National Cancer Comprehensive Network (NCCN) and ATA guidelines did not
recommend or address genetic markers in terms of prognostic value or differentiation.1,8
In the past 8 years, TCGA genomic assessments are moving into the mainstream as
both diagnostic and the prognostic management tools for thyroid carcinoma. Multiple
studies now demonstrate how genomic studies can add value to the more traditional
clinical pathological systems used to prognosticate for PTC, and it is predicted that
molecular genetic analysis will be a requirement in future thyroid cancer treatment
guidelines.9–11
The parameters guiding the adjuvant treatment of thyroid cancer have also been strongly
influenced by careful study of the genetic underpinnings of PTC. Risk stratification is
a key component of the management of thyroid carcinoma and has traditionally relied
heavily on the TNM criteria. However, an updated classification of thyroid cancers
based on differentiation, or mapping tumor signatures associated with BRAF or RAS
mutations, will help to classify these tumors with greater precision and better inform the
selection of adjuvant therapy.17 Development of novel targeted therapies also continues to
rely on the TCGA database for validating targets and understanding changes in signaling
pathways with respect to different driver mutations.17–19
REFERENCES
1. Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR, et al. Revised American thyroid association management
guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. American thyroid
association (ATA) guidelines taskforce on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid.
2009; 19: 1167–1214. doi: 10.1089/thy.2009.0110
2. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. Springer Cham;
2017.
3. Xing M, Haugen BR, Schlumberger M. Progress in molecular-based management of differentiated
thyroid cancer. Lancet. 2013; 381(9871): 1058–1069. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60109-9
4. Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network. Integrated genomic characterization of papillary thyroid
carcinoma. Cell. 2014; 159(3): 676–690. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.050
5. Hu H, Liu J, Lichtenberg T, et al. An integrated TCGA pan-cancer clinical data resource to drive
high-quality survival outcome analytics; Cancer Genome Atlas research network. Cell. 2018; 173(2):
400–416.e11. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.02.052
6. Maertens A, Tran VP, Maertens M, et al. Functionally enigmatic genes in cancer: Using TCGA data to
map the limitations of annotations. Sci Rep. 2020; 10: 4106. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-60456-x
7. Gohil SH, Iorgulescu JB, Braun DA, Keskin DB, Livak KJ. Applying high-dimensional single-cell
technologies to the analysis of cancer immunotherapy. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2021; 18(4): 244–256. doi:
10.1038/s41571-020-00449-x
8. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Practice Guidelines in Oncology. 2009. https://www.
nccn.org/guidelines/
9. Tuttle RM, Haugen B, Perrier ND. Updated American Joint Committee on cancer/tumor-node-metastasis
staging system for differentiated and anaplastic thyroid cancer (eighth edition): What changed and why?
Thyroid. 2017; 27(6): 751–756. doi: 10.1089/thy.2017.0102
10. Poma AM, Macerola E, Torregrossa L, Elisei R, Santini F, Basolo F. Using the Cancer Genome Atlas
data to refine the 8th edition of the American joint committee on cancer staging for papillary thyroid
carcinoma. Endocrine. 2021; 72(1): 140–146. doi: 10.1007/s12020-020-02434-x
11. Acuña-Ruiz A, Carrasco-López C, Santisteban P. Genomic and epigenomic profile of thyroid cancer.
Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2023; 37(1): 101656. doi: 10.1016/j.beem.2022.101656
12. Walsh PS, Wilde JI, Tom EY, et al. Analytical performance verification of a molecular diagnostic
for cytology-indeterminate thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012; 97(12): E2297–E2306.
doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-1923
13. Vargas-Salas S, Martínez JR, Urra S, et al. Genetic testing for indeterminate thyroid cytology: Review
and meta-analysis. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2018; 25(3): R163–R177. doi: 10.1530/ERC-17-0405
14. Kasaian K, Wiseman SM, Walker BA, et al. The genomic and transcriptomic landscape of
anaplastic thyroid cancer: Implications for therapy. BMC Cancer. 2015; 15: 984. doi: 10.1186/
s12885-015-1955-9
15. Landa I, Ibrahimpasic T, Boucai L, et al. Genomic and transcriptomic hallmarks of poorly differentiated
and anaplastic thyroid cancers. J Clin Invest. 2016; 126(3): 1052–1066. doi: 10.1172/JCI85271
16. Ronsley R, Rassekh SR, Shen Y, et al. Application of genomics to identify therapeutic targets in
recurrent pediatric papillary thyroid carcinoma. Cold Spring Harb Mol Case Stud. 2018; 4(2): a002568.
doi: 10.1101/mcs.a002568
Chapter 3 • Molecular Diagnostics 17
17. Nixon IJ, Ganly I, Patel SG, et al. The results of selective use of radioactive iodine on survival and on
recurrence in the management of papillary thyroid cancer, based on Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer
Center risk group stratification. Thyroid. 2013; 23(6): 683–694. doi: 10.1089/thy.2012.0307
18. Hescheler DA, Riemann B, Hartmann MJM, et al. Targeted therapy of papillary thyroid cancer: A
comprehensive genomic analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021; 12: 748941. doi: 10.3389/
fendo.2021.748941
19. Naoum GE, Morkos M, Kim B, Arafat W. Novel targeted therapies and immunotherapy for advanced
thyroid cancers. Mol Cancer. 2018; 17: 51. doi: 10.1186/s12943-018-0786-0
Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
Chapter 4
Ablation
Review by Hannah Nieto and Neil Sharma
Landmark Paper
US-GUIDED PERCUTANEOUS RADIOFREQUENCY
VERSUS MICROWAVE ABLATION FOR BENIGN THYROID
NODULES: A PROSPECTIVE MULTICENTER STUDY
Cheng Z, Che Y, Yu S, Wang S, Teng D, Xu H, Li J, Sun D, Han Z, Liang P. Sci Rep.
2017;7:9554. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09930-7
RESEARCH QUESTION/OBJECTIVES
Thyroid nodules are common; even in palpably normal thyroids, the prevalence of
nodular disease is up to 60%, with over 90% being benign1 – the majority of these
require no treatment. However, some nodules cause compressive symptoms, while
others are of cosmetic concern and need intervention. Minimally invasive techniques
(radiofrequency ablation [RFA], microwave ablation [MWA], laser ablation [(LA],
and ethanol ablation [EA], as well as high-frequency ultrasound [HIFU]) have gained
popularity in recent years. Users report ease of use, with good effectiveness and safety
compared to surgical options, and they can be performed in an outpatient setting. While
EA is mostly used for cystic nodules,2 RFA, MWA, LA, and HIFU are applied to solid/
predominantly solid nodules with volume reduction ratios of 80–90% reported at 1 year
after treatment; however, many studies are retrospective and do not directly compare
techniques, and so there is uncertainty as to which approach is most efficacious.2–4 While
more recent studies have further answered this question,5,6 this landmark paper was the
first to prospectively compare RFA and MWA in terms of efficacy and safety to provide a
benchmark for further studies in these emerging techniques.
STUDY DESIGN
This was a prospective nonrandomized multicenter study carried out between 2013 and
2015 from eight centers in China.
SAMPLE SIZE
A total of 1,252 patients were studied, with 649 patients undergoing RFA for treatment
of 687 benign thyroid nodules and 603 patients undergoing MWA for treatment of 664
benign thyroid nodules.
18 DOI: 10.1201/9781003196211-4
Chapter 4 • Ablation 19
INCLUSION/EXCLUSION CRITERIA
Benign thyroid nodules were included (malignant or follicular lesions were excluded),
and these had to be proven benign by either two fine needle aspirate cytology samples or
one histopathological core needle biopsy. In terms of nodule characteristics, the maximal
diameter was not smaller than 2 cm, with progressive growth and a solid component that
was greater than 20%. For study inclusion, patients also had to be symptomatic (such as
neck pain, foreign body sensation, compressive symptoms) and have cosmetic concerns or
hyperthyroidism from an autonomously functioning nodule, with no prior treatment given.
Patients with severe symptoms, malignancy, or suspicion of malignancy; or those who had
undergone a prior thyroid operation or who taking medication for their thyroid; or had a
documented contralateral vocal cord palsy were excluded from the study population.
One ablation session was performed per nodule, with the patient in a supine position
on continuous monitoring (blood pressure, oxygen saturations, pulse rate, and
electrocardiogram [ECG]). Sterile technique was followed with 1% lidocaine used as
local anesthetic. Target nodules were identified with real-time ultrasound (US). Cystic
components were aspirated prior to ablation. The electrode/antenna was introduced into
the nodule under US guidance and 20–50 W applied for MWA and 25–60 W for RFA.
For both techniques hydrodissection was used for cases where the ablated nodule was
situated at the upper or lower poles or near nerves/viscera. This is standard practice to
reduce the risk of thermal injury to these structures.7,8 The patient’s voice was monitored
during the procedure, and patients were observed for 30 minutes after the procedure.
The RFA and MWA techniques were compared by evaluating nodular maximal diameter
reduction ratio, nodular volume reduction ratio, and the incidence of complications.
Vascular (proportion of vascularized nodule measured by color Doppler flow),
symptomatic (10-cm visual analogue score, patient self-measured), and cosmetic scores
(physician measured) preprocedure and at 3, 6, and 12 months follow-up during the first
year and at 6 to 12 months thereafter were also measured.
RESULTS
In terms of maximal diameter reduction rate, both techniques significantly reduced the
nodule diameter, but the reduction was significantly higher with RFA than with MWA
at 6 months, 12 months, and last follow-up, but not at 3 months. Similarly, the volume
reduction ratio was significant for each treatment individually, but was significantly
better in the RFA group compared to the MWA group at 6 months (84.1% vs 78.4%),
12 months (89.6% vs 82.5%), and at last follow-up (91.3% vs 81.1%), with no significant
20 Section One • Thyroid Nodule Evaluation and Treatment
difference between the two treatments at 3 months (67.6% vs 64.4). However, in terms of
the patients’ symptoms, there was no difference between the two treatments with regard
to their mean vascular, symptomatic, or cosmetic scores. Both treatments significantly
improved the clinical symptom scores at all time points.
The other important consideration in this study was the comparison of side effects and
complications, and there was no significant difference in these outcomes between RFA
and MWA. There was, however, a 4.78% (31/687) (RFA) and 6.63% (40/664) (MWA)
major complication rate (total 71 patients), which included voice change, nodule rupture,
and nerve injury. The majority of major complications were due to voice change, which
had resolved in all cases within 3 months and occurred in 4.49% (29/687) in the RFA
group and 5.8% (35/664) in the MWA group. One patient in the MWA group developed
ptosis from a sympathetic chain injury that resolved with time. A further 2% (13/687)
in the RFA group and 2.49% (12/664) in the MWA group experienced hemorrhage/
hematoma. Side effects of pain requiring oral analgesia, cough, or fever were
experienced by <5% patients in both groups.
STUDY LIMITATIONS
The major limitation of this study was that the patients were not randomized, as this
could have affected the allocation of the patients to each treatment type. The baseline
characteristics of each treatment group of patients beyond age and gender were not
compared in this study, which would have been useful given the lack of randomization.
The study also did not encompass surgery as an alternate treatment, which would
have better reflected the clinical treatment options currently available. The study also
included predominantly cystic nodules, which could have given an artificially elevated
volume reduction ratio, and the current recommendation is for ethanol ablation of
cystic nodules.4 The authors did not include data on whether the two study groups were
similar in terms of average cystic content of nodules, although all nodules were at least
20% solid – in keeping with current recommendations for ablation. A final important
limitation of the study was the lack of long-term follow-up, with the mean follow-up
duration being 13 months. Lengthier follow-up is important to determine recurrence
rates as well as late complications such as hypothyroidism.
STUDY IMPACT
New outpatient-based techniques have recently become available for ablation of
symptomatic benign thyroid nodules, potentially obviating the need for surgical
removal of the gland. These include RFA, LA, HIFU, and MWA. Percutaneous EA is
recommended for primarily cystic lesions but is not as effective for nodules that are
predominantly solid.2,9,10
RFA is an image (US)–guided thermal ablative procedure that provides one potential
alternative to surgery for symptomatic benign thyroid nodules and may be particularly
suited for individuals who decline surgery or are high risk for surgical intervention.
During RFA the moving shot technique is used, where the operator moves the RFA
Chapter 4 • Ablation 21
needle within the nodule and observes the tissue changes with US that occur due to
heat-induced necrosis.11 Care must be taken laterally in the thyroid capsule to prevent
heat damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve – hydrodissection was undertaken in 35.1%
(457/1351) of patients in this landmark paper to minimize the risk of this complication.
Immediate nodule shrinkage is seen, with continued size reduction occurring over the
next few months. The technique is most efficient for nodules with a volume that is less
than 10 mL,11 and it may be used for treatment of benign nonfunctioning nodules or
benign autonomously functioning thyroid nodules (causing hyperthyroidism).
This landmark paper concludes that RFA is a suitable and safe alternative to MWA
for ablation of benign thyroid nodules, with a significantly greater shrinkage of nodule
volume than MWA and comparable improvement of patients’ symptoms. This is in
keeping with later studies and consensus statements issued since publication of this
landmark paper.8
REFERENCES
1. Tan GH, Gharib H. Thyroid incidentalomas: Management approaches to nonpalpable nodules discovered
incidentally on thyroid imaging. Ann Intern Med. 1997; 126(3): 226–231. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-126-
3-199702010-00009
2. Sung JY, Kim YS, Choi H, Lee JH, Baek JH. Optimum first-line treatment technique for benign cystic
thyroid nodules: Ethanol ablation or radiofrequency ablation? AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2011; 196(2):
W210–W214. doi: 10.2214/AJR.10.5172
3. Mainini AP, Monaco C, Pescatori LC, et al. Image-guided thermal ablation of benign thyroid nodules.
J Ultrasound. 2017; 20(1): 11–22. doi: 10.1007/s40477-016-0221-6
4. Gharib H, Hegedus L, Pacella CM, Baek JH, Papini E. Clinical review: Nonsurgical, image-guided,
minimally invasive therapy for thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013; 98(10): 3949–3957.
doi: 10.1210/jc.2013-1806
5. Vorlander C, David Kohlhase K, Korkusuz Y, et al. Comparison between microwave ablation and bipolar
radiofrequency ablation in benign thyroid nodules: Differences in energy transmission, duration of
application and applied shots. Int J Hyperthermia. 2018; 35(1): 216–225. doi: 10.1080/02656736.
2018.1489984
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
tudott találni. Kati legyen a nevem, ha ez nem czéhbiztos. De halljuk
őket.
– A hatóság igen engedékeny! – mondá az arszlán, s ezen
megerőltetése következtében nagyot köhintett, és selyem
zsebkendőjével homlokát törlé; de csak igen gyöngén, hogy a
rizsport valamikép le ne súrolja.
– Hiszen a mai világban a botot már csak sétálásra szabad
használni! – tevé hozzá a régi korszak embere, és mérgében alsó
ajkát majd lenyelte, mi arra látszott mutatni, hogy fogainak már
szörnyü hiánya van.
– Már akár mit mondanak is az urak a sok zöld asztal mellett, én
ugyan nem is hederíthetek az afféle zöld beszédekre, hanem
kötelességemet hiven teljesítem, meddig karomat és botomat birom;
ebben tökéletesen megnyughatnak uraságtok. – Ezt a harmadik férfi
mondá, és hivatalos dühében oly magosra rántá alsó ajakát, hogy
csaknem orrát nyelte szájába, mi által a dohány- és illetőleg
burnótárusok mindenesetre tetemesül károsultak volna.
– Jól mondja, biztos ur, mit a nagyok elmulasztanak, azt önök
helyrehozni tartoznak, különben ugyan mit érne az egész polgári
szabadság, ha végre minden paraszt vagy nemes ember szabadon
üzhetné a szabómesterséget!
– Ugy van! Az ily potom emberek ugyis oly mohón látnak a
munkához, hogy egész nadrágot megvarrnak, mi alatt én titoknokom
és két irnokom társaságában egyetlen osztás whistet játszom el. És
polgárnak s mesternek csak nem fogadhatunk föl minden jött ment
legényt, ki müvelt társaságban még csak meg sem tud állani. Én
csak finom legényeket tarthatok.
– Csak hiában ne járjunk.
– Oh, nem!
– Jól tudunk mindent.
– Bizonyosan rajta kapjuk.
– Tudom el fog jövendőre minden kedve menni a munkától a
sehonnainak.
– Nem leszünk hálátlanok.
– Csak ne tessék őt kimélni.
– Mester ur, kérem, ne sértegessen!
Művelt emberkinzás.
ebookbell.com