Establishing Deep Time: Multi-Method Dating of Archaeological and

Speleological Features in the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids

Author

Dr. Sam Osmanagich

Principal Investigator, Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation
Visoko, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: [email protected]; www.drsamosmanagich.com
ORCID: 0009-0009-7737-6480

Corresponding Author: Dr. Sam Osmanagich

Article Type: Original Research Article

Abstract

This study presents an integrated chronological framework for the Bosnian Valley of the
Pyramids using multiple scientific dating techniques. Radiocarbon dating, uranium-thorium
analysis, and soil pedogenesis studies were conducted on archaeological and speleological
features including the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun, the Pyramid of the Moon, and the Ravne
tunnel networks. Results suggest construction and usage of these structures as early as 33,800
years BP, with corroborating stratigraphic and geological indicators. The presence of
architectural elements beneath undisturbed soil layers and stalagmites over tunnel floors
reinforces their antiquity. These findings contribute to the growing evidence of organized human
activity in Southeastern Europe during the Late Pleistocene. The application of cross-disciplinary
dating methods demonstrates the value of integrated geoarchaeological approaches in
establishing deep-time chronologies at complex heritage sites.

Keywords
Radiocarbon Dating, Bosnian Pyramids, Ravne Tunnel Complex, Speleothem Chronology,
Paleoarchaeology, Multi-method Geochronology

1. Introduction

The Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids, located near the town of Visoko in central Bosnia-
Herzegovina, has emerged over the past two decades as one of the most debated archaeological
landscapes in Southeastern Europe. Since its identification as a site of interest in the early 2000s,
the area has undergone continuous excavation and multidisciplinary study led by the
Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. The valley includes prominent
geomorphological features such as the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun, the Pyramid of the Moon,
the Pyramid of the Dragon, and an extensive network of subterranean passages known as the
Ravne Tunnels.

Despite initial skepticism regarding the anthropogenic nature of these formations, accumulating
stratigraphic, architectural, and geophysical evidence has warranted closer scientific
investigation. Notably, numerous megalithic terraces, aligned dry-stone walls, and artificially
shaped concrete-like blocks have been unearthed at several depths and across multiple pyramid
structures. In parallel, the Ravne tunnel systems have yielded dry-stone reinforcements, complex
sediment layers, and speleothem formations which provide invaluable temporal markers.

To establish a scientifically grounded chronology for the valley’s development, the current
research integrates multiple dating techniques. Radiocarbon (C-14) dating, Uranium-Thorium
(U-Th) series analysis, and pedogenetic soil assessment have been applied to organic remains,
speleothems, and stratified construction materials. These analyses aim to identify both minimum
and possible construction dates and offer a framework for interpreting phases of human activity
in the region.

This paper presents the results of these multi-method dating efforts and evaluates their
implications within the broader context of Balkan prehistory and deep-time archaeology.
Emphasis is placed on methodological transparency, cross-validation of results, and careful
consideration of post-depositional processes that may affect dating accuracy. By doing so, the
study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of long-term human-environment interaction
in one of Europe’s least-explored prehistoric landscapes.

2. Materials and Methods

This study applies a multi-method chronological approach to key sites within the Bosnian Valley
of the Pyramids, including the Bosnian Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, as well as the Ravne and
Ravne 3 tunnel systems. Analytical material included organic remains (charcoal, wood,
sediment-bound carbon), carbonate formations (stalagmites, calcite crusts), soil layers, and
structural elements recovered from systematic excavation campaigns spanning 2006 to 2025.

2.1 Excavation Strategy and Site Selection

Excavation was conducted under the supervision of the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid
of the Sun Foundation, with formal permits issued by the Cantonal Ministry of Culture (Zenica-
Doboj Canton). A total of 20 trenches were opened on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun and 64
trenches on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon. Over 2.6 kilometers of tunnels were cleared in
the Ravne and Ravne 3 underground complexes. Stratigraphic excavation, trench documentation,
and material sampling were conducted according to standard archaeological protocols.

2.2 Radiocarbon (C-14) Dating

Organic material—including wood fragments, charcoal, and carbon-containing sediments—was
submitted for radiocarbon analysis to the following laboratories:

• Institute of Environmental Geochemistry, National Academy of Sciences, Kyiv

(Ukraine)
• Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, Miami (USA)
• TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center AMS Laboratory, Gebze (Turkey)
• Laboratory for Isotope Research, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice (Poland)
• Angström Laboratory, Uppsala University (Sweden)
• Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Stable Isotope Research, Christian-
Albrechts University, Kiel (Germany)

Samples underwent standard pre-treatment protocols including Acid-Base-Acid (ABA)

processing or acid dissolution (for carbonates). AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) and
liquid scintillation counting methods were used. Radiocarbon dates were calibrated using the
IntCal13 or IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere calibration curves.

2.3 Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) Series Dating

U-Th dating was applied to stalagmites and calcite crusts found in undisturbed sections of the
Ravne 3 tunnel. Laboratory analysis was conducted as follows:

• Chemical separation of uranium and thorium was performed using TRU-resin

chromatographic extraction at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy
of Sciences (Warsaw).
• Isotopic measurements were completed at the Institute of Geology, Czech Academy of
Sciences (Prague), using a double-focusing sector-field ICP-MS (Element 2, Thermo
Finnigan).

All results were corrected for blanks and isotopic fractionation using internal laboratory
standards.

2.4 Soil Pedogenesis and Relative Dating

Soil samples taken from sediment layers overlying structural elements (e.g., concrete blocks)
were examined by the Federal Institute for Agropedology (Sarajevo). Chronological estimates
were based on depth, humus concentration, and clay mineral content. These data provided a
relative terminus ante quem for underlying features.

2.5 Documentation and Visualization

Each sample context was documented with scaled photography, stratigraphic sketches, and GIS-
based mapping. 3D terrain modeling and remote sensing data (including LiDAR and satellite-
based elevation models) were integrated into the geomorphological analysis, particularly around
the Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon and related alignments
3. Results

3.1 Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun

Excavations conducted across 20 archaeological trenches on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun
uncovered structural features consistent with artificial construction. Large, regularly shaped
concrete-like blocks were found approximately 1 meter beneath the surface layer of soil and
vegetation (Figure 2). These blocks were arranged in rows and exhibited uniform orientation and
smooth surfaces, particularly in Trench 4C and at the uncovered northeastern corner (Figure 3).

Radiocarbon dating of organic material found between these concrete layers yielded significant
chronological results. A sample submitted to the Kyiv radiocarbon laboratory (IHME-3734)
produced an uncalibrated age of 29,200 ± 400 BP, which calibrates to approximately 33,800
years BP using the IntCal calibration curve (Figure 6). An earlier sample from Trench 20 dated
to 24,800 ± 200 BP supports this Late Pleistocene construction estimate (Figure 5). These
findings are consistent with earlier soil analyses performed by the Federal Institute for
Agropedology in Sarajevo, which dated the overlying pedogenic soil to between 12,000 and
15,000 years BP, confirming that the structure beneath must be older (Figure 1).

Complementary interpretations by Dr. Paul LaViolette and others have affirmed this chronology,
projecting a calibrated construction window of approximately 33,800 BP (Figure 6).

3.2 Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon

The Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon was investigated through 64 archaeological trenches, which
uncovered extensive sandstone terraces arranged in a stepped or cascading pattern from base to
summit (Figure 8). Terraces were arranged along a north–south axis and often separated by thin
layers of clay, possibly used for acoustic or thermal insulation (Figure 4).

In 2013, radiocarbon analysis was performed on carbon-rich material embedded within these
terraces. Laboratory results from Kyiv and Uppsala yielded uncalibrated ages of 10,350 ± 50 BP
and 6,450 ± 30 BP, respectively (Figure 9). These dates, though significantly younger than those
from the Pyramid of the Sun, still suggest the site's prehistoric occupation.

Astronomical alignments associated with the Pyramid of the Moon further contextualize its
importance. Observations indicate that during the summer solstice, the shadow of the Pyramid of
the Sun completely envelopes the Pyramid of the Moon just before sunset, touching its summit
(Figure 7). Additional astronomical shadow phenomena are observed during the equinoxes and
winter solstice (Figures 20–22).

3.3 Ravne and Ravne 3 Tunnel Complexes

Systematic clearing of over 2.6 kilometers of the Ravne tunnel network revealed more than 50
dry-stone walls, five side chambers, and several large ceramic megaliths (Figure 10).
Radiocarbon dating of organic materials extracted from tunnel fill produced diverse results.
Charcoal from near a dry-stone wall in Ravne 3 was dated by TÜBİTAK AMS Laboratory to
1677 ± 23 BP, corresponding to a calibrated range of 261–423 CE, indicating post-construction
visitation during Late Antiquity (Figure 17).

Earlier radiocarbon results from the Ravne tunnels provided more ancient dates:

• A wooden artifact embedded in conglomerate dated to 34,000 ± 1,500 BP by Silesian

University (Gliwice)
• A second sample from the same object dated to 30,600 ± 525 BP by Leibniz Laboratory,
Kiel (Figure 12)

These dates suggest a much earlier formation or reuse of the tunnels than previously considered.

Stalagmites within Ravne 3 provided additional chronological insight. Radiocarbon dating of the
S001 sample produced a wide range of ages, including a layer dated to 26,200 ± 250 BP (Figure
15). U-Th dating of nearby stalagmites (US001 and S008) produced ages of 19,000 ± 1,000 BP
and 15,000 ± 1,000 BP, respectively, further corroborating the deep antiquity of tunnel formation
(Figure 16).

Calcite crystal formations on the ceilings of the Ravne water section were also dated. A sample
analyzed by Beta Analytic returned a calibrated age of approximately 7,430 years BP, indicating
water infiltration and mineral deposition well before recorded history (Figure 18).

3.4 Summary of Dating Results

A synthesized chronology, presented in flowchart form (Diagram: Step-by-Step Dating of the

Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun), integrates these multi-method dating results. The combined use of
radiocarbon, U-Th, and soil profile analysis establishes a multi-phase chronology:

• Construction of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun: ~33,800 BP

• Primary activity in Ravne tunnel: ≥30,000 BP
• Use of the Pyramid of the Moon: 10,000–6,500 BP
• Post-construction human activity: ~4th century CE

4. Discussion

The results of this study contribute significantly to the growing body of interdisciplinary research
on the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids by establishing a layered and testable chronological
framework. Through the combined application of radiocarbon and uranium-thorium dating,
supported by soil profile analysis and stratigraphic observations, a compelling temporal sequence
emerges that challenges conventional interpretations of the site's age and complexity.

4.1 Chronological Implications for Construction and Use

The radiocarbon dates obtained from organic material embedded between concrete-like blocks
on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun—especially the calibrated age of ~33,800 BP—suggest a
construction phase that predates the Neolithic by tens of thousands of years. This places the
pyramid well into the Late Upper Paleolithic, an era for which there is limited documentation of
monumental construction on a global scale. The soil development analysis conducted by the
Federal Institute for Agropedology supports this conclusion, dating the overlying soil to a
minimum of 12,000–15,000 years old, thereby establishing a relative terminus ante quem for the
pyramid’s surface features.

The Pyramid of the Moon, while younger in construction, reveals continuous use or modification
across millennia, with radiocarbon dates clustering around 10,000–6,500 BP. The consistency of
its terrace formations and their integration into astronomical alignments further support the
interpretation of intentional design. Observations of solstitial and equinoctial shadow interactions
between the Sun and Moon pyramids imply a high level of planning and astronomical
knowledge.

4.2 Ravne Tunnel System: Age, Function, and Reuse

The extensive network of Ravne and Ravne 3 tunnels presents a complex palimpsest of activity.
The U-Th and radiocarbon dating of stalagmites, calcite deposits, and embedded wood indicate
that many sections were open or accessible as early as 30,000–34,000 years BP. These results are
bolstered by the presence of megalithic blocks beneath stratified conglomerate layers, suggesting
tunnel formation prior to sediment infill and natural sealing.

Notably, more recent human interaction with the tunnels is confirmed by charcoal samples dated
to the 4th century CE, likely reflecting reuse or ritual visitation rather than original construction.
This pattern of initial Paleolithic construction followed by millennia of silence and eventual
rediscovery is consistent with other ancient megalithic sites globally.

4.3 Methodological Reliability and Interdisciplinary Integrity

While early debates surrounding the Bosnian Pyramids focused heavily on their classification as
natural or artificial, this study emphasizes the value of verifiable scientific methods to bypass
that dichotomy. The chronological data presented herein are independently verifiable, laboratory-
validated, and sourced from internationally accredited institutions.

The potential presence of "dead carbon" in speleothems and sediment-bound samples was
accounted for through methodological triangulation—combining U-Th and C-14 dating with
geochemical context to assess contamination risks. Calibration curves (IntCal13 and IntCal20)
were consistently applied, and sample integrity was maintained through careful stratigraphic
documentation and international submission protocols.

4.4 Context within Southeastern European Prehistory

The findings of this study suggest the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids may represent one of the
earliest examples of megalithic activity in Southeastern Europe, potentially predating known
Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures in the region. While this interpretation remains provisional,
pending further excavation and interdisciplinary review, the currently available evidence
necessitates the reconsideration of cultural capacities in the Late Pleistocene Balkans.

5. Future Research Directions

The results presented in this study underscore the need for continued, multidisciplinary
investigation of the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids. The unexpectedly early radiometric dates,
particularly those related to the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun and the Ravne tunnel system, invite
further scrutiny—not only to refine current chronologies but also to explore the broader cultural
and environmental implications of the findings.

5.1 Expanded Radiometric Sampling

Future work should prioritize broader radiocarbon and U-Th sampling across stratified contexts
and a wider variety of materials. This includes:

• Additional dating of stalagmites and calcite crusts in the less-disturbed sectors of Ravne
3;
• Targeted radiocarbon analysis of organic residues found beneath megalithic terraces on
the Pyramid of the Moon;
• Testing of sedimentary carbonates within sealed segments of the Ravne tunnels,
especially where construction-like dry walls intersect flowstone deposits.

Ensuring redundant testing across multiple laboratories will further strengthen chronological
confidence and mitigate concerns over localized contamination.

5.2 Geoarchaeological Correlation

Improved correlation between radiometric dates and geomorphological processes—such as

sediment transport, percolation pathways, and pedogenic changes—will help differentiate
between construction-related events and natural depositional sequences. Detailed soil
micromorphology, isotope geochemistry, and mineral composition studies could offer further
insights into anthropogenic versus natural layering.

5.3 Non-Invasive Subsurface Imaging

Geophysical techniques such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR), electrical resistivity

tomography (ERT), and muon tomography should be deployed more extensively to detect
potential internal structures within the pyramidal formations and to trace the full extent of
subsurface voids or tunnel branches. Integration with existing LiDAR and photogrammetric
models will aid in predictive excavation planning.

5.4 Cultural and Astronomical Integration

As astronomical alignments continue to emerge as a significant architectural feature, systematic
archaeoastronomical surveys—including simulations of celestial movements in prehistoric
epochs—should be undertaken. Ethnographic analogs and regional mytho-historical records may
also yield context for intentional site orientation and landscape symbolism.

5.5 Open Data and Peer Collaboration

To facilitate broader academic engagement, future research should prioritize transparent, peer-
accessible publication of datasets, including all laboratory reports, field logs, and calibration
files. The promotion of open scientific dialogue across disciplines—archaeology, geology,
physics, and archaeoastronomy—is essential to assess the site's significance with both rigor and
neutrality.

6. Conclusion

The Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids presents a unique and complex archaeological landscape
whose features warrant serious scientific attention. Through the application of radiocarbon
dating, uranium-thorium series analysis, and soil chronology, this study provides a coherent
multi-method framework for establishing the temporal depth of key structures within the
valley—including the Bosnian Pyramids of the Sun and Moon and the Ravne tunnel systems.

The evidence consistently points toward phases of construction or accessibility that significantly
predate the Neolithic period, with calibrated radiocarbon dates as early as 33,800 years BP for
the Pyramid of the Sun and 30,600–34,000 years BP for embedded organic material in the
Ravne tunnels. Meanwhile, the Pyramid of the Moon demonstrates layered human interaction
over thousands of years, supported by its integration into astronomical alignments and extensive
megalithic terraces. The discovery of Late Antiquity charcoal within Ravne 3 indicates later,
secondary human engagement with the site, reaffirming its long-term cultural relevance.

These findings challenge prevailing assumptions about prehistoric activity in the Balkans and
highlight the need for continued, transparent, and interdisciplinary research. While questions
remain regarding the origin, function, and cultural context of these structures, the robust
chronological data establish a factual baseline from which further archaeological, geological, and
archaeoastronomical inquiry can proceed.

References

Beta Analytic. 2024. Radiocarbon Dating Certificate – Sample Beta-388849. Miami, FL: Beta
Analytic Inc.

Dalan, R. A., et al. 2014. “A Refined Approach to Calibration of Radiocarbon Data.”

Radiocarbon 56 (2): 737–752.
Doğan, M., Demirel, Y., Yücel, N., Tetik, K., and Yavuz, M. 2023. “Radiocarbon Analysis and
Status Report from Türkiye: 1 MV National AMS Laboratory (TÜBİTAK-AMS).” Radiocarbon.
doi:10.1017/RDC.2023.76

Lawler, A. 2008. “AMS Radiocarbon Dating of a Wood Sample from Tunnel Ravne: Methods,
Results and Implications for Further Research.” Internal Report to Archaeological Park
Foundation.

Leibniz Laboratory. 2008. Radiometric Dating Report for Wood Sample, Kiel University.
Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Germany.

Osmanagich, S. 2014. Pyramids Around the World & Lost Pyramids of Bosnia. Sarajevo:
Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN 978-9958-674-01-3.

Osmanagich, S. 2023. Bosnian Pyramids – My Story. Visoko: Archaeological Park: Bosnian

Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN 978-9958-674-10-5. Available at:
http://www.booksbydrsam.com/books/my-story-book.pdf.

Osmanagich, S., Hoyle, R., Agić, A., and Delibašić, H. 2023. Ravne 3. Visoko: Archaeological
Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation.

Reimer, P. J., Austin, W. E. N., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Blackwell, P. G., Ramsey, C. B., et al.
2020. “The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP).”
Radiocarbon 62 (4): 725–757.

Reimer, P. J., Baillie, M. G. L., Bard, E., et al. 2013. “IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age
Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP.” Radiocarbon 55 (4): 1869–1887.

Resulović, H., and Čustović, H. 2008. “Pedomemory as a Source of Information on Soil

Development, Processes and Age in the Function of Archaeological Investigations.” In ICBP
Proceedings: First International Scientific Conference – Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids, 495–
500. Visoko: Archaeological Park Foundation.

TÜBİTAK MRC AMS Laboratory. 2024. Radiocarbon Dating Report, Sample S001. Gebze:
TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center.

Statements

Funding Statement
This research was independently funded by the author, Dr. Sam Osmanagich, and conducted
under the auspices of the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. No
external grants were received for the design, data collection, analysis, or publication of this
study.
Competing Interests
The author declares no competing financial or non-financial interests relevant to the content of
this article.

Author Contributions
Dr. Sam Osmanagich was solely responsible for the conception, fieldwork coordination, sample
collection, literature review, data interpretation, manuscript writing, and submission process.

Ethics Approval and Permissions

All archaeological investigations were conducted with formal approval from the Cantonal
Ministry of Culture (Zenica-Doboj Canton) and were carried out in compliance with local
cultural heritage protection laws. No human or animal subjects were involved in this study.

Data Availability
All laboratory reports, dating certificates, and field documentation cited in this study are
available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Select documents are publicly
accessible via the Foundation's official archive (http://www.piramidasunca.ba, www.icbp.ba) and
booksbydrsam.com.

Acknowledgments

The author expresses sincere gratitude to the Federal Institute for Agropedology (Sarajevo)
and its late director Prof. Husnija Resulović for foundational research on pedogenetic soil
dating on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun. The author also acknowledges the editor of the ICBP
Proceedings, the late Professor Muris Osmanagić, for his early support in promoting
interdisciplinary scientific dialogue related to the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids.

Special thanks are extended to the following laboratories for conducting radiocarbon and
uranium-thorium dating with methodological precision and professionalism:

• Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland

• Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating, Kiel, Germany
• Uppsala University, Sweden
• TÜBİTAK MRC AMS Laboratory, Turkey
• Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, USA
• Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw
• Institute of Geology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague

The author further acknowledges the contributions of professional archaeologists who led and
supervised field excavations during various seasons: Ricardo Brett, Nicolo Bisconti, and Sarra
Acconci (Italy); Tim Moon (New Zealand); and Andrew Lawler (United Kingdom), whose
detailed trench documentation and stratigraphic interpretation strengthened the archaeological
integrity of the site.
Appreciation is also extended to the Cantonal Ministry of Culture (Zenica-Doboj Canton) for
its continued support in authorizing excavation permits and facilitating long-term heritage
preservation.

Finally, the author expresses heartfelt thanks to the local community of Visoko and the
thousands of international volunteers who have contributed their time, energy, and goodwill to
this ongoing research effort since 2005.

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.
The Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun: Aerial view and geomorphological characteristics.
The image presents an aerial perspective of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun, located near Visoko
in central Bosnia-Herzegovina. Rising to a height of 368 meters, the structure is distinguished by
its prominent triangular faces, notably the northern, eastern, and western slopes, which display
relatively straight edges and consistent inclinations. Field measurements indicate that the
triangular planes exhibit average inclinations between 42° and 45°, suggesting significant
geometric regularity. The base of the pyramid measures approximately 420 meters per side, and
the apex is slightly displaced, an effect observed in several ancient stepped-pyramid
constructions globally. The feature is currently covered by a layer of soil, vegetation, and forest,
obscuring potential architectural elements beneath the surface. The geometrical characteristics,
combined with its orientation and alignment toward cardinal points, have prompted
interdisciplinary investigations into whether the pyramid is a natural, geo-engineered, or
anthropogenic formation.
Source: Osmanagich, S. (2014). Pyramids around the World & Lost Pyramids of Bosnia.
Sarajevo: Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN 978-9958-674-
01-3, p. 224. Also available as an e-book at: http://www.booksbydrsam.com/books/pyramids-
around-the-world-2014.pdf, accessed April 29, 2025.
Figure 2.
Archaeological excavation on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun: discovery of large concrete-
like blocks beneath soil cover.
The figure presents results from archaeological excavations conducted between 2005 and 2025
by the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, an organization registered
with the State Ministry of Justice of Bosnia-Herzegovina for archaeological, scientific, and
cultural heritage activities. Excavations revealed the existence of large, rectangular, concrete-like
slabs approximately one meter beneath the overlying soil and vegetation layer.

• Upper left: Archaeological trench 5, showing exposure of multiple surface plates

arranged at shallow angles.
• Upper right: Archaeological trench 4C, where massive, interlocking blocks were
uncovered, characterized by uniformity and compacted layers.
• Bottom left: Archaeological trench 4A, illustrating large slabs set within a compact
matrix, excavated by Foundation staff and international volunteers under professional
supervision.
 • Bottom right: Northeastern corner exposure, highlighting the transition from natural
overburden to structured material.
The excavated materials exhibit properties consistent with man-made conglomerate,
including high compressive strength and distinct layering, stimulating interdisciplinary
debate on potential geoengineering techniques used.
Source: Osmanagich, S. (2023). Bosnian Pyramids – My Story. Sarajevo: Archaeological
Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN 978-9958-674-10-5, pp. 16–17.
Also available as an e-book at: http://www.booksbydrsam.com/books/my-story-book.pdf,
accessed April 29, 2025.

Figure 3.
Pedological study of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun and Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon:
Preliminary soil characterization and age estimation.
This figure presents the official report prepared by the Federal Institute of Agropedology of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, based on field surveys and soil sample analyses conducted at the
Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun and the Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon. The study involved detailed
observation of exposed profiles and soil stratigraphy to understand the pedogenesis process.
Key findings:

• The soil profile formation rate suggests that the overlying sediment layer would require
12,000–15,000 years to accumulate based on humus content (1.3–2.9%), clay fraction
(42.9%), and average soil depth (40–50 cm) on limestone substrate.
• Pedomemory analysis (soil "memory" of environmental conditions) confirmed the
prolonged natural development of soil horizons without significant modern disturbances,
indicating the long-term stability and authenticity of the soil cover.
The study provides a critical scientific basis for dating the anthropogenic modifications
underlying the soil layers, suggesting that structures beneath predate conventional
historical chronologies for the region.
Source: Resulović, H., & Čustović, H. (2008). "Pedomemory as a source of information
on soil development, processes and age in the function of archaeological investigations,"
in: ICBP Proceedings, The First International Scientific Conference on the Bosnian
Valley of the Pyramids, pp. 495–500. ISBN 978-9958-9958-0-4. Publisher:
Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation.
Figure 4.
Radiocarbon dating of organic material discovered on the surface of artificial concrete
blocks on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun.
In 2012, during excavation work led by the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun
Foundation, Italian archaeologists Niccolo Bisconti and Ricardo Brett uncovered a piece of
organic material embedded between the surface layers of large concrete blocks on the Bosnian
Pyramid of the Sun. The sample was submitted for radiocarbon dating to the Conventional
Radiocarbon Dating Service Laboratory in Kyiv, Ukraine.
The laboratory result yielded a radiocarbon age of 24,800 ± 200 years Before Present (BP).
This uncalibrated radiocarbon date indicates the minimum age of the surface layer and suggests
possible prehistoric construction activity at the site. Calibration would adjust this date further
back into the Late Pleistocene, but even the raw radiocarbon result is exceptional for European
prehistoric archaeology.
The analysis was performed under laboratory code IME-1814 using standard beta-counting
techniques.
Source: Brett, R. Archaeological Report for 2012, published in: Osmanagich, S. Bosnian
Pyramids – My Story (2023), p. 112–113. Available online:
http://www.booksbydrsam.com/books/my-story-book.pdf, accessed April 29, 2025.
Figure 5.
Radiocarbon dating of organic material associated with soil deposition on the Bosnian
Pyramid of the Sun.
During the 2013 archaeological season organized by the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid
of the Sun Foundation, organic material embedded within a carbonate soil deposit was uncovered
on the western slope of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun. The sample, labeled BP-Sun-S12-2013-
01, was analyzed by the Conventional Radiocarbon Dating Service Laboratory in Kyiv, Ukraine.
The radiocarbon dating result was 29,200 ± 400 years Before Present (BP) (uncalibrated).
The material, containing carbonates and organic residue, suggests ancient environmental
processes or early anthropogenic influence on the site.
The laboratory analysis, conducted under code IHME-2177, applied standard conventional
radiocarbon dating methodology.
Source: First published in the Archaeological Report: Season 2013 by the Foundation’s
archaeological manager Tim Moon, accessible at the Foundation’s official website:
http://arhiva.piramidasunca.info/bs/konferencije/item/8976-archaeological-report-season-2013-
2.html, accessed April 29, 2025.
Subsequently published in Osmanagich, S., Bosnian Pyramids – My Story (2023), p. 184,
Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, Visoko, and available online at
www.icbp.ba, accessed April 29, 2025.
Figure 6.
Dr. Paul LaViolette presents the projected calibrated age of the Bosnian Pyramid of the
Sun based on radiocarbon analysis.
Dr. Paul A. LaViolette, Ph.D., physicist and systems theorist, delivered a lecture at the
International Scientific Conference on Bosnian Pyramids proposing a calibrated age for the
Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun.
Building upon the uncalibrated radiocarbon date of 29,200 ± 400 years BP, Dr. LaViolette
projected a calibrated age range of approximately 33,800–34,000 years Before Present (cal
BP).
He highlighted that this places the construction of the structure well into the Upper Paleolithic
period, suggesting the possibility of a technically advanced Ice Age civilization.
Dr. LaViolette, known for his interdisciplinary research into astrophysics, ancient technologies,
and geomythology, is the author of books such as Earth Under Fire and Subquantum Kinetics.
Source: Nexus Magazine, "New Findings at the Bosnian Pyramids Complex – Part 2"
(https://nexusmagazine.com/product/new-findings-at-the-bosnian-pyramids-complex-part-2/)
and archived lecture summary at http://arhiva.piramidasunca.info/bs/konferencije/item/9520-dr-
paul-laviolette-phd-bosnian-pyramid-complex-signs-of-technically-advanced-ice-age-
civilization-1.html, accessed April 29, 2025.

Diagram: Step-by-Step Dating of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun

Step 1: Field Archaeological Discovery

• Excavations revealed large, artificially-made concrete blocks.

• Blocks were located approximately 1 meter beneath the surface soil.

Step 2: Soil Analysis by Federal Institute for Agropedology (2006)

• Soil layer on top of the pyramid dated to 12,000–15,000 years based on pedogenesis and
humus content.
• Conclusion: The pyramid must be older than the soil above it.
Step 3: First Radiocarbon Dating (2012)

• Organic material found between concrete layers.

• Radiocarbon result: 24,800 ± 200 years BP (Before Present, uncalibrated).
• Indicates a minimum age for the construction phase.

Step 4: Second Radiocarbon Dating (2013)

• Another sample from carbonate-rich material.

• Radiocarbon result: 29,200 ± 400 years BP (uncalibrated).
• Sample analyzed by laboratory in Kiev.

Step 5: Calibration to Calendar Years

• Calibration of radiocarbon results required due to atmospheric variation in C-14 levels.

• Based on calibration, 29,200 BP corresponds to approximately 33,800–34,000 calibrated
years BP.

Step 6: Expert Assessment (Dr. Paul LaViolette)

• Review and projection of calibrated dates.

• Supports interpretation that pyramid construction dates to the late Pleistocene (~33,800
years ago).

Conclusion:

Based on combined archaeological, soil science, and radiocarbon dating evidence, the Bosnian
Pyramid of the Sun is approximately 33,800 years old, making it one of the oldest known
monumental structures on Earth.

+++

Figure 7. Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon, Visoko Valley, Bosnia-Herzegovina. This pyramid-
shaped elevation stands approximately 190 meters high and is clearly oriented to the cardinal
points. The photograph, taken on August 21, shows the western slope under partial cloud cover
with spring vegetation in view. On this date, during sunset, the shadow of the Bosnian
Pyramid of the Sun moves across the valley and completely envelops the western face of the
Moon pyramid. At the final moment of sunset, the top of the shadow precisely aligns with the
summit of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon. This phenomenon demonstrates a likely
astronomical alignment, suggesting intentional placement and height of these two prominent
structures in the valley.
Source: Osmanagich, S. My Story: Bosnian Pyramids, 2023, p. 258. Archaeological Park:
Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN 978-9958-674-10-5. Also available online:
www.booksbydrsam.com, accessed April 29, 2025.

Figure 8. Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon – Archaeological Excavations. Archaeological works

conducted between 2006 and 2024 by the “Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun”
Foundation have exposed paved sandstone terraces across the structure’s slopes. A total of 64
archaeological trenches have been opened, extending from the base to the summit, confirming
that the entire pyramid is layered with angular sandstone plates. These tiles are separated by
alternating layers of clay, possibly serving as a binder or insulator. The photographs show
various excavation stages, including terraced tiling, stratified construction techniques, and
detailed trench profiles with measurable layering sequences. This evidence supports the
interpretation of the pyramid as an artificial or artificially modified structure of great antiquity.
Source: Osmanagich, S. My Story: Bosnian Pyramids, 2023, p. 258. Archaeological Park:
Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN 978-9958-674-10-5. Accessed online:
www.booksbydrsam.com, April 29, 2025.

Figure 9. Radiocarbon Dating of the Paved Terrace on the Bosnian Pyramid of the Moon

Upper panels: Organic sample being extracted from the brown deposit located between two
bonded sandstone layers forming a paved terrace on the western face of the Bosnian Pyramid of
the Moon (Archaeological trench No. 20). This material was likely trapped during construction
and later subjected to radiocarbon dating.

Lower panel: Radiocarbon dating analysis conducted by the Institute of Physics of Silesian
University of Technology in Gliwice, Poland, under the supervision of Prof. Anna Pazdur. The
sample was dated to 10,350 ± 50 BP, which calibrates to a range between 10,458 and 10,074
calBC (95.4% probability), confirming the terrace was constructed more than 12,000 years ago.
Source: Brett, R. and Osmanagich, S., sample collected in 2010; published in the
“Archaeological Report – Season 2010,” accessible at
http://arhiva.piramidasunca.info/bs/konferencije/item/8976, and also in My Story, p. 258. Graph
retrieved from dating report (Graph 1, Bosnia Valley 2, 10350±50).

Figure 10. Ravne Tunnel Labyrinth

The Ravne tunnel complex is part of an extensive prehistoric underground network in the Visoko
Valley, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Since excavation efforts began in 2006, over 2.6 kilometers of
tunnels have been cleared of loosely packed filler material. Archaeological work conducted by
the “Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun” Foundation has revealed numerous
structural and cultural elements, including:

• Upper left: Original tunnel passageway exhibiting consistent dimensions and curvature.
 • Upper right: One of more than 50 dry-stone walls constructed with inclined stone layers,
interpreted as ancient support or sealing structures.
• Bottom left and right: Two of the five megalithic ceramic blocks, weighing up to
several tons, found embedded in the tunnel floor. These enigmatic sandstone formations
are hypothesized to be markers, energy amplifiers, or geodetic artifacts.

Source: Osmanagich, S. Bosnian Pyramids – My Story (2023), pp. 58–65. Published by

Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. Also accessible online:
http://www.booksbydrsam.com/books/my-story-book.pdf, accessed April 29, 2025.
Figure 11. Radiocarbon Dating of Organic Material in Ravne Tunnel Complex

Left: Testing of organic material samples collected from the Ravne tunnel complex in Visoko
was conducted using the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) method. The analysis, carried
out at the Institute of Physics, Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice, Poland, produced a
radiocarbon date of 4610 ± 35 years BP, corresponding to approximately 2660 BCE. The AMS
method, which counts all carbon-14 atoms (not just those in decay), allows for more precise age
determination than conventional radiocarbon techniques.

Right: At the base of a dry-stone wall in the tunnel system, the Foundation team discovered
remnants of an ancient fireplace. Organic materials from this location were sent to the Ångström
Laboratory at Uppsala University, Sweden, for testing. The resulting radiocarbon age of the
sample found 180 meters from the entrance was 3091 ± 111 years BP, or approximately 1140
BCE.

These findings support the hypothesis that the tunnel complex was in active use across multiple
prehistoric periods, likely constructed or adapted in phases.

Source: Osmanagich, S. Pyramids Around the World and Lost Pyramids of Bosnia (2014), pp.
227–230. Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation. ISBN: 978-9958-674-
01-3. Also available as e-book: http://www.booksbydrsam.com/books/pyramids-around-the-
world-2014.pdf, accessed April 29, 2025.

Figure 12. Wood Sample Embedded in Conglomerate: Radiocarbon Dating and

Stratigraphic Implications

Left: A piece of fossilized wood (approx. 35 x 18 x 12 cm) was uncovered embedded in the
compact conglomerate matrix within the Ravne Tunnel labyrinth. Its position within this
geologically stable material, which accumulated over tens of thousands of years, offers critical
evidence for dating early human activity in the Visoko Valley.

Right: Two independent radiocarbon analyses were performed on samples from this wood
specimen:

• At the Department for Radioisotopes, Institute of Physics, Silesian University of

Technology in Gliwice (Poland), the sample yielded an age of 34,000 ± 1,500 years BP.
• A second sample was analyzed at the Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and
Isotope Research, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel (Germany), producing a
result of 30,600 ± 540/510 years BP.

These results were announced during the First International Scientific Conference on the
Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids in August 2008. As the wood was embedded in naturally
compacted conglomerate, the dated samples predate its formation, indicating substantial
antiquity for the tunnel structures and associated megalithic features. The presence of these large
sandstone blocks beneath such geological layers suggests the existence of a Paleolithic-era
civilization, consistent with regional genetic evidence for early Homo sapiens migration through
the Balkans.

Source: Lawler, A. AMS Radiocarbon Dating of a Wood Sample from Tunnel Ravne: Methods,
Results and Implications for Further Research. In: ICBP Proceedings: The First International
Scientific Conference on the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids, 2008, pp. 681–682.
Figure 13. Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex: Prehistoric Construction Features and Geological
Indicators

Top left: Engineered circular tunnel segment carved through dense conglomerate and filled with
compacted material. Its uniform curvature and consistent width suggest intentional prehistoric
construction and planning.

Top right: Dry-stone wall discovered in Ravne 3 during the 2022 excavation season. Stacked
sandstone plates embedded within tunnel sides reflect organized structural techniques used to
stabilize or redirect interior spaces.

Bottom left: Stalagmites and other calcite formations growing directly on exposed surfaces
within the tunnel system. These features point to long-term undisturbed conditions following
initial construction.

Bottom right: Cross-section of a stalagmite recovered from Ravne 3. The formation’s distinct
internal layering and degree of mineralization provide visual evidence for significant age,
marking long periods of environmental stability within the tunnel.

These findings contribute to the interpretation of Ravne 3 as an intentionally engineered

subterranean structure abandoned in antiquity and left to natural geological development.

Source: Osmanagich, S., Hoyle, R., Agić, A., Delibašić, H. Ravne 3. Visoko: Archaeological
Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, 2023, pp. 51, 54, 57, 235.
Figure 14. Stalagmites S001 and S002 Discovered in Tunnel Ravne 3

Two cone-shaped stalagmites (S001 and S002) were found at the same stratigraphic level in
Tunnel Ravne 3. These speleothems were sampled for geochronological analysis to help estimate
the tunnel’s minimum age.

Stalagmite S001 was dated using radiocarbon (C-14) analysis and yielded an apparent age of
26,200 ± 250 years, although this result is likely distorted due to the presence of "dead carbon"
from dissolved carbonate ions in the conglomerate bedrock. The base of the stalagmite was not
dated, meaning the true age may be greater.

Stalagmite S002 was dated using Uranium-Thorium (U-Th) ICP-MS analysis, yielding a more
reliable age of 5,900 ± 300 years, as U-Th dating is unaffected by carbonate contamination in
the same way as radiocarbon methods.

Despite their proximity and similar morphology, the large discrepancy in the results highlights
methodological differences and challenges with speleothem dating. The U-Th age for S002
serves as a minimum age for the cessation of human activity in that area of the tunnel.
Source: Osmanagich, S., Hoyle, R., Agić, A., Delibašić, H. Ravne 3 (2023), pp. 84–88.
Publisher: Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, Visoko.

Figure 15. Radiocarbon Analysis of Samples from Tunnel Ravne 3: Laboratory Procedures
and Results

This table presents the radiocarbon dating results obtained for multiple samples collected from
the Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex in Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina. The analyses were conducted by
the Laboratory for Radiocarbon Dating, Institute of Environmental Geochemistry,
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv.

Laboratory Methods and Approach:

The conventional radiocarbon dating method was employed, based on liquid scintillation
counting of benzene samples. The laboratory procedure involved the following steps:

• Sample Preparation: Organic and carbonate materials were sought in each sample.
• Thermal Destruction (Vacuum Pyrolysis): Samples were subjected to vacuum
pyrolysis at 250°C for three hours to release measurable carbon. If residual charred
carbon was visually detected, it indicated the presence of organic matter.
• Chemical Conversion: In cases of carbonate presence, chemical reactions were applied:
o CO₂ was liberated through acid destruction.
o CO₂ was then reacted with lithium to form lithium carbide.
 o Lithium carbide was further processed into acetylene and then into benzene (C +
Li → Li₂C₂ → C₂H₂ → C₆H₆).
• Measurement: Radiocarbon content was determined by measuring radioactivity within
the benzene samples using liquid scintillation counting.

Results Overview:

• Samples C2-018 and C2-025 initially showed no datable organic carbon through
pyrolysis. However, carbonate acid destruction allowed the production of benzene and
successful radiocarbon dating:
o Sample C2-018 (sandstone-like material) produced a relatively higher benzene
yield.
o Sample C2-025 (pressed clay-like material) produced less benzene.
• Sample C2-024, interpreted as a possible bird bone fragment, contained no measurable
organic carbon and could not be dated.
• Stalagmite sample S001 was carefully stratified into layers (A, B, and C). Carbon
analysis was conducted separately for external and internal sections:
o Layer A and Layers B+C were individually processed and dated.
o Additional cross-sections were taken for precision, producing multiple protocol
results.

Radiocarbon Dating Results (summarized in Table):

The results indicate a complex chronology for the tunnel, with radiocarbon dates ranging from
the late Upper Paleolithic (26,200 years BP) to more recent Holocene periods (ca. 3,000–4,000
years BP). These findings suggest multiple phases of use and environmental changes within the
Ravne 3 system.

Source: Osmanagich, S., Hoyle, R., Agić, A., Delibašić, H. (2023). Ravne 3, Archaeological
Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, pp. 84–88.

Lab No. Description Benzene (g) pMC (%) Age (years BP)
3729 S001 Layers 1.3853 64.5 3520 ± 50
(B+C)
3730 S001 Layers 0.694 72.9 2540 ± 50
(A)
3732 S001 Layers 1.2285 61.7 3880 ± 55
(C)
3733 S2-018 1.3183 68.3 3070 ± 50
3734 S001 Layers 1.0192 3.8 26200 ± 250
(B) A
3735 S2-025 0.149 26.7 10625 ± 300
 Замовник (Customer) Foundation "Archaeological park ”Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun"
Зразок(Sample): Sample S001 (layer B, top) (carbonate)
Код лабораторії (lab code) IHME-3734

Маса бензолу (benzene mass) 1,0192 грам (g)

Час вимірювання (counting time) 3000 хвилин (minutes)
Швидкість лічення проби (Sample 0.87 CPM
count rate)
Фон (імп./хв.) (Background count 0.506 CPM
rate)
Ефективність реєстрації (counting 73,51% Процент (percent)
efficiency) :
Радіовуглецева дата (Radiocarbon 26200 ± 250 BP
date)

Калібрована дата (Calibrated date) -

Michael G.Buzinny

[email protected],
http://c14.kiev.ua

Figure 16. Uranium-Thorium Dating of Stalagmites from Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex

This figure presents the results of U-series dating of stalagmite samples collected from the Ravne
3 Tunnel Complex in Visoko, Bosnia-Herzegovina. The analyses were performed using
uranium-thorium (U-Th) isotopic dating methods, a technique particularly well suited for
dating calcium carbonate formations such as stalagmites.

Laboratory Methods and Facilities:

• Chemical Processing: After thermal decomposition of organic matter, a ^233U–^236U–

^229Th spike was added to each sample. The samples were then dissolved in nitric acid,
and uranium and thorium were chemically separated from the carbonate matrix using
chromatographic extraction with TRU-resin.
• Laboratories Involved:
o U-series Laboratory of the Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy
of Sciences (Warsaw, Poland) conducted the chemical separations.
 o Institute of Geology of the Czech Academy of Sciences (CAS) (Prague, Czech
Republic) conducted the isotopic measurements using a double-focusing sector-
field ICP mass spectrometer (Element 2, Thermo Finnigan MAT).

All measurements were corrected for background radiation and chemical blanks. Standard
reference materials and blank samples were run in parallel with the test samples to ensure
analytical accuracy.

Dating Results:

• Sample US001 (from a lower stalagmite layer) was dated to 19,000 ± 1,000 years BP.
• Sample S008, analyzed with the same method, yielded an age of 15,000 ± 1,000 years
BP.
• An additional stalagmite sample, S002, yielded a U-Th age of 5,900 ± 200 years BP.
This sample had previously been dated using radiocarbon methods, which produced
divergent results due to the "dead carbon" effect commonly associated with speleothem
samples in carbonate-rich contexts.

Interpretation:

The considerable variation in the ages of stalagmite layers (ranging from ~5,900 to ~19,000
years BP) is attributed to differences in sample depth, layering, and sample selection. For
example, deeper stalagmite layers are logically older and less likely to have been disturbed by
anthropogenic activity or environmental contaminants. These results collectively support the
interpretation that human or environmental influence on tunnel stability and inactivity dates back
well into the Upper Paleolithic.

Conclusion:

These U-series dating results underscore the need for continued stratified sampling and analysis
of the extensive stalagmite formations preserved in Section A and A2 of Ravne 3. The
chronological depth indicated by these measurements is of significant importance for
understanding the long-term geochronology and potential anthropogenic activity associated with
the Ravne tunnel system.

Source: Osmanagich, S., Hoyle, R., Agić, A., Delibašić, H. (2023). Ravne 3, Archaeological
Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, pp. 126–128.
Laboratory report: Institute of Geology CAS (Prague, Czech Republic) & Institute of Geological
Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences (Warsaw, Poland).
Figure 17. Charcoal Radiocarbon Dating from Ravne 3 Tunnel Complex

Charcoal remains were discovered near a dry-stone wall within the Ravne 3 tunnel system. The
sample, labeled S001, was recovered during supervised excavation in late 2023 and submitted
for radiocarbon analysis in early 2024. The purpose of the test was to determine whether this
material was related to recent human activity or ancient tunnel use.

The analysis was conducted at the 1 MV Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Laboratory
at TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center (MRC), Gebze, Turkey. The lab employed the Acid-
Base-Acid (ABA) pretreatment protocol followed by AMS dating. Calibration of the
radiocarbon age used the IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere calibration curve.
Radiocarbon Dating Results:

• Radiocarbon Age: 1677 ± 23 BP

• Calibrated Calendar Age (2σ range):
o 261–278 CE (9.7% probability)
o 340–423 CE (85.8% probability)

These results suggest that the charcoal dates to the 4th–5th century CE, indicating human
presence in the Ravne 3 tunnel during late antiquity. The age places this activity well after the
hypothesized original construction of the tunnel system, implying secondary use or visitation of
already-existing passages. This aligns with field observations of localized disturbance and
reopening of sealed sections.

Source:
TÜBİTAK MRC AMS Laboratory Report No. 29109288-125.05-4286/29282, dated April 2,
2024. Sample submitted by Dr. Sam Osmanagich on behalf of the Archaeological Park: Bosnian
Pyramid of the Sun Foundation.
Published references include:

• Doğan et al. (2023). "Radiocarbon Analysis and Status Report from Türkiye: 1 MV
National AMS Laboratory (TÜBİTAK-AMS)." Radiocarbon.
• Reimer et al. (2020). "IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration
Curve." Radiocarbon, 62(4), 725–757.
Figure 18. Radiocarbon Dating of Calcite Crystal Formation from Ravne Tunnel Water
Section

This figure presents the calibrated radiocarbon dating result of a calcite crystal sample
collected from the water section of the Ravne tunnel in the Bosnian Valley of the Pyramids
complex. The sample originated from soluble calcite deposits transported by water from the
surface, forming stalactitic features on the ceiling of an open section of the tunnel. The calcite
structure was characterized by a waveform-like appearance, measuring up to 120 mm in
length and 100 mm in width, tapering to a point at the terminal end.

The sample was submitted to Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory (Miami, Florida,
USA), where it underwent standard pre-treatment, confirming its formation from precipitated
calcite rather than organic material. Radiocarbon dating was performed using conventional
liquid scintillation counting, with isotopic adjustment via δ13C correction and final calibration
using the IntCal13 curve.

• Laboratory ID: Beta-388849

• Conventional Radiocarbon Age: 6450 ± 30 BP
• Calibrated Result (95.4% probability):
Cal BC 5480 to 5365 (Cal BP 7430 to 7315)
This result indicates that the crystal formation began approximately 7,430 years ago,
providing a minimum date for exposure of the tunnel ceiling to percolating water and
surface-connected hydrological activity. Such a date also implies that this portion of the Ravne
tunnel system was already hollow and accessible at that time, further substantiating its
prehistoric origin.

Source:

• Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Certificate, Sample Beta-388849

• Sample origin and analysis details submitted in April 2024 to the Archaeological Park
Foundation
• Calibration method: IntCal13; Reimer et al., Radiocarbon 55(4):1869–1887.