SEMESTER

INTERNSHIP

ANDHRA PRADESH
STATE COUNCIL OF HIGHER
EDUCATION
(A STATUTORY BODY OF GOVERNMENT OF ANDHRA PRADESH)
 PROGRAM BOOK FOR

SEMESTER INTERNSHIP

University
 An Internship Report on

(Title of the Semester Internship Program)

Submitted in accordance with the requirement for the degree of

Under the Faculty Guideship of

(Name of the Faculty Guide)

Department of

(Name of the College)

Submitted by:

(Name of the Student)

Reg.No:
Department of

(Name of the College)

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 Instructions to Students

Please read the detailed Guidelines on Internship hosted on the website of AP State
Council of Higher Education https://apsche.ap.gov.in

1. It is mandatory for all the students to complete Semester internship either in

V Semester or in VI Semester.
2. Every student should identify the organization for internship in consultation
with the College Principal/the authorized person nominated by the Principal.
3. Report to the intern organization as per the schedule given by the College. You
must make your own arrangements for transportation to reach the
organization.
4. You should maintain punctuality in attending the internship. Daily attendance
is compulsory.
5. You are expected to learn about the organization, policies, procedures, and
processes by interacting with the people working in the organization and by
consulting the supervisor attached to the interns.
6. While you are attending the internship, follow the rules and regulations of the
intern organization.
7. While in the intern organization, always wear your College Identity Card.
8. If your College has a prescribed dress as uniform, wear the uniform daily, as
you attend to your assigned duties.
9. You will be assigned a Faculty Guide from your College. He/She will be
creating a WhatsApp group with your fellow interns. Post your daily activity
done and/or any difficulty you encounter during the internship.
10. Identify five or more learning objectives in consultation with your Faculty
Guide. These learning objectives can address:
a. Data and Information you are expected to collect about the
organization and/or industry.
b. Job Skills you are expected to acquire.
c. Development of professional competencies that lead to future career
success.
11. Practice professional communication skills with team members, co-interns,
and your supervisor. This includes expressing thoughts and ideas effectively
through oral, written, and non-verbal communication, and utilizing listening
skills.
12. Be aware of the communication culture in your work environment. Follow up
and communicate regularly with your supervisor to provide updates on your
progress with work assignments.

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13. Never be hesitant to ask questions to make sure you fully understand what
you need to do your work and to contribute to the organization.
14. Be regular in filling up your Program Book. It shall be filled up in your own
handwriting. Add additional sheets wherever necessary.
15. At the end of internship, you shall be evaluated by your Supervisor of the
intern organization.
16. There shall also be evaluation at the end of the internship by the Faculty
Guide and the Principal.
17. Do not meddle with the instruments/equipment you work with.
18. Ensure that you do not cause any disturbance to the regular activities of the
intern organization.
19. Be cordial but not too intimate with the employees of the intern organization
and your fellow interns.
20. You should understand that during the internship programme, you are the
ambassador of your College, and your behavior during the internship
programme is of utmost importance.
21. If you are involved in any discipline related issues, you will be withdrawn
from the internship programme immediately and disciplinary action shall be
initiated.
22. Do not forget to keep up your family pride and prestige of your College.

<<@>>

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 Student’s Declaration
I, a student of
Program, Reg. No. of the Department of
College do hereby declare that I have completed the mandatory internship
from to in (Name of
the intern organization) under the Faculty Guideship of
(Name of the Faculty Guide), Department of
,
(Name of the College)

(Signature and Date)

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 Official Certification
This is to certify that (Name
of the student) Reg. No. has completed his/her Internship in
(Name of the Intern Organization) on
(Title of the Internship) under my
supervision as a part of partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
Degree of in the Department of
(Name of the College).

This is accepted for evaluation.

(Signatory with Date and Seal)

Endorsements

Faculty Guide

Head of the Department

Principal

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 Certificate from Intern Organization

This is to certify that (Name of the

intern) Reg. No of (Name of
the College) underwent internship in (Name of
the Intern Organization) from to

The overall performance of the intern during his/her internship is found to be

(Satisfactory/Not Satisfactory).

Authorized Signatory with Date and Seal

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Acknowledgements

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Contents

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 CHAPTER 1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The internship report shall have a brief executive summary. It shall include five or
more Learning Objectives and Outcomes achieved, a brief description of the sector
of business and intern organization and summary of all the activities done by the
intern during the period.

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Page No
 CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANIZATION

Suggestive contents

A. Introduction of the Organization

B. Vision, Mission, and Values of the Organization
C. Policy of the Organization, in relation to the intern role
D. Organizational Structure
E. Roles and responsibilities of the employees in which the intern is placed.
F. Performance of the Organization in terms of turnover, profits, market
reach and market value.
G. Future Plans of the Organization.

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Page No
 CHAPTER 3: INTERNSHIP PART

Description of the Activities/Responsibilities in the Intern Organization

during Internship, which shall include - details of working conditions,
weekly work schedule, equipment used, and tasks performed. This part
could end by reflecting on what kind of skills the intern acquired.

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Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE FIRST WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Introduction to PCB Learnt about the

introduction to PCB
Day – 1

Passive circuit elements: R, L Learnt about R , L and

and C C passive circuit
elements
Day - 2

Passive circuit elements: R, L Learnt about R , L and

and C C passive circuit
elements
Day – 3

Resistor color coding, Studied about

Surface mount Resistor color coding,
capacitors and inductors on Surface mount
Day – 4
PCBs capacitors and
inductors on PCBs

Resistor color coding, Studied about

Surface mount Resistor color coding,
capacitors and inductors on Surface mount
Day – 5
PCBs capacitors and
inductors on PCBs

Active circuit elements: Learnt Active circuit

MOSFET, BJTs elements: MOSFET,
BJTs
Day –6

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 1 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)

Objective of the Activity Done:

Detailed Report:
Introduction to VLSI Design
Introduction to PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards)
Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are the foundation of most electronic devices. They mechanically
support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways etched from
copper sheets on a non-conductive substrate.
Structure of a PCB:
 Substrate/Base Material: Typically FR4 (a fiberglass-reinforced epoxy laminate), gives the
board rigidity.
 Copper Layer: Conductive layer that forms the circuit tracks.
 Solder Mask: Protective layer applied over copper to prevent oxidation and unintentional
soldering.
 Silkscreen: Printed layer for component labeling and markings.
Types of PCBs:
 Single-sided PCB: Copper layer on one side only.
 Double-sided PCB: Copper layers on both sides.
 Multilayer PCB: More than two layers; used in complex devices like computers and
smartphones.

Passive Circuit Elements: R, L, and C

Passive components do not amplify signals or require external power to operate. They only
respond to the electrical signals.
🔹 Resistors (R)
 Purpose: Limit the flow of electric current, divide voltages.
 Unit: Ohm (Ω)
 Types: Fixed, variable (potentiometers), wire-wound, carbon film.
 Symbol: Zigzag line (US) or rectangle (Europe)
🔹 Inductors (L)
 Purpose: Store energy in a magnetic field, block AC while allowing DC.
 Unit: Henry (H)
 Common Uses: Filters, chokes, transformers.
🔹 Capacitors (C)
 Purpose: Store electrical energy in an electric field, filter signals, couple AC signals between
stages.
 Unit: Farad (F)
 Types: Ceramic, electrolytic, tantalum, film capacitors.
 Common Uses: Timing circuits, power supply filtering.

Resistor Color Coding & Surface Mount Devices (SMDs)

🔹 Resistor Color Coding (Through-Hole Resistors)
Each resistor has colored bands representing its resistance value:
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  4-Band Resistors: 1st digit, 2nd digit, multiplier, and tolerance.
 5-Band Resistors: 3 significant digits, multiplier, tolerance (used for precision resistors).
Example:
A resistor with colors Red-Violet-Orange-Gold → 27kΩ ±5%
🔹 Surface Mount Devices (SMD)
Surface mount technology involves mounting components directly onto the surface of PCBs
rather than inserting them into holes.
Surface Mount Resistors:
 Tiny rectangular packages.
 Marked with a 3-digit or 4-digit code (e.g., "472" = 4.7kΩ).
Surface Mount Capacitors:
 Often unmarked, values are identified by part numbers or datasheets.
 Common types: Ceramic SMD capacitors (MLCCs).
Surface Mount Inductors:
 Look like small blocks or coils.
 Important in power supplies and RF circuits.

Active Circuit Elements

Active components control the flow of electricity and can amplify signals. They need a source of
power to function.
🔹 MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor)
 Types: N-Channel (common), P-Channel.
 Operation: Controlled by voltage at the Gate terminal.
 Applications:
o Switching power in digital circuits
o Amplification in analog circuits
o Power supplies and motor controllers
Symbols:
 MOSFETs have three terminals: Gate (G), Drain (D), Source (S)
🔹 BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors)
 Types: NPN, PNP
 Operation: Controlled by current at the Base terminal.
 Applications:
o Signal amplification
o Switching applications in digital circuits
Symbols:
 BJTs have three terminals: Base (B), Collector (C), Emitter (E)

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 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE SECOND WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Active circuit elements: Learnt Active circuit

MOSFET, BJTs elements: MOSFET,
BJTs
Day – 1

Network analysis: Kirchoff’s Studied Network

Laws analysis: Kirchoff’s
Laws
Day - 2

Network theorems: Thevenin, Studied the concepts

Norton, Maximum of Network Theorems
Power Transfer etc. Thevenin
Day – 3

Network theorems: Thevenin, Studied the concepts

Norton, Maximum of Network Theorems
Power Transfer etc. Norton,
Day – 4
Maximum power
transfer

Circuit Simulations using Learnt Circuit

SPICE: Operating point Simulations using
analysis SPICE: Operating
Day – 5
point analysis

Circuit Simulations using Learnt Circuit

SPICE: Operating point Simulations using
analysis SPICE: Operating
Day –6
point
analysis

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 2 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)

Objective of the Activity Done:

Detailed Report:
Network Analysis: Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Laws are fundamental tools for analyzing electrical circuits. They help in finding unknown
currents and voltages in a circuit.
1️⃣ Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
"The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero."
 Based on the law of conservation of charge.
 Mathematically:

 Useful in analyzing parallel circuits

Example:
If 3A flows into a node and two branches carry 1A and 1.5A out, the remaining branch must carry 0.5A
out to balance the current.

2️⃣ Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed loop is zero."
 Based on the conservation of energy.
 Mathematically:
12−5−X= 0 ⇒ X= 7 V
Network Theorems
These theorems simplify complex networks to make analysis easier.

Thevenin’s Theorem
 Any linear circuit with voltage and resistors can be reduced to a single voltage source (Vth)
in series with a resistor (Rth).
 Makes it easier to analyze a single load resistor in a complex circuit.
Steps:
1. Remove the load resistor.
2. Find open-circuit voltage across terminals → Vth
3. Replace voltage sources with short circuits and current sources with open circuits.
4. Find equivalent resistance → Rth
5. Reconnect the load to this simple Thevenin equivalent.

Norton’s Theorem
 Similar to Thevenin’s, but uses a current source (In) in parallel with a resistor (Rn).
 Can be converted from Thevenin’s:

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance RL equals the
Thevenin resistance RTH of the source network.
RL =RTH
Circuit Simulations using SPICE
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a tool used for simulating electronic
circuits before physically building them.
Operating Point (OP) Analysis
 Also known as DC analysis or Bias Point analysis.
 Finds the steady-state voltages and currents with all sources in place.
 No time variation — purely DC.
Purpose:
 To know how components behave under static (non-changing) conditions.
 Essential before running transient or AC analyses.

ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE THIRD WEEK

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 Day Person In-
Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

DC Simulations Studied DC Simulations

Day – 1

DC Simulations Studied DC Simulations

Day - 2

Large Signal Simulations Studied Large Signal

Simulations
Day – 3

Large Signal Simulations Studied Large Signal

Simulations
Day – 4

Large Signal Simulations Studied Large Signal

Simulations
Day – 5

Large Signal Simulations Studied Large Signal

Simulations
Day –6

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 3 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
DC Simulations (Operating Point Analysis)
DC simulations are the starting point for most analog and digital circuit designs. They allow us to
understand how the circuit behaves under constant input conditions, with no time-varying signals.
What It Does
 Solves for all node voltages and element currents in the circuit.
 Determines bias points of nonlinear devices (e.g., where a BJT is operating — cutoff, active, or
saturation).
 Helps ensure your circuit is in the right region before moving on to signal simulations.
Applications
 Biasing of transistor amplifiers (e.g., setting Q-point).
 Checking voltage drops across components.
 Measuring power dissipation in resistors or active devices.
 Verifying design assumptions before signal is applied.

Example: Voltage Divider Circuit in SPICE

* Voltage Divider - DC Simulation

V1 1 0 DC 10
R1 1 2 1k
R2 2 0 2k
.OP
.end
 V1 supplies 10V.
 R1 and R2 form a voltage divider.
 .OP asks SPICE to find:
o Node voltages (at nodes 1 and 2)
o Currents through V1 and resistors
o Power consumption
Expected output:
 Voltage at node 2 ≈ 10 × (2k / (1k + 2k)) = 6.67V
 Current through V1 = V/Rtotal = 10V / 3kΩ ≈ 3.33 mA

Large Signal Simulations

Large signal simulations are used when the input signal varies significantly, causing
nonlinear behavior in components such as diodes, transistors, and op-amps.
What It Tells You
 How the circuit behaves over time or over a range of inputs
 Switching speeds, waveforms, saturation, distortion
 Transition behavior (e.g., ON/OFF switching)
 Realistic waveforms under load and varying conditions

Why “Large Signal”?

Because small-signal analysis assumes a linear response around a fixed operating point, it's

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not accurate for large input variations. Large signal analysis considers the full nonlinear
characteristics of components.

Types of Large Signal Simulations in SPICE

DC Sweep Analysis – .DC
Sweeps a DC source (voltage or current) over a range to study the output response.
Example:
* DC Sweep of Diode Circuit
V1 in 0 0
R1 in out 1k
D1 out 0 Dmodel

.model Dmodel D
.DC V1 0 1 0.01
.end

 V1 is swept from 0V to 1V in 10 mV steps.

 Plotting Vout shows diode’s nonlinear I-V characteristic curve.

Transient Analysis – .TRAN

Simulates the time-dependent behavior of a circuit (waveforms, switching, signal
amplification).
Example:
* Transient simulation of an RC circuit
V1 in 0 PULSE(0 5 0 1u 1u 1m 2m)
R1 in out 1k
C1 out 0 10u
.TRAN 1u 10m
.end
 Simulates how capacitor voltage changes in response to a pulse input.
 Useful for analyzing charging/discharging, digital pulses, switching speeds.

Large Signal BJT/MOSFET Simulation Example

* Common-Emitter BJT Amplifier (Large Signal)
VCC 3 0 DC 12
Vin 1 0 SIN(0 0.1 1k)
RB 3 2 100k
RE 2 0 1k
RC 3 4 2k
Q1 2 4 0 QNPN
.model QNPN NPN(IS=1E-15 BF=100)
.TRAN 10u 5m
.end
 This simulates how a small sine input (0.1V) gets amplified over time.
 Output waveform shows distortion if the input is too large — typical of large signal
analysis.
ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE FORTH WEEK

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 Day Person In-
Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Metal Interconnections, Studied Metal

Through holes and vias. Interconnections,
Through holes and
Day – 1
vias.

Metal Interconnections, Studied Metal

Through holes and vias. Interconnections,
Through holes and
Day - 2
vias.

Interconnect design Learnt Interconnect

design
Day – 3

Interconnect design Learnt Interconnect

design
Day – 4

Interconnect design Learnt Interconnect

design
Day – 5

CMOS inverter basics Studied CMOS

Inverter Basics
Day –6

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 4 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:

METAL INTERCONNECTIONS, THROUGH HOLES & VIAS

1. Metal Interconnections
What are they?
Metal interconnections are conductive paths used to transmit signals and power between
various components.
Where are they used?
 On PCBs: Copper traces etched onto fiberglass (FR4) boards.
 In ICs: Metal layers (aluminum or copper) deposited on silicon wafers.
Key Design Considerations:
Factor Impact
Width of trace Affects current-carrying capacity
Thickness Impacts resistance and heat dissipation
Trace spacing Important for signal isolation
Skin effect Affects AC signals (high frequency)
2. Through Holes
Definition:
Through holes are holes drilled in PCBs that are plated with conductive material (usually
copper) to allow electrical connection between layers.
Purpose:
 Mounting component leads (in THT – Through Hole Technology).
 Electrical connections between top and bottom layers.
Example Use:
 Mounting a resistor, where the legs go through the board and are soldered on the
other side.
🔹 3. Vias
Definition:
Vias are small, plated holes that connect different layers in a multilayer PCB.
Types of Vias:

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INTERCONNECT DESIGN

Interconnect design is the strategic routing of electrical paths to ensure reliable performance,
especially in high-speed, high-density circuits.

Considerations in Interconnect Design:

1.Resistance
 Longer traces = Higher resistance = Voltage drops.
 Thicker and wider traces reduce resistance.
2.Capacitance
 Parasitic capacitance forms between adjacent traces.
 Causes delays and waveform distortion in high-speed designs.
3️. Inductance
 High inductance affects signal switching, especially in power delivery and clock lines.
4️. Crosstalk
 Unwanted signal interference between adjacent traces.
 Avoid by increasing spacing, using ground planes, and differential pairs.
5️. Impedance Matching
 Critical in high-frequency signals (like USB, HDMI).
 Mismatched impedance leads to signal reflection and data loss.
6️.Thermal Considerations
 Power traces must dissipate heat.
 Use thermal vias, copper pours, and heat sinks.
Real-World Tools for Interconnect Design:
 Altium Designer
 KiCad
 Cadence Allegro
 EAGLE
 Mentor Graphics (PADS)

ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE FIFTH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

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 CMOS inverter basics Studied CMOS
Inverter Basics
Day – 1

CMOS inverter design Studied CMOS

Inverter Basics
Day - 2

Combinational circuit design Studied

Combinational circuit
design
Day – 3

Combinational circuit design Studied

Combinational circuit
design
Day – 4

Combinational circuit design Studied

Combinational circuit
design
Day – 5

Sequential circuit design Studied Sequential

circuit design
Day –6

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 5 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:

Detailed Report:
CMOS INVERTER BASICS
What is a CMOS Inverter?
A CMOS inverter is a NOT gate built using:
 A PMOS transistor (top)
 An NMOS transistor (bottom)
Both transistors share the same gate input. The output is taken from the node between them.
VDD

┌─────┐

│ PMOS│

└─────┘

+----- Vout

┌─────┐

│ NMOS│

└─────┘

Logic Behaviour

Vin (Input) PMOS NMOS Vout (Output)

Low (0) ON OFF High (1)

High (1) OFF ON Low (0)

This inverter inverts the logic state of the input signal.

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Characteristics

 Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC): Graph of Vout vs Vin.

 Noise Margins: Difference between expected input/output high/low levels.
 Propagation Delay: Time taken to switch output after input changes.
 Power Consumption:
o Static Power ≈ 0 (except leakage)
o Dynamic Power ∝ switching frequency × capacitance × (VDD)²

2. CMOS INVERTER DESIGN

Designing a CMOS inverter isn’t just connecting PMOS and NMOS. It involves device sizing,
timing optimization, and layout planning.

Key Design Parameters:

1. Transistor Sizing

 Goal: Balance rise and fall times.

 PMOS has lower mobility → make PMOS wider (typically 2–3× the NMOS width).
 W/L (width/length) affects drive strength and delay.

2. Load Capacitance

 Comes from wiring, fan-out, and gate inputs.

 Affects speed — higher capacitance = slower response.

3. Power Dissipation

 Dynamic Power = α × C × (VDD)² × f

 Static Power = leakage (ideally low)
 α = switching activity, C = load capacitance, f = clock frequency

4. Voltage Transfer Characteristics

 Needs sharp transition for digital behavior.

 VIL (Input Low Voltage) and VIH (Input High Voltage) define noise margins.

5. Physical Layout Considerations

 Minimize parasitics and area.

 Proper diffusion, metal routing, and well-tap placement are crucial.

3. COMBINATIONAL CIRCUIT DESIGN

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What is a Combinational Circuit?
A circuit where the output is purely a function of current inputs — no memory.

Common Components:

Component Function Example

AND A&B
OR A+B
NOT ¬A
XOR A ⊕ B (used in adders)
MUX Select between inputs
Decoder Convert binary input to 1-of-n output
Adder Adds binary numbers

Design Process:

1. Specify the Problem

Ex: "Design a circuit that outputs 1 if exactly one input is 1."
2. Create a Truth Table

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
3. Derive Boolean Expression
o From truth table → Sum of Products (SoP) or Karnaugh Map (K-map)
4. Simplify Expression
o Reduce the number of gates using K-map or Boolean algebra.
5. Implement Logic
o Use AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR gates, or logic library in HDL (Verilog/VHDL)
6. Test and Simulate
o Check all input conditions using simulation software.

Example: Half Adder

Outputs: Sum = A ⊕ B, Carry = A · B

Inputs: A, B

Truth Table:
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A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE SIXTH WEEK

Page No
 Day Person In-
Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Sequential circuit design Studied Sequential

circuit design
Day – 1

Sequential circuit design Studied Sequential

circuit design
Day - 2

Digital Design: Boolean Learnt Digital Design:

Algebra Boolean Algebra
Day – 3

Digital Design: Boolean Learnt Digital Design:

Algebra Boolean Algebra
Day – 4

Digital Design: Boolean Learnt Digital Design:

Algebra Boolean Algebra
Day – 5

Logic Families, Component Learnt Logic Families,

Datasheets Component
Datasheets
Day –6

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 6 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
. SEQUENTIAL CIRCUIT DESIGN
What is a Sequential Circuit?
A circuit in which the output depends on the current input AND the previous state.
It uses memory elements (flip-flops/latches).

Key Components:
Component Description
Flip-Flop Clocked memory unit (D, T, JK, SR types)
Register Group of flip-flops to store data words
Counter Sequence generator (binary, mod-n, etc.)
FSM Finite State Machine (Mealy/Moore models)

Design Process:
1. Define the Behavior
o Create a State Diagram or State Table.
2. State Encoding
o Binary representation for each state.
3. Derive Next State Logic
o Use flip-flop excitation tables.
4. Output Logic
o Based on current state (Moore) or state + input (Mealy).

5. Choose Flip-Flops
o Often D flip-flops for simplicity.
6. Implement the Circuit
o Combine combinational logic with flip-flops.

Example: 2-bit Synchronous Counter

Present State (Q1 Q0) Next State (Q1 Q0)
00 01
01 10
10 11
11 00
 Uses 2 D flip-flops.
 Clock drives both flip-flops synchronously.

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Sequential Design Applications:
 Registers, Counters, Timers
 Control units in processors
 Traffic light controllers
 Elevator logic systems
 Digital clocks

Digital Design: Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is the mathematical foundation for all digital circuits.

Basic Operations:
Operation Symbol Description
AND · or ∧ A·B is true if A & B = 1
OR + or ∨ A+B is true if A or B = 1
¬A is the complement of
NOT ¬ or '
A
XOR ⊕ A⊕B is true if A ≠ B

Key Boolean Laws:

Law Expression

Identity A + 0 = A, A · 1 = A

Null/Absorbing A + 1 = 1, A · 0 = 0

Inverse A + ¬A = 1, A · ¬A = 0

Idempotent A + A = A, A · A = A

Distributive A(B + C) = AB + AC

DeMorgan’s ¬(AB) = ¬A + ¬B

Simplification Techniques:
 Boolean identities
 Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps) – for 2-6 variables.
 Quine–McCluskey Algorithm – tabular simplification.

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✍️Example Simplification:
Expression: Y = A·B + A·¬B
Solution:
Y = A(B + ¬B) = A(1) = A

ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE SEVEN WEEK

Page No
 Day Person In-
Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Logic Families, Component Learnt Logic Families,

Datasheets Component
Datasheets
Day – 1

Logic Families, Component Learnt Logic Families,

Datasheets Component
Datasheets
Day - 2

TTL/CMOS logic Interfacing Studied TTL/CMOS

Constraints logic Interfacing
Constraints
Day – 3

TTL/CMOS logic Interfacing Studied TTL/CMOS

Constraints logic Interfacing
Constraints
Day – 4

TTL/CMOS logic Interfacing Studied TTL/CMOS

Constraints logic Interfacing
Constraints
Day – 5

Hardware Description Learnt Hardware

Languages: VHDL Description
Languages: VHDL
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 7 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:

Logic Families & Component Datasheets (Expanded)

Logic Families Overview

A logic family defines the electrical characteristics and performance of

logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) used in digital circuits.

Common Logic Families:

Family Voltage Speed Power Notes
Good noise immunity,
TTL 5V Fast (~10ns) Higher
74xx series
Slower (old) / Fast Low power, 40xx/74HC
CMOS 3–15V Very low
(modern) series
CMOS with TTL-compatible
HCT 5V High-speed Low
inputs
BiCMOS 5V Very fast Medium Combines bipolar + CMOS

Key Differences:
Characteristic TTL CMOS
Voltage Levels Fixed (5V) Wide (3–15V)
Power Consumption More (static + dynamic) Very low (only dynamic)
Speed Fast Varies (slow to very fast)
Input Impedance Low High
Noise Margin Good Excellent
Static Power Always consuming Zero (unless switching)
Component Datasheets: How to Use Them
Datasheets are technical documents that describe how to use a specific IC
component correctly.

📑 What You'll Find:

1. Pin Diagram – Labeling of each pin.
2. Truth Table – Defines logic behavior.
3. Block Diagram – Internal logic design.
4. Electrical Characteristics:
o V_IH, V_IL (input high/low)
o I_OH, I_OL (output drive strength)
5. Absolute Maximum Ratings – Don’t exceed these!
6. Timing Characteristics – Propagation delays, setup/hold times.
📦 Example: 74LS04 (Hex Inverter)
 V_CC: 5V
 I_OL: 8 mA
 t_pd: ~10 ns
 Function: A → ¬A

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TTL/CMOS Logic Interfacing Constraints (Expanded)
TTL and CMOS logic operate differently in terms of voltage levels and
input/output current, so interfacing them directly requires caution.

Why Constraints Matter

If you connect a CMOS output to a TTL input (or vice versa), incompatible logic
levels may cause:
 Unreliable switching
 Excessive current draw
 Damaged ICs

Key Electrical Characteristics:

Signal TTL Thresholds CMOS Thresholds
V_IL (max LOW in) 0.8 V ~0.3 × V_CC
V_IH (min HIGH in) 2.0 V ~0.7 × V_CC
V_OL (max LOW out) 0.4 V ~0 V
V_OH (min HIGH out) 2.4 V V_CC – 0.1V

Interfacing Solutions:

TTL Output to CMOS Input:

 Problem: TTL V_OH (min 2.4V) may not meet CMOS
V_IH (min ~3.5V at V_CC = 5V)
 Fix:
o Use a pull-up resistor to 5V
o Use a buffer/gate with CMOS-compatible inputs
o
CMOS Output to TTL Input:
 Generally OK if:
o CMOS can source ≥400 µA (TTL input current)
o V_OH ≥ 2.4V (TTL requirement)
 Use HCT series CMOS if you need guaranteed TTL input compatibility.

Hardware Description Languages: VHDL (Expanded)

VHDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language) is a language for modeling,
simulating, and synthesizing digital systems (like processors, FPGAs,
controllers).

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Why Use VHDL?
 Design complex digital circuits
 Simulate and verify behavior before building hardware
 Generate gate-level hardware via synthesis tools

VHDL Structure:
entity AND_Gate is
Port ( A, B : in STD_LOGIC;
Y : out STD_LOGIC );
end AND_Gate;

architecture Behavior of AND_Gate is

begin
Y <= A AND B;
end Behavior;

Key Concepts:
Term Meaning
Entity I/O interface (like a chip's pin diagram)
Architecture Internal logic (behavior/structure)
Signal Wire used for communication
Process Code block triggered by changes or clock

🧰 Common VHDL Applications:

 Design FSMs
 Create ALUs, counters, register files
 Model entire SoCs or CPUs
 Used heavily in FPGA development

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 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE EIGTH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Hardware Description Learnt Hardware

Languages: VHDL Description
Languages: VHDL
Day – 1

Hardware Description Learnt Hardware

Languages:Verilog Description
Languages:Verilog
Day - 2

Hardware Description Learnt Hardware

Languages:Verilog Description
Languages:Verilog
Day – 3

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Inverters/Logic- gates. design:
Inverters/Logic- gates.
Day – 4

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Inverters/Logic- gates. design:
Inverters/Logic- gates.
Day – 5

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Inverters/Logic- gates. design:
Inverters/Logic- gates.
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 8 (From Dt………..….. to Dt : Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Hardware Description Languages (HDLs)
HDLs are programming languages used to model digital electronic systems, like processors,
memory, controllers, and custom logic designs. The two most widely used HDLs are
HDL (VHSIC Hardware Description Language)
VHDL stands for Very High Speed Integrated Circuit Hardware Description Language. It’s
a strongly typed, verbose language widely used in FPGA and ASIC design.
VHDL Structure:
Entity – Describes the interface (inputs and outputs)
Architecture – Describes the behavior or internal workings
Example: AND Gate in VHDL
vhdl
CopyEdit
library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL;

entity AND_Gate is
Port ( A, B : in STD_LOGIC;
Y : out STD_LOGIC);
end AND_Gate;
architecture Behavioral of AND_Gate is
begin
Y <= A AND B;
end Behavioral;
Features:
Modular and reusable
Strong type checking
Used with Xilinx, Altera/Intel FPGAs
Easier to maintain large systems
Verilog HDL
Verilog is a hardware modeling language with a syntax similar to the C programming
language. It is easier to write for beginners and is widely used for simulation, ASIC design,
and synthesis.
Verilog Structure:
 module – Describes the hardware block
 assign – Used for simple combinational logic
 always – Used for sequential or conditional logic
Example: AND Gate in Verilog
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verilog
CopyEdit
module AND_Gate (
input wire A, B,
output wire Y
);
assign Y = A & B;
endmodule
Features:
 Concise syntax
 Popular in ASIC design flows
 Easier for quick simulation and verification

Comparison: VHDL vs Verilog

Feature VHDL Verilog
Syntax Style Verbose, Ada-like Concise, C-like
Type Checking Strict Loose
Best For Structured FPGA design Fast prototyping, ASICs
Community Academia, military, Europe Industry, USA, startups
Learning Curve Steep but structured Fast to learn
Digital Circuit Design: Inverters & Logic Gates
Digital logic circuits are made from basic building blocks called logic gates. These
gates process binary signals: 0 (low) and 1 (high).
Inverter (NOT Gate)
The simplest logic gate, an inverter flips the input logic.
Truth Table:
 Input (A)  Output (Y = NOT A)
 0  1
 1  0
Symbol:
A triangle with a small circle at the output.

Basic Logic Gates

 Boolean
 Gate  Symbol  Description
Expression
 AND  A·B  Y = A AND B  True when both inputs

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  Boolean
 Gate  Symbol  Description
Expression
are 1
 True when either input
 OR  A+B  Y = A OR B
is 1
 NOT  ¬A  Y = NOT A  Inverts the input
 Y = NOT (A AND
 NAND  ¬(A·B)  Opposite of AND
B)
 Y = NOT (A OR
 NOR  ¬(A+B)  Opposite of OR
B)

A⊕B
 True when inputs are
 XOR   Y = A XOR B
different
 True when inputs are
 XNOR  ¬(A⊕B)  Y = A XNOR B
equal

Implementation Options
 Transistor-level: Logic gates made from CMOS transistors.
 ICs: Use 7400 or 4000 series logic ICs.
 HDL: Model and simulate logic using Verilog/VHDL.

Example: 2-input Logic Gate Design in Verilog

verilog
CopyEdit
module Logic_Gates (
input wire A, B,
output wire AND_out, OR_out, NOT_out, XOR_out
);

assign AND_out = A & B;

assign OR_out = A | B;
assign NOT_out = ~A;
assign XOR_out = A ^ B;

endmodule

Real-World Applications
 Inverters: Used in signal conditioning, oscillators
 AND/OR gates: Decision-making logic in CPUs
 NAND/NOR gates: Universal gates (can create all others)
 XOR: Used in adders, comparators, parity circuits
Page No
Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE NINETH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

decoder/multiplexers design:
decoder/multiplexers
Day – 1

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

decoder/multiplexers design:
decoder/multiplexers
Day - 2

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

decoder/multiplexers design:
decoder/multiplexers
Day – 3

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Adders/Multipliers and ALU. design:
Adders/Multipliers and
Day – 4
ALU.

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Adders/Multipliers and ALU. design:
Adders/Multipliers and
Day – 5
ALU.

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Adders/Multipliers and ALU. design:
Adders/Multipliers and
Day –6
ALU.

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 9 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Decoders in Digital Circuit Design
What is a Decoder?
A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts n binary inputs into 2ⁿ unique
outputs. Only one output is HIGH at a time, depending on the input combination.
Applications of Decoders:
 Memory addressing (selecting one memory word)
 Instruction decoding in CPUs
 Control signal generation
 Seven-segment displays

\Example: 3-to-8 Decoder

 Inputs: A2, A1, A0
 Outputs: Y0 to Y7 (only one active at a time)
A2 A1 A0 Output
0 0 0 Y0 = 1
0 0 1 Y1 = 1
0 1 0 Y2 = 1
0 1 1 Y3 = 1
1 0 0 Y4 = 1
1 0 1 Y5 = 1
1 1 0 Y6 = 1
1 1 1 Y7 = 1
All other outputs = 0 for each case.

Multiplexers in Digital Design

What is a Multiplexer (MUX)?
A multiplexer selects one of many input signals and passes it to the output, based
on select lines.
Applications:
Data routing
Resource sharing in processors
ALU input selection
Communication systems (e.g., channel selection)

Example: 4-to-1 Multiplexer

Inputs: I0, I1, I2, I3
Select lines: S1, S0
Output: Y
S1 S0 Y
0 0 I0
0 1 I1

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 S1 S0 Y
1 0 I2
1 1 I3
MUX can be built from basic gates or using HDL like Verilog or VHDL.

Adders in Digital Design

What is an Adder?
An adder performs binary addition. It's a fundamental arithmetic unit in digital
systems like calculators, CPUs, and DSPs.

Half Adder
Inputs: A, B
Outputs: Sum = A ⊕ B; Carry = A · B
A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Full Adder
Inputs: A, B, Cin
Outputs: Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin; Carry = majority(A, B, Cin)
Used to build multi-bit adders.

Ripple Carry Adder

Chains multiple full adders.
Delay increases with bit-width (propagation of carry).

Multipliers in Digital Circuits

What is a Binary Multiplier?
A binary multiplier performs multiplication using shift-and-add operations.
2-bit × 2-bit Multiplier Example:
If A = A1A0 and B = B1B0:
Generate 4 partial products using AND gates
Add them using adders
Result = 4 bits: P3P2P1P0

Types of Multipliers:
Array Multiplier: Regular layout, fast
Booth Multiplier: Efficient for signed numbers
Wallace Tree: High-speed multiplication (used in ALUs)

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

What is an ALU?
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is the heart of a CPU. It performs arithmetic and
logical operations on data.

Page No
 Common ALU Operations:
Opcode Operation
000 A+B
001 A-B
010 A&B
011 A
100 A^B
101 NOT A
110 Shift Left
111 Shift Right

ALU Block Design:

Inputs:
Two data inputs (A and B)
Control/Opcode input
Carry-in or flags (optional)
Outputs:
Result
Flags: Zero, Negative, Carry Out, Overflow

Real-World Applications:
Component Applications
Decoder Memory addressing, control units
Multiplexer Channel/data selection, CPU design
Adder ALUs, counters, timers
Multiplier DSPs, cryptography, graphics
ALU Central part of every processor

HDL Implementation Tip

All of these components (decoder, MUX, adder, multiplier, ALU) can be:
Simulated in tools like ModelSim, Vivado, Quartus
Synthesized onto FPGAs (like Spartan or Cyclone)
Tested using testbenches in Verilog/VHDL

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE TENTH WEEK

Day & Date Brief description of the daily Person In-

activity Learning Outcome Charge
Signature

Digital circuit design: Studied Digital circuit

Adders/Multipliers and ALU. design:
Adders/Multipliers and
Day – 1
ALU.

Understanding PCBs Learnt about the

Understanding PCBs
Day - 2

Single layer PCBs Learnt about Single

layer PCBs
Day – 3

Single layer PCBs Learnt about Single

layer PCBs
Day – 4

multi-layer PCBs Learnt about multi-

layer PCBs
Day – 5

multi-layer PCBs Learnt about multi-

layer PCBs
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT

WEEK – 10 (From Dt………..….. to Dt )

Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
DIGITAL CIRCUIT DESIGN: ADDERS, MULTIPLIERS, AND ALU
These elements are essential for building the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of microprocessors and are
widely used in DSPs, control systems, FPGAs, and embedded hardware.

ADDERS
Adders are combinational logic circuits used to perform binary addition.
1. Half Adder
Adds two binary digits.
Inputs: A, B
Outputs:
Sum = A ⊕ B
Carry = A · B
Limitation: Cannot add a carry from a previous stage.
2. Full Adder
Adds three binary digits (A, B, and carry-in).
Outputs:
Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin
Carry = AB + BCin + ACin
3. Ripple Carry Adder
Chain of full adders to add multi-bit numbers.
Limitation: Slow for large bit-widths due to carry propagation delay.
4. Carry Lookahead Adder
Improves speed by calculating carry signals in advance using generate/propagate logic.
Used in high-speed processors.

MULTIPLIERS
Binary multipliers perform multiplication through AND operations + binary addition.
1. Serial/Shift-and-Add Multipliers
Use shifting and repeated addition.
Simple, but slow.
2. Array Multiplier
Structured arrangement of adders and AND gates.
Efficient and easy to design.
3. Booth’s Algorithm
For signed number multiplication.
Reduces number of additions and subtractions needed.
4. Wallace Tree Multiplier
Fast implementation using a tree of carry-save adders.
Used in DSP processors.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

The ALU is the core of every CPU. It performs arithmetic (add, subtract) and logic (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)
Page No
 operations.
Common ALU Inputs:
Operand A, Operand B
Operation select lines
Carry/overflow flag (optional)
Common ALU Outputs:
Result
Status Flags (Zero, Carry, Overflow, Negative)
Typical ALU Operations:
Operation Code Operation
000 A+B
001 A-B
010 A AND B
011 A OR B
100 A XOR B
101 A << 1
110 A >> 1
111 NOT A

🧰 HDL/Verilog Example (4-bit ALU):

verilog
CopyEdit
module alu_4bit (
input [3:0] A, B,
input [2:0] sel,
output reg [3:0] result
);

always @(*) begin

case(sel)
3'b000: result = A + B;
3'b001: result = A - B;
3'b010: result = A & B;
3'b011: result = A | B;
3'b100: result = A ^ B;
3'b101: result = A << 1;
3'b110: result = A >> 1;
3'b111: result = ~A;
default: result = 4'b0000;
endcase
end

endmodule

UNDERSTANDING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBs)

PCBs provide the physical platform for mounting and interconnecting components in electronic
Page No
 devices.

SINGLE-LAYER PCBs
Definition:
A single conductive layer (usually copper) on one side of an insulating base (like FR4).
Features:
Components and traces are usually on opposite sides.
Uses through-hole or surface-mount technology.
Pros:
Low cost
Simple to manufacture
Ideal for small, low-density circuits
Applications:
Calculators
Power supply units
LED lighting systems
Toys
Example: LED driver board with a 555 timer

MULTI-LAYER PCBs
Definition:
Multiple layers of copper and insulating substrate stacked together.
Layers are connected via plated through holes or vias.
Structure:
Usually 4, 6, or 8 layers, but high-end designs can go up to 20+.
Common layer stack:
Top Layer (Components + Traces)
Ground Plane
Power Plane
Signal Layers
Bottom Layer
Pros:
Higher component density
Reduced board size
Better signal integrity
Lower electromagnetic interference (EMI)
Cons:
More expensive
Complex manufacturing and repair
Applications:
Smartphones
Laptops
Aerospace electronics
Medical equipment
High-speed digital circuits (DDR, PCIe)

Page No
 Comparison Table:
Feature Single Layer PCB Multi-Layer PCB
Layers 1 4 to 20+
Complexity Low High
Cost Low Medium to High
Signal Quality Basic Excellent (less EMI, better routing)
Component Density Low High
Use Cases Simple gadgets Complex electronics

🧪 Bonus: PCB Manufacturing Flow

Schematic Capture (e.g., KiCad, Eagle, Altium)
Layout Design
Gerber File Generation
Etching / Layering
Drilling Holes / Vias
Soldermask & Silkscreen
Component Placement & Soldering
Testing & Quality Control

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE ELEVENTH WEEK

Day & Date Brief description of the daily Person In-

activity Learning Outcome Charge
Signature

Holes, Vias, Layers Limitations Learnt about the Holes,

Vias, Layers Limitations
Day – 1

Holes, Vias, Layers Limitations Learnt about the Holes,

Vias, Layers Limitations
Day - 2

Holes, Vias, Layers Limitations Learnt about the Holes,

Vias, Layers Limitations
Day – 3

Holes, Vias, Layers Limitations Learnt about the Holes,

Vias, Layers Limitations
Day – 4

Holes, Vias, Layers Limitations Learnt about the Holes,

Vias, Layers Limitations
Day – 5

Hands-on Training on PCB Practise the Hands-on

Prototyping Training on PCB
Prototyping
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT

WEEK – 11 (From Dt………..….. to Dt )

Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
HOLES, VIAS, AND LAYER LIMITATIONS IN PCB DESIGN
These elements are essential for inter-layer connectivity, component mounting, and mechanical
stability, but they also introduce specific limitations.

1. HOLES in PCBs
Types of Holes:
Plated Through Holes (PTH):
Used for component leads and vias.
Metal plating provides electrical connection between layers.
Non-Plated Through Holes (NPTH):
Used for mechanical support or mounting (e.g., screws).
No electrical connectivity.
Component Holes:
Specific to through-hole components like resistors, connectors, switches.
Limitations:
Drill size affects the accuracy and cost.
Too many holes reduce the mechanical strength of the PCB.
Minimum annular ring (the ring of copper around a drilled hole) must be maintained.
Drill wander can misalign plated holes with inner layers.
Design Tip:
Avoid placing traces too close to drilled holes.
For high-density PCBs, prefer SMD components over through-hole.

2. VIAS (Types & Trade-offs)

Vias help connect signals and power across multiple PCB layers.
Types of Vias:
Via Type Layers Connected Pros Cons
Through-Hole Top to Bottom Simple, cost-effective Takes up board space
Blind Outer to inner layer Saves space More expensive to manufacture
Buried Between inner layers Ideal for dense circuits Not visible for inspection
Small, laser-drilled Used in HDI, high-speed Expensive and fabrication-
Microvia
vias PCBs limited
Limitations:
Thermal expansion stress can crack via plating.
Via-in-pad (used for BGA components) requires careful design to avoid solder issues.
High via density increases crosstalk and parasitic inductance.

3. LAYER LIMITATIONS
The number of layers in a PCB influences routing capability, signal integrity, and power distribution.
Typical Use Cases:
2-layer PCB:
Good for basic analog/digital circuits.
Page No
4-layer PCB:
Adds GND and power planes. Useful for microcontrollers and low-noise designs.
6-layer PCB:
Adds internal routing layers. Used in mid-level CPU, GPU designs.
8+ layer PCB:
Required for high-speed signals, advanced computing, or RF circuits.
Limitations:
Each added layer increases cost, stack-up complexity, and fabrication time.
Thermal management is more difficult as the inner layers trap heat.
High-layer boards are harder to rework or repair.
Requires precision alignment during lamination to avoid layer shift.
Key Stack-up Factors:
Dielectric material: Insulation between copper layers; affects impedance.
Copper weight: Thicker copper = higher current carrying, but harder to etch.
Signal Integrity: Controlled impedance requires careful layer planning.

HANDS-ON PCB PROTOTYPING

This is the practical phase of turning your circuit into a working physical board. It's ideal for students,
engineers, and hobbyists.

STEP 1: SCHEMATIC DESIGN

Use ECAD software like:
KiCad (open-source)
Eagle
Altium Designer
EasyEDA (web-based)
Add components using libraries, draw connections (nets), and assign footprints.

STEP 2: PCB LAYOUT

Import schematic into layout editor.
Place components logically (e.g., group ICs, resistors, and decoupling capacitors).
Route traces, avoiding sharp angles.
Assign layers for signals, power, and ground.
Use via placement to move traces across layers.

STEP 3: DESIGN RULE CHECK (DRC)

Validate:
Trace width
Minimum spacing
Drill sizes
Clearance from board edges
Fix any errors before exporting.

STEP 4: GENERATE GERBER FILES

These are standard manufacturing files used by PCB fabs.
Files include:
Top/bottom copper

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 Solder mask
Silkscreen
Drill file (Excellon format)

STEP 5: MANUFACTURING
Upload Gerber files to a PCB fabrication service:
JLCPCB, PCBWay, OSH Park, etc.
Choose:
Board thickness (e.g., 1.6 mm)
Copper thickness (e.g., 1 oz)
Soldermask color
Surface finish (HASL, ENIG, etc.)

STEP 6: ASSEMBLY
For Through-Hole:
Insert components manually
Solder with iron or wave soldering
For SMD:
Apply solder paste using stencil
Place components using tweezers or pick-and-place
Reflow in oven or with hot air gun

STEP 7: TESTING & DEBUGGING

Use a multimeter to check continuity and power rails.
Use an oscilloscope or logic analyzer for signal checking.
Test each functional block before full integration.
If issues arise, use rework tools to desolder and replace components.

Example Prototyping Projects:

555 Timer Blinking LED – Intro to through-hole prototyping.
ATmega328 (Arduino) Custom Board – Learn about microcontrollers, voltage regulation, and USB.
4-bit ALU on PCB – Integrate logic gates and LEDs.
ESP32 WiFi IoT PCB – Combine SMD + wireless modules.

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE TWELVETH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Hands-on Training on PCB Practise the Hands-on

Prototyping Training on PCB
Prototyping
Day – 1

Hands-on Training on PCB Practise the Hands-on

Prototyping Training on PCB
Prototyping
Day - 2

Hands-on Training on PCB Practise the Hands-on

Prototyping Training on PCB
Prototyping
Day – 3

Hands-on Training on PCB Practise the Hands-on

Prototyping Training on PCB
Prototyping
Day – 4

Hands-on Training on PCB Practise the Hands-on

Prototyping Training on PCB
Prototyping
Day – 5

Example: Basic PCB design Studied the example

of Basic PCB design
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 12 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:

Hands-on Training on PCB Prototyping

Example Project: Basic LED Blinker PCB using 555 Timer IC

This practical project will walk you through the entire PCB prototyping process using a real-world
circuit. By the end, you’ll have a custom-built, functioning PCB designed and assembled by you.

PROJECT OVERVIEW

Project Name: 555 Timer LED Blinker

Objective: Design and fabricate a basic PCB to blink an LED at regular intervals using a 555 timer in
astable mode

FULL WORKFLOW

Step 1: Circuit Schematic Design

A schematic is the blueprint of your circuit.

Software Tools:

 KiCad (Free & Open Source)

 EasyEDA (Online + Free)

 Eagle (Autodesk, free for students/hobbyists)

Components Needed:

Component Quantity Description

NE555 Timer IC 1 Core timing IC

Resistor R1 1 1 kΩ (controls timing)

Resistor R2 1 10 kΩ

Capacitor C1 1 10 µF (electrolytic)

LED 1 Any color

Power Supply 1 5V or 9V battery

Decoupling Cap (Optional) 1 0.1 µF

DIP-8 IC Socket (Optional) 1 For IC protection

SPST switch (Optional) 1 On/Off control

Circuit Configuration (Astable Mode):

 The LED blinks based on RC timing.

 Output on pin 3 drives the LED.

 Formula for frequency:

f = 1.44 / ((R1 + 2*R2) * C1)

Pin Configuration:
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Pin Function

1 GND

2 Trigger

3 Output (to LED)

4 Reset

5 Control Voltage (optional)

6 Threshold

7 Discharge

8 Vcc (5V-15V)

Step 2: PCB Layout Design

Once schematic is complete, convert to PCB layout.

Steps:

1. Import netlist (connections from schematic).

2. Arrange components efficiently.

o Place IC at center.

o Group resistors, capacitors nearby.

3. Route copper traces between pins.

4. Add vias if doing double-sided board.

5. Add text labels (component names/values).

6. Define board outline.

Design Rules:

 Minimum trace width: 6 mil (or per manufacturer).

 Clearance between traces: 6-10 mil.

 Keep power traces wider (20-30 mil).

 Maintain clearance from edges.

Step 3: Design Rule Check (DRC)

Run a DRC to catch:

 Unconnected nets

 Overlapping pads

 Trace clearance issues

Fix all DRC errors before exporting.

Step 4: Generate Gerber Files

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Gerber files are the industry-standard format for PCB fabrication.

Files include:

 Top copper

 Bottom copper

 Solder mask (top/bottom)

 Silkscreen (top/bottom)

 Drill files

 Board outline

Export and compress into a .zip folder.

Step 5: Send for Fabrication

Upload Gerber files to a PCB manufacturer:

Popular Options:

 JLCPCB

 PCBWay

 Seeed Fusion

 OSH Park (good for USA)

Choose Specs:

Setting Recommendation

Layers 2

Thickness 1.6 mm

Copper Weight 1 oz

Solder Mask Green/Blue/Black

Surface Finish HASL (economical)

Production usually takes 3–7 days + shipping.

Step 6: PCB Assembly

When your board arrives:

Required Tools:

 Soldering iron (15W–30W)

 Leaded solder wire (easier for beginners)

 Flux pen or paste

 Tweezers

 Desoldering wick or pump

 Multimeter

Assembly Process:

1. Insert resistors and capacitors first.

2. Solder the 555 timer socket (if using).

Page No
 3. Add the LED (longer leg = anode).

4. Solder power terminals.

5. Visually inspect all joints for bridges/cold soldering.

Step 7: Power & Test

1. Connect a 9V battery or 5V USB power.

2. The LED should blink at ~1 Hz.

3. If not:

o Check connections with multimeter.

o Inspect for polarity mistakes (LED, cap).

o Check IC orientation.

Learning Outcomes

By completing this project, you’ll:

 Understand how to take a circuit from idea to real-world PCB.

 Gain experience with industry tools (KiCad, Gerber files).

 Learn soldering, layout strategies, and debugging skills.

 Be able to move on to advanced projects like:

o Microcontroller boards

o IoT sensor modules

o Audio amplifiers

o Digital logic circuits

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE THIRTEENTH WEEK

Day Person
Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome In-Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Example: Basic PCB design Studied the example

of Basic PCB design
Day – 1

Example: Basic PCB design Studied the example

of Basic PCB design
Day - 2

Example: Basic PCB design Studied the example

of Basic PCB design
Day – 3

Example: Advance PCB design Studied the example

of Advance PCB
design
Day – 4

Example: Advance PCB design Studied the example

of Advance PCB
design
Day – 5

Example: Advance PCB design Studied the example

of Advance PCB
design
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 13 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Example: Basic PCB Design
This is ideal for beginners and focuses on learning the core PCB workflow with simple analog
or digital circuits.
Project Idea: LED Flasher using 555 Timer (Astable Mode)
Features:
 Single-layer PCB
 Fewer than 10 components
 Through-hole components
 Schematic to PCB layout
 Manual soldering
Components Used:
 NE555 Timer IC
 Resistors (R1, R2)
 Capacitor (C1)
 LED
 Battery clip or 5V supply
Learning Outcomes:
 How to create a schematic
 How to place components and route tracks
 Gerber file generation and PCB ordering
 Hands-on soldering of basic components
 Testing and troubleshooting
Tools:
 KiCad / EasyEDA / Eagle
 Simple multimeter
 Soldering station

Example: Advanced PCB Design

This is suited for intermediate to advanced learners aiming to build complex circuits, often
involving digital logic, microcontrollers, or power regulation.
Project Idea: Microcontroller-based Temperature Logger with OLED Display and
USB Interface
Features:
 Double-layer or multi-layer PCB
 Mixed SMD and through-hole components
 Ground planes and decoupling
 Complex routing (I2C, USB, SPI)
Page No
  Heat management and shielding
 Enclosure design considerations
Components Used:
 ATmega328P or ESP32
 Temperature sensor (DS18B20 or DHT22)
 OLED display (I2C)
 USB interface (CH340 or CP2102)
 Capacitors, resistors, voltage regulators
 ISP headers or USB bootloading
 Optional SD card storage
Advanced Concepts:
 High-speed signal routing
 Power supply decoupling
 EMC/EMI considerations
 Differential pair routing (for USB)
 Component placement for thermal efficiency
 PCB design for manufacturability (DFM)
Tools:
 Altium / KiCad / EasyEDA Pro
 Oscilloscope, logic analyzer (for testing)
 JTAG/USB programmer

Comparison Table
Feature Basic PCB Advanced PCB
Layers Single Double/Multi
Components 5–10 20+
Type Through-hole Mixed (SMD + Through-hole)
Tools KiCad, EasyEDA Altium, KiCad Pro
Testing Visual + Multimeter Oscilloscope, JTAG
Focus Learning process Performance, optimization
Skills Gained Layout, soldering EMC, DFM, firmware, thermal design

Final Output
 Basic PCB: A working LED blinker you can proudly show off.
 Advanced PCB: A compact, efficient embedded system ready for a real-world
application.

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE FOURTEENTH WEEK

Day Person
Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome In-Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Example: Advance PCB design Studied the example

of Advance PCB
design
Day – 1

Example: Advance PCB design Studied the example

of Advance PCB
design
Day - 2

Learned
Introduction to CAD, knowledge and Introduction to CAD,
Day – 3 skills on 2D and 3D Drafting knowledge and skills on 2D
and 3D Drafting

Modelling of Curves, Solids, Learned Modelling of

Mechanisms and Curves, Solids,
Assemblies Mechanisms and
Day – 4
Assemblies

CAD Display devices, Principles and Learned CAD Display

Techniques devices, Principles and
of CAD display devises Techniques of
Day – 5
CAD display devises

Input and Output devices, Wireframe Learned Input and Output

& Solid devices, Wireframe &
Modelling and its techniques, Solid
Day –6
Modelling and its
techniques,

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 14 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Advanced PCB Design
Project: Microcontroller-Based IoT Temperature Logger with Wi-Fi + OLED
Display

Objectives:
 Design a compact, multi-layer PCB with surface-mount components
 Interface a microcontroller with sensors and peripherals
 Ensure proper power management and EMI compliance
 Prepare for production/manufacturing

Core Components:
Component Description
ESP32 Microcontroller with Wi-Fi & BLE
DHT22 Temperature & Humidity Sensor
OLED Display (0.96") I2C interface for display
LDO Regulator (AMS1117) 3.3V power supply
Micro-USB Connector Power & programming
Decoupling Capacitors Stabilizes power
Pull-up Resistors For I2C lines
Reset/Flash Buttons Manual programming
Indicator LEDs Status & Power

Key Advanced PCB Concepts:

 SMD Footprint Design: Designing accurate footprints for each SMD
component
 Multi-Layer Design: Use of at least 2 layers: one for routing, another as a
ground plane
 Signal Integrity: Proper trace width, controlled impedance (for I2C, USB, RF)
 Via Design: Use of through vias and via stitching for signal and ground
stability
 Power Distribution: Star topology or planes to prevent voltage drops
 EMI/EMC Considerations: Keep traces short, avoid loops, and add decoupling
 Thermal Management: Use thermal relief pads, copper pours near heat-
producing parts
 Silkscreen Optimization: Clear labeling, alignment, version info, and QR code
(optional)

Outputs:
 Fabrication-ready Gerber files
 BOM (Bill of Materials) for ordering components
 Assembly drawing for SMD pick-and-place
 3D model of the final PCB

Now, let’s transition into the CAD knowledge you’d apply for the
mechanical or enclosure
design of this advanced PCB system:

Introduction to CAD and Design Skills

Page No
 2D & 3D Drafting
 2D Drafting: Used for layout plans, fabrication drawings (mechanical parts,
enclosures)
 3D Drafting: Used to model mechanical enclosures, simulate fit and form with
electronics
Tools: AutoCAD, Fusion 360, SolidWorks, FreeCAD

Modeling of Curves, Solids, Mechanisms, and Assemblies

 Curves: Bezier, B-splines for complex paths
 Solids: Extrude, revolve, loft basic sketches into 3D parts
 Mechanisms: Create moving parts like hinges or sliders
 Assemblies: Combine multiple parts (e.g., PCB + case + screws) into one
model

Allows visualization of real-world fit before fabrication.

CAD Display Devices and Techniques

 Display Devices: High-res monitors, VR for immersive modeling
 Techniques: Shaded views, wireframe, hidden-line removal, exploded views
This helps interpret and analyze complex mechanical and PCB designs visually.

Input & Output Devices

Input:
 Mouse, keyboard, digitizers, 3D scanners
Output:
 Monitors, 3D printers, plotters, CNC
CAD software interacts with these for real-world prototyping.

Wireframe & Solid Modeling Techniques

Technique Description
Wireframe Simplified model using edges and vertices
Solid Modeling Fully detailed, includes mass, volume, and surfaces
Surface Complex curvature, often used in aerodynamics or
Modeling ergonomic shapes

Integration of CAD + PCB

 Import PCB board outlines into CAD (STEP files from KiCad/Altium)
 Design an enclosure in 3D CAD to house the PCB
 Check for port alignment, mounting holes, thermal vents, etc.

Learning Outcomes:
1. By combining Advanced PCB Design + CAD knowledge, you can:
2. Build complete electronic productsDesign custom enclosures
Prepare prototypes for 3D printing or manufacturing
Collaborate across electronics &mechanical domains

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE FIFTEENTH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Operations, Comparison of Learned Operations,

wireframe & solid Comparison of wireframe
Modelling and Applications of CAD. & solid
Day – 1 Modelling and Applications
of CAD.

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)Learned Computer Aided

Manufacturing (CAM)

Day - 2

knowledge and skills on the Learned knowledge and

Numerical Control skills on the Numerical
(NC) & Computer Numerical Control Control (NC) & Computer
Day – 3 Machines (CNC) Numerical Control
Machines (CNC)

Principles of CNC and Coordinate Learned Principles of CNC

Systems, and Coordinate Systems,
Motion Control, Motion
Day – 4 Control,

working and operation of CNC, Learned working and

Advantages and operation of CNC,
disadvantages of CNC machines. Advantages and
Day – 5 disadvantages of CNC
machines.

Design for Testability: Scan design rules, studied Design for Testability:
Scan design flow Scan design rules, Scan
design flow
Day –6

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 15 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
CAD Modeling: Operations, Comparison, and Applications
Modeling Operations:
These are the basic techniques used in 3D CAD software to construct parts:
 Extrude: Extends a 2D profile into 3D
 Revolve: Spins a 2D sketch around an axis to form a solid
 Loft: Connects multiple profiles along a path to create complex shapes
 Sweep: Pulls a shape along a path (e.g., wires, tubes)
 Boolean Operations: Combine solids using union, subtract, or intersect

Wireframe vs Solid Modeling

Feature Wireframe Modeling Solid Modeling
Represents object using lines and Represents object with volume
Definition
curves and mass
Realistic 3D; surface and volume
Visuals Transparent; only edges visible
shown
More complex; heavy on
Complexity Less complex; light on resources
computation
Early design, concept Simulation, prototyping,
Use Cases
visualization rendering
Editing Hard to manipulate later Easy with parametric history
Mechanical parts, enclosures,
Applications Architecture, layout drafts
assemblies
Solid modeling is most common in mechanical design, especially for enclosures in
PCB integration.

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)Definition:

CAM refers to using software and computer-controlled machines to manufacture
products based on CAD models.
Processes Involved:
 Converting CAD files to toolpaths (e.g., G-code)
 Simulating machining operations
 Controlling CNC machines, 3D printers, laser cutters, etc.
Software Examples:
 Fusion 360 (CAD + CAM)
 Mastercam
 SolidCAM
Page No
  Siemens NX

Numerical Control (NC) & Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Basics of NC and CNC:
Feature NC CNC
Control Manual code entry Fully computerized
Flexibility Low High
Reprogramming Difficult Easy
Feedback system None Closed-loop system for error correction

Principles of CNC:
 CNC Machine: Uses programmable instructions (G-code) to control
movement
 Coordinate System:
o X, Y, Z axes: Linear movement
o A, B, C axes: Rotary movement (for 5-axis CNC)
 Reference Point: Origin (0,0,0) is the basis for tool movements
 Tool Paths: Define cutting/milling operations

Motion Control:
 Controlled via stepper or servo motors
 Supports linear interpolation (moving in straight lines) and circular
interpolation
 Ensures precision and repeatability
Advantages of CNC Machines:
 High precision and accuracy
 Repeatable production
 Time-saving for mass production
 Compatible with complex geometries
Disadvantages:
 High initial setup cost
 Requires skilled operators and programmers
 Can be overkill for small batch production

Design for Testability (DFT)

(Used in VLSI/ASIC/PCB design)

What is DFT?
Design for Testability ensures that digital circuits can be easily tested after fabrication,
detecting faults efficiently.
Key Concepts:
Page No
Scan Design Rules:
 Add special logic (scan chains) into the circuit to allow controllability and
observability of flip-flops.
 Flip-flops are connected into scan chains which are testable using
automatic test equipment (ATE).
Scan Design Flow:
1. Insert Scan Flip-Flops: Replace regular D-FFs with scan-enabled ones
2. Create Scan Chains: Series of scan FFs connected in a loop
3. Generate Test Vectors: Simulate input combinations
4. Run ATPG (Automatic Test Pattern Generation): Identify stuck-at faults, etc.
5. Validate Test Coverage: Ensure high fault detection
This is critical in large chips like SoCs or processors, ensuring they can be tested
before packaging.

Summary of Skills Covered

Domain Key Skills
CAD 2D/3D drafting, solid modeling, assemblies
Toolpath generation, coordinate systems, CNC
CAM/CNC
operations
DFT Scan chains, ATPG, test vector simulation

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE SIXTEENTH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Introduction to Python: Learned Introduction

Structure of a Python to Python: Structure
Program, Elements of Python, of a Python
Day – 1
Python Interpreter, Program, Elements of
Python, Python
Interpreter,
Using Python as calculator, Learned Using Python
Python shell, as calculator, Python
Indentation. shell,
Day - 2
Indentation.

Atoms, Identifiers and Learned Atoms,

keywords, Literals, Strings Identifiers and
and Operators. keywords, Literals,
Day – 3
Strings
and Operators.

Conditional Statements and Learned Conditional

Looping: Branching, Statements and
Looping: Branching,
Day – 4

Looping, Conditional Learned Looping,

Statement, Conditional
Statement,
Day – 5

Exit function, Difference Learned Exit function,

between break, continue Difference between
and pass. break, continue
Day –6
and pass.

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 1 6 (From Dt………..….. to Dt.................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Introduction to Python Programming
Structure of a Python Program
A basic Python program generally consists of:
1. Comments (# This is a comment)
2. Import Statements (import math)
3. Function Definitions (def my_function():)
4. Executable Code (the logic or flow)
5. Indentation to define code blocks (Python doesn’t use braces {})
Example:
python
# Simple Python program
def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet("Alice")
Elements of Python
 Variables
 Data Types
 Operators
 Control Flow
 Functions
 Modules
 Exceptions
 Objects & Classes

Python Interpreter & Shell

 Interpreter: Executes Python code line-by-line.
 Shell (REPL): Interactive prompt where you can type and execute Python code
immediately.
bash
>>> 2 + 3
5
>>> print("Hi!")
Hi!

Using Python as a Calculator

Python can perform basic arithmetic:
python
>>> 5 + 3 # Addition
8
>>> 10 / 2 # Division
5.0
Page No
>>> 2 ** 3 # Exponentiation
8
>>> 7 % 2 # Modulo
1

Indentation in Python
 Critical! Python uses indentation to define code blocks instead of braces.
 Incorrect indentation will raise an error.
python
if True:
print("Correct Indentation")
else:
print("Incorrect Indentation")

Atoms, Identifiers, and Keywords

Atoms:
 The smallest individual units like numbers (5, 3.14), strings ('Hello'), and identifiers
(x, total_sum).
Identifiers:
 Names for variables, functions, etc.
 Must start with a letter or underscore
 Cannot be Python keywords (e.g., if, while)
Keywords in Python:
Some examples include:
 if, else, for, while
 def, return, class
 import, pass, break, continue, with

Literals, Strings, and Operators

Literals:
 Numeric: 10, 3.14
 String: 'hello', "Python"
 Boolean: True, False
Strings:
python
greet = "Hello"
name = "Alice"
print(greet + " " + name)
Operators:
 Arithmetic: +, -, *, /, //, %, **
 Comparison: ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=
 Logical: and, or, not
 Assignment: =, +=, -=, etc.

Conditional Statements and Looping

Branching (if-elif-else):
Page No
python
x = 10
if x > 0:
print("Positive")
elif x == 0:
print("Zero")
else:
print("Negative")

Looping:
for loop:
python
for i in range(5):
print(i)
while loop:
python
count = 0
while count < 5:
print(count)
count += 1

Exit Function:
Used to terminate a program early.
python
import sys
sys.exit("Exiting the program")

Difference between break, continue, and pass

Keyword Description Example Use

break Terminates the loop immediately Exit loop when a condition is met

continue Skips current iteration and goes to next Skip a value in a loop

pass Placeholder that does nothing Used where syntax requires a statement

Examples:
python
for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue
print(i)

for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break
print(i)

def not_ready():

Page No
pass

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE SEVENTEENTH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

String Manipulation: Learned String

Understanding string, Manipulation:
Accessing Strings, Understanding string,
Day – 1
Accessing Strings,

Basic Operations, String slices, Learned Basic

Function and Operations, String
Methods. slices, Function and
Day - 2
Methods.

List: Introduction to list, Learned List:

Accessing list, list operations, Introduction to list,
Working with lists, Function Accessing list, list
Day – 3
and operations, Working
Methods. with lists, Function
and Methods.
List: Introduction to list, Learned List:
Accessing list, list operations, Introduction to list,
Working with lists, Function Accessing list, list
Day – 4
and operations, Working
Methods. with lists, Function
and Methods.
List: Introduction to list, Learned List:
Accessing list, list operations, Introduction to list,
Working with lists, Function Accessing list, list
Day – 5
and operations, Working
with lists, Function
Methods.
and Methods.
Tuples: Introduction to tuple, Learned Tuples:
Accessing tuples, Introduction to tuple,
Operations, Working, Accessing tuples,
Day –6
Functions and Methods. Operations, Working,
Functions and
Methods.

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 1 7 (From Dt………..….. to Dt.................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
String Manipulation in Python

Understanding Strings
 A string is a sequence of characters enclosed in single, double, or
triple quotes.
python
str1 = 'Hello'
str2 = "World"
str3 = """Multiline
String"""

Accessing String
 Strings are indexed starting from 0.
python
greeting = "Python"
print(greeting[0]) # 'P'
print(greeting[-1]) # 'n' (negative indexing)

Basic Operations
 Concatenation: +
 Repetition: *
 Membership test: in, not in
 Length: len()
python
s1 = "Hello"
s2 = "World"
print(s1 + " " + s2) # Concatenation
print(s1 * 3) # Repetition
print("H" in s1) # Membership test
print(len(s1)) # Length

String Slices
python
str1 = "Programming"
print(str1[0:6]) # 'Progra'
print(str1[:4]) # 'Prog'
print(str1[4:]) # 'ramming'

🔧 String Functions and Methods

Common string methods:
python
CopyEdit
text = " Hello World "
print(text.lower()) # ' hello world '
print(text.upper()) # ' HELLO WORLD '
print(text.strip()) # 'Hello World'
print(text.replace("World", "Python")) # ' Hello Python '
print(text.split()) # ['Hello', 'World']

List in Python
Page No
Introduction to Lists
 A list is a collection of items, which can be of mixed data types.
 Defined using square brackets []
python
my_list = [1, 2, 3, "Python", 3.14]

Accessing List Items

python
print(my_list[0]) # 1
print(my_list[-1]) # 3.14

List Operations
 Concatenation: +
 Repetition: *
 Membership: in, not in
 Slicing: Like strings
python
list1 = [1, 2, 3]
list2 = [4, 5]
print(list1 + list2) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
print(list1 * 2) # [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
print(2 in list1) # True
print(list1[1:]) # [2, 3]

Working with List

Modify list:
python
my_list[1] = "changed"
Add items:
python
my_list.append("new") # Add at end
my_list.insert(1, "insert") # Insert at index
Remove items:
python
my_list.remove("Python") # By value
my_list.pop() # By position (last item)
Iterate:
python
for item in my_list:
print(item)

List Functions and Methods

python
numbers = [3, 1, 4, 2]
print(len(numbers)) #4
print(sorted(numbers)) # [1, 2, 3, 4]
numbers.sort() # In-place sort
numbers.reverse() # In-place reverse
print(max(numbers)) #4
print(min(numbers)) #1

Tuples in Python

Introduction to Tuples
 A tuple is an immutable list — once created, you can't modify it.

Page No
  Defined using parentheses ()
python
my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, "Python")

Accessing Tuples
python
print(my_tuple[0]) #1
print(my_tuple[-1]) # 'Python'

Operations on Tuple
 You can perform operations like:
o Concatenation: +
o Slicing: [:]
o Membership: in
 But you cannot modify or delete elements.
python
new_tuple = my_tuple + (5, 6)
print(new_tuple) # (1, 2, 3, 'Python', 5, 6)

Tuple Functions and Methods

python
t = (10, 20, 30, 10)

print(len(t)) #4
print(t.count(10)) # 2
print(t.index(20)) # 1

Page No
 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE EIGHTEENTH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Tuples: Introduction to tuple, Learned Tuples:

Accessing tuples, Introduction to tuple,
Operations, Working, Functions and Accessing tuples,
Day – 1 Methods. Operations, Working,
Functions and Methods.

Tuples: Introduction to tuple, Learned Tuples:

Accessing tuples, Introduction to tuple,
Operations, Working, Functions and Accessing tuples,
Day - 2 Methods. Operations, Working,
Functions and Methods.

Dictionary: Introduction to Learned Dictionary:

dictionaries, Accessing values in Introduction to
dictionaries, Working with dictionaries, Accessing
Day – 3 dictionaries, values in dictionaries,
Properties, Functions. Working with dictionaries,
Properties,
Functions.
Dictionary: Introduction to Learned Dictionary:
dictionaries, Accessing values in Introduction to
dictionaries, Working with dictionaries, Accessing
Day – 4 dictionaries, values in dictionaries,
Properties, Functions. Working with dictionaries,
Properties,
Functions.
Dictionary: Introduction to Learned Dictionary:
dictionaries, Accessing values in Introduction to
dictionaries, Working with dictionaries, Accessing
Day – 5 dictionaries, values in dictionaries,
Properties, Functions. Working with dictionaries,
Properties,
Functions.
Python Functions: Defining a Learned Python Functions:
function, Calling a Defining a function,
function, Types of functions, Calling a
Day –6 function, Types of
functions,

Page No
 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 1 8 (From Dt………..….. to Dt : Dt..................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:

Tuples in Python
Introduction to Tuples
 A tuple is an ordered, immutable collection.
 Defined using parentheses: ()
 Useful for fixed collections of items (e.g., coordinates, database records).
python
my_tuple = (10, 20, 30, "Python")

Accessing Tuple Elements

 Same indexing as lists:
python
print(my_tuple[0]) # 10
print(my_tuple[-1]) # Python

⚙️Tuple Operations
 Concatenation: +
 Repetition: *
 Slicing: [:]
 Membership testing: in, not in
python
t1 = (1, 2)
t2 = (3, 4)
t3 = t1 + t2 # (1, 2, 3, 4)
print(t3 * 2) # (1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4)

Working with Tuples

 You cannot modify a tuple’s elements.
 Tuples can be nested and contain different types.
python
nested_tuple = (1, [2, 3], (4, 5))

📚 Tuple Functions and Methods

python
t = (10, 20, 30, 10)

print(len(t)) #4
print(t.count(10)) #2
print(t.index(30)) #2

Dictionaries in Python

Introduction to Dictionaries
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  A dictionary is a collection of key-value pairs.
 Defined with curly braces {}.
python

my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25, "language": "Python"}

Accessing Dictionary Values

python

print(my_dict["name"]) # Alice
print(my_dict.get("age")) # 25

Working with Dictionaries

Add / Modify Values:
python
my_dict["age"] = 26
my_dict["country"] = "India"
Delete Items:
python
CopyEdit
del my_dict["language"]
Loop through dictionary:
python
CopyEdit
for key, value in my_dict.items():
print(key, ":", value)

Dictionary Properties
 Unordered (before Python 3.7), now they maintain insertion order.
 Keys must be unique and immutable (strings, numbers, tuples).
 Values can be of any type.

Dictionary Functions and Methods

python
info = {"name": "Bob", "age": 30}

print(len(info)) #2
print(info.keys()) # dict_keys(['name', 'age'])
print(info.values()) # dict_values(['Bob', 30])
print(info.items()) # dict_items([('name', 'Bob'), ('age', 30)])
info.clear() # Empties the dictionary

Python Functions

Defining a Function
python

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def greet():
print("Hello!")

Calling a Function
python

greet() # Output: Hello!

Types of Functions
Type Example
No arguments def show():
With arguments def greet(name):
Return values def add(a, b): return a + b
Default arguments def greet(name="User"):
Variable-length args def sum_all(*args):
Keyword args def display(**kwargs):
Anonymous (lambda) lambda x: x * 2

Function with Arguments and Return

python
def add(x, y):
return x + y

result = add(5, 3)
print(result) # Output: 8

Lambda Function (One-liner)

python

square = lambda x: x ** 2
print(square(4)) # Output: 16

ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE NINETEENTH WEEK

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 Day Person In-
Brief description of the daily
& Learning Outcome Charge
activity
Date Signature

Function Arguments, Learned Function

Anonymous functions, Arguments,
Anonymous functions,
Day – 1
Global and local variables, Learned Global and
Organizing python local variables,
codes using functions. Organizing python
Day - 2
codes
using functions.
Python Modules: Organizing Learned Python
python projects into Modules: Organizing
modules, python projects into
Day – 3
modules,
Importing own module as well Learned Importing own
as external modules, module as well as
Understanding Packages, external modules,
Day – 4
modules and Understanding
external packages. Packages, modules
and external
packages.
Input-Output: Printing on Learned Input-Output:
screen, Reading data from Printing on screen,
Day – 5 keyboard , Opening and Reading data from
closing file , keyboard , Opening
Reading and writing files , and closing file ,
Functions. Reading and writing
files , Functions.
Exception Handling: Learned Exception
Introduction to Exception, Handling: Introduction
Day –6 Exception Handling, Except to Exception,
clause, Try ? finally Exception Handling,
clause, User Defined Except clause, Try ?
Exceptions. finally clause, User
Defined Exceptions.

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 1 9 (From Dt………..….. to Dt..................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Function Arguments in Python
Python supports different types of function arguments:
1. Default Arguments
python
def greet(name="User"):
print("Hello", name)

greet() # Hello User

greet("Alice") # Hello Alice
2. Positional Arguments
python
def add(a, b):
return a + b

print(add(2, 3)) # 5
3. Keyword Arguments
python
def display(name, age):
print(f"{name} is {age} years old")

display(age=30, name="Bob")
4. Variable-Length Arguments
 *args for positional variable arguments:
python
def total(*numbers):
return sum(numbers)

print(total(1, 2, 3, 4)) # 10
 **kwargs for keyword variable arguments:
python
def print_info(**info):
for key, value in info.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

print_info(name="Alice", age=25)

Anonymous Functions (Lambda)

Short one-line functions:
python
CopyEdit
square = lambda x: x ** 2
print(square(5)) # 25
python
CopyEdit
add = lambda a, b: a + b
print(add(3, 4)) # 7

Global and Local Variables

Local Variable
Declared inside a function, available only there.
python
CopyEdit
def demo():
x = 10
print(x)
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demo()
Global Variable
Declared outside any function.
python
x = 50

def show():
print(x)

show()
Using global Keyword
To modify a global variable from inside a function:
python
x=5

def change():
global x
x = 10

change()
print(x) # 10

Organizing Python Code using Functions

Use functions to:
 Avoid code repetition
 Improve readability
 Modularize code
Example:
python
def area_circle(radius):
return 3.14 * radius ** 2

def perimeter_circle(radius):
return 2 * 3.14 * radius

# Main
r=5
print(area_circle(r))
print(perimeter_circle(r))

Python Modules & Packages

Creating a Module
 A .py file with functions or variables.
python
# math_utils.py
def square(x):
return x ** 2
Importing Modules
python

import math_utils
print(math_utils.square(4))
Or:
python
CopyEdit
from math_utils import square

Packages
 A folder with multiple modules and an __init__.py file.
 Example folder:
markdown
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my_package/
__init__.py
math_utils.py
string_utils.py
python
from my_package import math_utils

External Modules
Install via pip:
bash
pip install numpy
Import:
python
import numpy as np

Input-Output in Python

Print on Screen
python
print("Hello World")
⌨️Input from Keyboard
python

name = input("Enter your name: ")

print("Hello", name)

File Handling
Opening a file
python

file = open("data.txt", "r") # 'r' for read

Reading from a file
python
print(file.read())
file.close()
Writing to a file
python

f = open("output.txt", "w")
f.write("This is a test.")
f.close()
Using with block (auto-closes the file)
python
with open("data.txt", "r") as f:
content = f.read()
print(content)

Exception Handling in Python

Try-Except Block
python
x = int(input("Enter number: "))
print(10 / x)
except ValueError:
print("Please enter a valid number.")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by zero is not allowed.")

Finally Clause
Executes no matter what:
python
try:
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 f = open("data.txt")
except:
print("Error")
finally:
print("This will always execute")

User-Defined Exceptions
python
class NegativeValueError(Exception):
pass

def check_number(n):
if n < 0:
raise NegativeValueError("Negative value not allowed")
else:
print("Valid number")

check_number(-5)

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 ACTIVITY LOG FOR THE TWENTIETH WEEK

Day Person In-

Brief description of the
& Learning Outcome Charge
daily activity
Date Signature

Exception Handling: Learned Exception

Introduction to Exception, Handling: Introduction
Day – 1 Exception Handling, Except to Exception,
clause, Try ? finally Exception Handling,
clause, User Defined Except clause, Try ?
Exceptions. finally clause, User
Defined Exceptions.
PCB Design using CAD Studied how to design
a CAD
Day - 2

PCB Design using CAD Studied how to design

a CAD
Day – 3

PCB Design using CAD Studied how to design

a CAD
Day – 4

Apply some logic to the design Studied Apply some

using python for logic to the design
functionality to the design using python for
Day – 5
functionality to the
design

Apply some logic to the design Studied Apply some

using python for logic to the design
functionality to the design using python for
Day –6
functionality to the
design

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 WEEKLY REPORT
WEEK – 20 (From Dt………..….. to Dt....................)
Objective of the Activity Done:
Detailed Report:
Exception Handling in Python
Introduction to Exceptions
Exceptions are errors that disrupt the normal flow of a program.
Examples:
 ZeroDivisionError
 ValueError
 FileNotFoundError

Try-Except Clause
Used to catch and handle exceptions:
python
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
print(result)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero.")
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")

Try-Finally Clause
The finally block always runs — even if there's an exception.
python
try:
f = open("data.txt")
print(f.read())
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found.")
finally:
print("Cleaning up...") # Always runs

User-Defined Exceptions
You can create custom errors for specific logic.
python
class MyError(Exception):
pass

def check_age(age):
if age < 0:
raise MyError("Age cannot be negative.")

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try:
check_age(-5)
except MyError as e:
print("Custom Exception:", e)

PCB Design using CAD (Computer-Aided Design)

Overview
 CAD tools (like KiCad, Eagle, or Altium Designer) are used for schematic capture,
board layout, and routing.
 Involves:
o Placing components (resistors, capacitors, ICs, etc.)
o Drawing traces to connect pins
o Generating Gerber files for manufacturing

Steps in PCB Design using CAD

1. Create schematic: Design the circuit with symbols.
2. Assign footprints: Map components to their physical layout.
3. Place components: Arrange them on a virtual PCB board.
4. Route connections: Draw traces between pins.
5. Run DRC (Design Rule Check): Ensure no errors.
6. Export files: Generate Gerber and drill files for fabrication.

Tools Used
 KiCad: Free and open-source
 Eagle: Autodesk tool, popular in industry
 Altium Designer: Professional-grade
 Fritzing: Great for beginners

Applying Logic to PCB Design Using Python

Python can be used to enhance, simulate, or analyze PCB designs in many ways:
1. Simulation & Testing
 Use Python + SPICE libraries like PySpice to simulate electrical behavior.
python
import PySpice.Logging.Logging as Logging
logger = Logging.setup_logging()

# Define a basic circuit

from PySpice.Probe.Plot import plot
from PySpice.Spice.Library import SpiceLibrary
from PySpice.Spice.Netlist import Circuit

circuit = Circuit("Low-pass Filter")

circuit.R(1, "in", "out", 1@u_kΩ)
circuit.C(1, "out", circuit.gnd, 1@u_uF)
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2. Auto-Generation of Layout
You can automate layout generation using Python scripts in:
 KiCad's scripting console (Python-based)
 Example: Auto-placing parts based on coordinates.

3. Data-Driven Logic
Example: Lighting up an LED only if a temperature sensor reads a value above a threshold.
python
import random

temp = random.randint(20, 100)

if temp > 70:
print("Turn on cooling fan (activate relay)")
else:
print("System normal")

4. I/O Control (Python + PCB)

Using Raspberry Pi / Arduino + Python, control or test PCBs:
 Toggle GPIO pins
 Read analog values
 Communicate over I2C, SPI, UART
python
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)
GPIO.setup(17, GPIO.OUT)

GPIO.output(17, True) # Turn ON a pin

Summary
Topic Description

Catch and handle runtime errors. Use try, except, finally, and custom
Exception Handling
exceptions.

PCB Design Using

Use CAD tools for schematic, layout, routing, and design rule checks.
CAD

Python Logic for Simulate, test, control, or automate PCB-related functionality using
PCBs Python scripts.

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 CHAPTER 5: OUTCOMES DESCRIPTION

Describe the work environment you have experienced (in terms of people
interactions, facilities available and maintenance, clarity of job roles,
protocols, procedures, processes, discipline, time management,
harmonious relationships, socialization, mutual support and teamwork,
motivation, space and ventilation, etc.)

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Page No
Describe the real time technical skills you have acquired (in terms of the
job- related skills and hands on experience)

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Page No
Describe the managerial skills you have acquired (in terms of planning,
leadership, team work, behaviour, workmanship, productive use of time,
weekly improvement in competencies, goal setting, decision making,
performance analysis, etc.

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Describe how you could improve your communication skills (in terms of
improvement in oral communication, written communication,
conversational abilities, confidence levels while communicating, anxiety
management, understanding others, getting understood by others,
extempore speech, ability to articulate the key points, closing the
conversation, maintaining niceties and protocols, greeting, thanking and
appreciating others, etc.,)

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Describe how could you could enhance your abilities in group discussions, participation
in teams, contribution as a team member, leading a team/activity.

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Describe the technological developments you have observed and relevant to the
subject area of training (focus on digital technologies relevant to your job
role)

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 Student Self Evaluation of the Short-Term Internship

Student Name: Registration No:

Term of Internship: From: To :

Date of Evaluation:
Organization Name & Address:

Please rate your performance in the following areas:

Rating Scale: Letter grade of CGPA calculation to be provided

1 Oral communication 1 2 3 4 5
2 Written communication 1 2 3 4 5
3 Proactiveness 1 2 3 4 5
4 Interaction ability with community 1 2 3 4 5
5 Positive Attitude 1 2 3 4 5
6 Self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5
7 Ability to learn 1 2 3 4 5
8 Work Plan and organization 1 2 3 4 5
9 Professionalism 1 2 3 4 5
10 Creativity 1 2 3 4 5
11 Quality of work done 1 2 3 4 5
12 Time Management 1 2 3 4 5
13 Understanding the Community 1 2 3 4 5
14 Achievement of Desired Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5
15 OVERALL PERFORMANCE 1 2 3 4 5

Date: Signature of the Student

Evaluation by the Supervisor of the Intern Organization

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Student Name: Registration No:

Term of Internship: From: To :

Date of Evaluation:
Organization Name & Address:

Name & Address of the Supervisor

with Mobile Number

Please rate the student’s performance in the following areas:

Please note that your evaluation shall be done independent of the Student’s self-
evaluation

Rating Scale: 1 is lowest and 5 is highest rank

1 Oral communication 1 2 3 4 5
2 Written communication 1 2 3 4 5
3 Proactiveness 1 2 3 4 5
4 Interaction ability with community 1 2 3 4 5
5 Positive Attitude 1 2 3 4 5
6 Self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5
7 Ability to learn 1 2 3 4 5
8 Work Plan and organization 1 2 3 4 5
9 Professionalism 1 2 3 4 5
10 Creativity 1 2 3 4 5
11 Quality of work done 1 2 3 4 5
12 Time Management 1 2 3 4 5
13 Understanding the Community 1 2 3 4 5
14 Achievement of Desired Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5
15 OVERALL PERFORMANCE 1 2 3 4 5

Date: Signature of the Supervisor

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PHOTOS & VIDEO LINKS

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EVALUATION

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 Internal & External Evaluation for Semester Internship

Objectives:
 Explore career alternatives prior to graduation.
 To assess interests and abilities in the field of study.
 To develop communication, interpersonal and other critical skills in the
future job.
 To acquire additional skills required for the world of work.
 To acquire employment contacts leading directly to a full-time job following
graduation from college.

Assessment Model:
 There shall be both internal evaluation and external evaluation
 The Faculty Guide assigned is in-charge of the learning activities of the
students and for the comprehensive and continuous assessment of the
students.
 The assessment is to be conducted for 200 marks. Internal Evaluation for 50
marks and External Evaluation for 150 marks
 The number of credits assigned is 12. Later the marks shall be converted into
grades and grade points to include finally in the SGPA and CGPA.
 The weightings for Internal Evaluation shall be:
o Activity Log 10 marks
o Internship Evaluation 30 marks
o Oral Presentation 10 marks
 The weightings for External Evaluation shall be:
o Internship Evaluation 100 marks
o Viva-Voce 50 marks
 The External Evaluation shall be conducted by an Evaluation Committee
comprising of the Principal, Faculty Guide, Internal Expert and External
Expert nominated by the affiliating University. The Evaluation Committee
shall also consider the grading given by the Supervisor of the Intern
Organization.
 Activity Log is the record of the day-to-day activities. The Activity Log is
assessed on an individual basis, thus allowing for individual members within
groups to be assessed this way. The assessment will take into consideration

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the individual student’s involvement in the assigned work.
 While evaluating the student’s Activity Log, the following shall be
considered -
a. The individual student’s effort and commitment.
b. The originality and quality of the work produced by the individual
student.
c. The student’s integration and co-operation with the work assigned.
d. The completeness of the Activity Log.
 The Internship Evaluation shall include the following components and based
on Weekly Reports and Outcomes Description
a. Description of the Work Environment.
b. Real Time Technical Skills acquired.
c. Managerial Skills acquired.
d. Improvement of Communication Skills.
e. Team Dynamics
f. Technological Developments recorded.

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 MARKS STATEMENT
(To be used by the Examiners)

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 INTERNAL ASSESSMENT STATEMENT

Name Of the Student:

Programme of Study:
Year of Study:
Group:
Register No/H.T. No:
Name of the College:
University:

Sl.No Evaluation Criterion Maximu Mark

m s
Marks Award
ed
1. Activity Log 10
2. Internship Evaluation 30
3. Oral Presentation 10
GRAND TOTAL 50

Date: Signature of the Faculty Guide

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 EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT STATEMENT

Name Of the Student:

Programme of Study:
Year of Study:
Group:
Register No/H.T. No:
Name of the College:
University:

Maximu Mark
Sl.No Evaluation Criterion
m s
Marks Award
ed
1. Internship Evaluation 80
For the grading giving by the Supervisor of
2. 20
the Intern Organization
3. Viva-Voce 50
TOTAL 150
GRAND TOTAL (EXT. 50 M + INT. 100M) 200

Signature of the Faculty Guide

Signature of the Internal Expert

Signature of the External Expert

Signature of the Principal with Seal

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