DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A 2.

5KVA INVERTER SYSTEM

ADEGBUYI UMAR OLAWALE 2016232040011

AKINFENWA TEMITOPE FESTUS 2017232040035

ABDULGAFAR MUBARAK OLANREWAJU 2017070230112

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING OF

THE POLYTECHNIC, IBADAN.

JUNE, 2024.

ABSTRACT

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With the increasing popularity of alternate power sources, such as solar and wind, the need for

inverters to convert DC energy stored in batteries to conventional AC form has increased

substantially. Inverters use the concept of accepting the DC supply into the oscillator section

which converts the high current DC signal to a low current AC; these signals are carried by high

current switching devices (MOSFETs) at a fixed frequency from the oscillator. Since the

MOSFETs are connected to a step-up transformer, the voltage is now increased to a desired

output level depending on the transformer windings.

The project focuses on developing a reliable and efficient renewable energy solution. This

system is designed to convert solar energy into a stable AC output suitable for powering

household and small industrial appliances. The core components of the system include solar

panels, a charge controller, a battery bank, and a 2.5kVA inverter. Solar panels capture sunlight

and convert it into DC electricity, which is then regulated by the charge controller to charge the

battery bank efficiently. The stored energy in the battery bank is converted by the inverter from

DC to AC, providing a continuous and reliable power supply. The design emphasizes efficiency,

stability, and scalability, ensuring that the system can meet varying power demands.

Comprehensive testing and validation were conducted to ensure optimal performance under

different environmental conditions. This project demonstrates the viability of solar power as a

sustainable energy source and provides a practical framework for future advancements in

renewable energy technologies.

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 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this project work “DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A 2.5KVA

INVERTER SYSTEM” was carried out by:

ADEGBUYI UMAR OLAWALE 2016232040011

AKINFENWA TEMITOPE FESTUS 2017232040035

ABDULGAFAR MUBARAK OLANREWAJU 2017070230112

of the Department of Electrical Engineering of The Polytechnic, Ibadan.

_____________________ _________________

Engr. (Dr.) I. O. Oladejo Date

Supervisor

______________________ _________________

Engr. (Dr.) A. O. Fawole Date

H.O.D

DEDICATION

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This project is dedicated to Almighty God, the creator of heaven and earth, who saw me through

from the beginning till the end of this report and also my parents who has supported me through

the journey.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My profound gratitude goes to my project supervisor Engr. (Dr.) I. O. Oladejo who took the pain

to read through this project at certain stages and whose guidance and criticism contributed a lot

to the success of this project.

My special thanks goes to my parents, brothers and sisters, for their total support, financially,

physically, morally and above all spiritually.

Finally and mostly, am grateful to God Almighty for His grace, guidance and protection

throughout my stay in this institution.

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1 Determination of Components 29

2 BEME Table 48

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Title Page

2.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Circuit 11

2.2 Solar Battery 17

3.1 Block diagram of the inverter 23

3.2 Basic oscillator block diagram 25

4.1 Solar Panel 35

4.2 Battery 37

4.3 2.5KVA Inverter 39

4.4 Circuit diagram of the system 44

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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 Page

Title Page i

Abstract ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

Table of Contents viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 3

1.3 Aim and Objectives 3

1.4 Expected contribution to Knowledge 4

1.5 Scope of Study 4

1.6 Methodology 5

1.7 Definition of Terms 7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Brief outline of the chapter 8

2.2 Historical background of study 9

2.3 Theory and concept related to the research 18

2.4 Related works 21

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

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3.1 Brief outline of the chapter 22

3.2 Research design 22

3.3 Block diagram design of the project 30

3.4 Determination of components value 32

CHAPTER FOUR: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

4.1 Brief outline of the chapter 33

4.2 Explanation of various units of the circuit diagram. 41

4.3 Principle of operation 44

CHAPTER FIVE: CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS OF THE DESIGNED

PROJECT

5.1 Brief outline of the chapter 45

5.2 Choice of materials 45

5.3 Construction of the project 47

5.4 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) Table 48

5.5 Testing and results 51

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion 52

6.2 Recommendation 52

6.3 Contribution to knowledge 53

REFERENCES 55

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In recent times, the increasing demand for reliable and uninterrupted power supply has become a

critical aspect of modern living. The frequent power outages and fluctuations in the electrical

grid have led to a growing interest in alternative energy solutions. One such solution is the use of

inverters, which convert direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC), providing a stable and

continuous power source. The converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with

the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Inverters are mostly powered

by batteries or solar panels (Bryan, 2016).

With the increasing popularity of alternate power sources, such as solar and wind, the need for

inverters to convert DC energy stored in batteries to conventional AC form has increased

substantially. Inverters use the concept of accepting the DC supply into the oscillator section

which converts the high current DC signal to a low current AC; these signals are carried by high

current switching devices (MOSFETs) at a fixed frequency from the oscillator. Since the

MOSFETs are connected to a step-up transformer, the voltage is now increased to a desired

output level depending on the transformer windings (Ryan, 2012)

There are basically two kinds of DC-AC inverters in the market today. One category is the “pure

sine-wave” inverter, which produces sine waves with total harmonic distortion (THD) in the

range of 3%. The other is a modified sine wave inverter; these types of inverters have THD in

the range of 25% (George, 2014).

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Waveforms approaching sine waves, with minimal distortion, are required in any case. These

inverters are available in sizes up to several thousand watts. Early techniques for designing this

true sine wave inverters incorporated significant linear technology, reducing their efficiency and

contributing to their higher cost. More recent designs used pulse-width modulation (PWM) to

produce a pulsed waveform that can be filtered relatively easy to achieve a good approximation

to a sine wave.

The significant advantage of the PWM approach is that switching techniques are used in the

power stages, resulting in relatively high efficiency.

However, PWM, with the pulse width made to vary according to the amplitude of a sine wave,

requires significant control circuitry and high-speed switching. This is because the frequency of

the PWM signal has to be much higher than that of the sine wave to be synthesized if the PWM

signal is to be filtered effectively. So the PWM approach introduces significant complexities and

switching losses. The second category consists of relatively inexpensive units, producing

modified sine-wave outputs, which could logically be called “modified square waves” instead.

They are basically square waves with some dead spots between positive and negative half-cycles.

The efficiency of an inverter is highly dependent on the switching devices, topology, and the

switching frequency of the inverter.

Inverters are typically used for medical instruments and other critical applications. For example,

they are used in boats and as the main source of electricity, and some feed energy back into the

utility power grid, they are also used in homes and offices.

There should be no limitations in the use of an electric gadget at a fixed location due to

unreliable power supply.

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Finally, there are a couple of important safety aspects to bear in mind whenever you’re using a

DC-AC inverter. Many people assume that because an inverter is operated from a nominal 12V

battery and it can’t deliver as much output as a normal mains power outlet, it’s relatively safe.

Nothing could be further from the truth. Even a low power inverter rated at a mere 60 watts has

an output which is potentially fatal, if you should end up connected across it. Such an inverter

can typically deliver up to about 360mA at 230V, which is over TEN TIMES the current level

needed to stop your heart. Needless to say higher power inverters are even more dangerous.

This project focuses on the design and construction of a 2.5KVA inverter system, aiming to

address the need for efficient and affordable power backup solutions.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The erratic nature of power supply in many regions poses significant challenges to individuals

and businesses alike. Power outages can disrupt daily activities, affect productivity, and lead to

economic losses (Aryan, 2012). Traditional backup solutions, such as generators, often come

with their own set of issues, including noise, environmental concerns, and maintenance costs.

The proposed solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system seeks to offer a reliable and eco-friendly

alternative to address these challenges.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of the project is to design and construct of a solar powered 2.5kva inverter system

The objectives of this project is to

i. To design a solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system capable of converting DC power to

AC power efficiently.

ii. To be able to produce power continuously without breaking.

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 iii. To serve as an alternative source of power for homes when electrical power goes off.

iv. To obtain a reliable and economical source of power.

v. To evaluate the performance of the inverter system in terms of voltage regulation,

efficiency, and reliability.

1.4 Expected Contribution to Knowledge

The successful implementation of this project will contribute to:

i. The advancement of power electronics technology, providing individuals and businesses

with a reliable and cost-effective power backup solution.

ii. The designed inverter system aims to mitigate the negative impacts of power outages,

offering a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to traditional generators.

iii. The study may serve as a reference for future research in the field of renewable energy

and power electronics.

iv. It can be constructed and used in the villages where there is no electricity. The inverter

can be transported and used anywhere when necessary.

1.5 Scope of the Project

The scope of this project encompasses the design and construction of a solar powered 2.5KVA

inverter system. The focus will be on developing a system that is suitable for residential and

small-scale commercial applications. The project will involve the selection of appropriate

components, circuit design, construction of the inverter, and thorough testing to ensure its

functionality and efficiency.

The scope of work is to design an inverter circuit and automatic battery charger that will

recharge the battery while in use and produce a continuous power supply. The output voltage

waveform of the inverter is to be sinusoidal and with a high output gain.

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Minimum power is required by its controlling circuit and the semi-conductor device used in the

inverter is to be of minimum switching and conduction losses.

1.6 Methodology

The methodology for the design and construction of a solar powered 2.5kVA inverter system

involves the following steps:

i. Selection of components: The first step is to select the appropriate components for the

inverter system, including the solar panel, battery, transformer, capacitors, and other

necessary components.

ii. Circuit design: The circuit design involves the selection and arrangement of the

components to achieve the desired output voltage and frequency. The circuit design can

be done using simulation software such as Proteus or Multisim.

iii. Implementation: After the circuit design, the next step is to implement the design by

assembling the components on a breadboard or printed circuit board (PCB).

iv. Testing: The system built has to be tested for durability, efficiency, and effectiveness to

ascertain if there is a need to modify the design. The testing can be done at various

stages, including the assembly stage and the final stage.

v. Final assembly: After testing and cost analysis, the final assembly of the inverter system

can be done. This involves the casing and packaging of the system, as well as the

installation of any necessary safety features.

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1.7 Definition of Terms

i. Inverter: An inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current (DC) power into

alternating current (AC) power. In the context of this project, the inverter is designed to

provide a stable and continuous AC power supply, serving as a backup solution during

power outages.

ii. Renewable energy: Energy derived from sources that are naturally replenished, such as

solar, wind, and hydro power.

iii. KVA (Kilovolt-Ampere): Kilovolt-Ampere is a unit of apparent power, representing the

product of voltage and current in an electrical system. In this project, the 2.5KVA

inverter system is designed to handle a power capacity of 2.5 kilovolt-amperes, indicating

its capability to deliver a specific amount of power.

iv. Power Electronics: Power electronics is a branch of electrical engineering that deals

with the design, control, and conversion of electrical power. In the context of this project,

power electronics principles are applied to design the inverter system, ensuring efficient

DC to AC power conversion.

v. Direct Current (DC): Direct current is an electric current that flows in one direction. In

the project, DC power is typically supplied by a battery or another DC power source, and

the inverter converts it to the alternating current required for standard electrical

appliances.

vi. Alternating Current (AC): Alternating current is an electric current that periodically

reverses direction. The inverter system's primary function is to convert DC power to

stable and regulated AC power suitable for powering household and small-scale

commercial devices.

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vii. Voltage Regulation: Voltage regulation refers to the ability of the inverter system to

maintain a stable output voltage within specified limits, even when the input voltage or

load conditions vary. Proper voltage regulation ensures the reliability of connected

electrical devices.

viii. Pure sine wave: A type of AC waveform that has a smooth and continuous oscillation,

similar to the waveform of the electricity supplied by the national grid

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Brief Outline of the Chapter

In this chapter, historical background of the project is investigated, i.e. the theories and concepts

relevant to the research and related works.

2.2 Historical Background of the Project

The historical development of power inverters can be traced back to the mid-20th century when

advancements in electronics and power technology began to gain momentum. The need for

reliable and portable power sources, especially in remote locations and during emergencies,

prompted researchers and engineers to explore the possibilities of converting direct current (DC)

to alternating current (AC). This laid the foundation for the creation of power inverters (Grishina,

2014).

In the past centuries, conversion of DC to AC power was accomplished through the use of rotary

converter or motor- generator set. In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled

tubes were used as switches in inverter circuits (Ted, 2015). In the 1950s and 1960s, the earliest

power inverters were primarily developed for specialized applications, such as military and

aerospace use. These early systems were relatively simple and often operated at low power

levels. As technology continues to evolve, the demand for inverters expanded beyond niche

applications, leading to the development of more versatile and powerful inverter systems

(Wessof, 1981).

The 1980s witnessed significant advancements in power electronics and semiconductor

technology. These innovations played a crucial role in the miniaturization and efficiency

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improvement of inverter systems. The use of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and

metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) revolutionized the design of

power inverters, enabling higher power capacities and greater reliability (Ruoyang, 2011).

With the growing interest in renewable energy sources in the late 20th century, inverters became

integral components of solar power systems and wind turbines. The ability of inverters to convert

the variable DC output of solar panels and wind generators into grid-compatible AC power,

contributed significantly to the expansion of renewable energy installations worldwide.

In the 21st century, the demand for uninterrupted power supply led to the widespread adoption of

inverter technology in various sectors, including residential, commercial, and industrial

applications. Inverters became essential for providing backup power during grid outages,

ensuring the continuous operation of critical equipment and electronic devices (Paul, 2019).

As power requirements diversified and increased, the need for higher capacity inverters emerged.

The solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system, the focus of this project, represents a mid-range

power capacity suitable for residential and small-scale commercial use. This capacity strikes a

balance between providing sufficient power for essential appliances and maintaining a compact

and cost-effective design.

In the contemporary era, inverter technology continues to evolve rapidly. The integration of

advanced control algorithms, digital signal processors (DSPs), and smart grid functionalities has

further enhanced the performance and capabilities of inverter systems. Additionally, the

emphasis on energy efficiency, sustainability, and grid resilience has driven ongoing research

and development in the field of power electronics.

The historical background emphasizes the continuous evolution and significance of inverter

technology in addressing the dynamic needs of modern society. The "Design and Construction of

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a 2.5KVA Inverter System" project is situated within this historical context, aiming to contribute

to the ongoing advancements in power electronics and provide an efficient and reliable power

backup solution for today's diverse applications.

2.3 Theories and Concepts Related to the Research

The design and construction of a solar powered 2.5kva inverter system involves several key

theories and concepts, including:

A. Controlled Rectifier Inverters

Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most

inverter applications, it was the introduction of thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) that

initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits. The commutation requirements of SCRs are

a key consideration in SCR circuit designs.

They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding current,

which varies with each kind of SCR through some external process (Kassakian & John, 1991).

For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the

polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a

means of forced commutations that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The

least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced computation, with

the addition of forced commutation circuit, SCR have been used in the types of inverter circuits

described above.

In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power source,

it is possible to use AC to DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the

inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of

operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking

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operation of motor control systems (Zhang, 2014). Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the

current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual type of six – step voltage source

inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source

rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs is switched in a six – step sequence to direct the

current to a three – phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation

methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the

input current regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a

synchronous motor operated at a leading power phase factor. As they have become available in

higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as transistor or IGBTs that can be turned

off by means of control signals have become the preferred switching components for use in

inverter circuits. The circuit diagram of the SCR is as shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Circuit

B. DC and AC Current

In the world today, there are currently two forms of electrical transmission, Direct Current (DC)

and Alternating Current (AC), each with its advantages and disadvantages. DC power is simply

the application of a steady constant voltage across a circuit resulting in a constant current. A

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battery is the most common source of DC transmission as current flows from one end of a circuit

to the other. Most digital circuitry today is run on DC power as it has the ability to provide either

a constant high or constant low voltage, enabling digital logic to process code executions.

Historically, electricity was first commercially transmitted by Thomas Edison, and was a DC

power line. However, this electricity was of low voltage, due to the inability to step up DC

voltage at the time, and thus it was not capable of transmitting power over long distances

(Marcus, M. P, switching circuits for engineers, 3rd edition, pretence – hall. 1995).

When the voltage is increased, the current decreases exponentially, therefore high voltage

transmission reduces the power loss. For this reason, electricity was generated at power stations

and delivered to homes and businesses through AC power.

Alternating current, unlike DC oscillates between two voltage values at a specified frequency

and its ever changing current and voltage makes it easy to step up or down the voltage. For high

voltage and long distance transmission situations, all that is needed to step up or down the

voltage is a transformer. Developed in 1886 by William Stanley Jr.

(http://www.inverters.about.com/library/inverters/stanley.htm, June 16, 2011) the transformer

made long distance electrical transmission using AC power possible.

It should be noted that since 1954, there have been many high voltage DC transmission systems

implemented around the globe with the advent of DC / AC converters, allowing the easy

stepping up and down of DC voltages.

C. Transformer Theory and Design

The design and construction of a solar powered 2.5kVA inverter system requires a thorough

understanding of the underlying theories and concepts related to power inverters. One of the key

concepts is transformer theory, which provides the relationship between input and output

21
voltages and currents in a transformer. Choosing appropriate transformer turns ratios and core

materials is critical for achieving the desired output voltage and frequency at 2.5kVA power

levels.

The transformer is the part of the circuit that is responsible for boosting the voltage. It does this

by means of iron ferrite core, primary and secondary windings. It is important to note that the

transformer does not create power; it merely transforms or transfers it.

Ideally, power in is equal to power out, but in a real world case there is some power loss in the

device. The transformer operates by inducing a magnetic flux on the core from the current

flowing through the primary winding. This flux passing through the core is induced onto the

secondary winding and current flows out of the device. (McGraw – hill, 1995.)

The transformers used in this project is used to step up the voltage to provide an appropriate

voltage of 240VAC with an approximate frequency of 50Hz and also steps down to 15VAC to be

rectified for the charger.

D. Power Inverter Basics

Power inverters are electronic devices that convert direct current (DC) to alternating current

(AC). The process involves the use of electronic components to produce an AC waveform

similar to that of the electrical grid. The key components in this process include power

transistors, capacitors, inductors, and control circuitry.

The inverter's working concept is similar to that of a switching power supply. It uses an

oscillating chip or a specialized circuit to control the output of the oscillating signal, which is

amplified to force the FET to flip continually. After adjustment, the AC characteristics of the

inverter can produce a sine wave AC similar to the power grid.

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Types of Inverters and Waveforms

Inverters, besides coming in a wide variety of power capabilities, are distinguished primarily by

the shape of the alternating current wave they produced. The three major waveforms are: square

wave, modified sine wave and true sine wave.

1. Square Wave

Square wave inverters are largely obsolete, as the waveform shape is not well suited for running

most modern appliances. Prices have come down considerably in comparison with the superior

modified sine wave and true sine wave types.

2. Modified Sine Wave

The least expensive type of modern inverter produces modified sine wave power. The waveform

looks like a stair step, where the power rises from zero to upper peak voltage returns to zero and

straight to lower peak voltage, resting to each point for a moment.

Modified sine wave inverters can be used to run many household appliances such as a television,

radio, and microwaves with occasional minor electrical “noise’. Sensitive equipment like battery

chargers, tools with variable speed motors, laser printers and certain heating controllers may run

erratically but not with modified sine wave power.

For a remote cabin with only the “basic” running on the electrical system, modified sine wave

inverters are also often well suited for solar powered electrical systems.

3. True Sine Wave

The power supplied by utility companies and engine generator is a true sine waveform. This is

the most reliable waveform for household use. True sine wave power passes from the upper and

lower peak voltages in a smooth curved wave, rather than the stair step of the modified sine

wave.

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All appliances and electronic equipment runs as intended when using sine wave power. True sine

wave inverters produces Ac power as good as or better than utility power, ensuring that even the

most sensitive equipment runs properly. While sine wave inverters are more expensive than the

modified sine wave models, the quality of their waveform can be a definite advantage. This cost,

however is made up for in its ability to provide power to all AC electronic devices, allow

inductive loads to run faster and quiet, and reduce the audible and electric noise in audio

equipment, TV’s and fluorescent lights (Alanskan ABS, 2006).

Inverters and Applications

1. DC power source Utilization

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells

to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage. In particular, it can operate AC

equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy balk into the distribution network because they produce

alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution

system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.

Micro – inverter converts direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for

the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.

2. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) uses batteries and inverter to supply AC power when

main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to

recharge the batteries.

The development of static UPS clearly was dependent on the availability of solid – state

switching devices. The earliest conversion systems available in 1960 for DC to AC were no more

24
than mechanical vibrators with ratings not higher than 500VA used for radio/communications

applications. The advent of power transistors enabled the first true static inverters to be built,

applications in the early years being communications and instrumentation.

3. Induction heating

Inverter converts low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction

heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to produce DC power. The inverter then changes

the DC power to high frequency AC power.

4. HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is

transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant

converts the power back to AC.

5. Variable frequency drives

A variable – frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the

frequency and voltage of the power supply to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled

power. In most cases, the variable frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the

inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the component, variable

frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

6. Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor controlled inverters are currently used to power traction motors in some

electric and diesel – electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid

electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota prius and Fisker karma.

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Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric

vehicle applications. In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from

the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

E. Battery

Essentially, a battery consists of one or more cells connected in series to give the required

voltage. A battery provides a voltage source that has a small internal resistance.

The capacity of a battery is expressed in watts – hour (WH). The product of the capacity and the

voltage of a battery and its amount of energy are expressed in ampere – hour (Ah). These three

parameters vary with both temperature and the rate of discharge.

Immediately a current is taken from the battery, there is a voltage drop across its internal

resistance and the terminal voltage drops to the plateau value. The larger the current taken from

the battery, the smaller will be the plateau voltage.

The open – circuit voltage may be larger than the nominal voltage by as much as 15%.

When the battery is exhausted its terminal voltage rapidly falls to a low value and thus needs to

be replaced or recharged. (Green D. C., 1995).

Figure 2.2 Solar Battery

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F. Battery Chargers

Battery charging is a complex electrochemical process, in which the discharged electric energy

must be replenished from the electric network. The quality of the charging process is critical to

the health and longevity of batteries. As a result, battery chargers play a key role in the eye and

preface of today’s industrial batteries.

A battery charger is an electrical / electronic device that converts the incoming AC line voltage

into a regulated DC voltage to meet the changing needs of the respective battery. Although, the

market is dominated by SCR chargers which have been in existence for many years; new switch

mode technologies are making headways into the industrial battery charger markets. This is due

to the higher efficiencies and smaller sizes and weights that switch mode technologies offer over

SCR types. (Nasser Kutkut, 2000)

2.4 Related Works

The project "Design and Construction of a 2.5kVA Inverter System" is closely related to several

existing works and research efforts in the field of power electronics and inverter technology.

These related works provide valuable insights, methodologies, and practical implementations

that contribute to the understanding and advancement of inverter systems. Some of the notable

related works include:

A. Studies on Inverter Topologies

Research in inverter topologies has been extensive, with studies exploring various configurations

to enhance performance and efficiency. Studies by authors such as Smith et al. (2018) and Wang

and Li (2020) discuss the advantages and drawbacks of different pulse width modulation (PWM)

techniques, including sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) and modified sinusoidal PWM (MSPWM).

27
These works contribute to the understanding of inverter topology selection in terms of waveform

quality and overall system efficiency.

B. Voltage Regulation Techniques

Effective voltage regulation is crucial for the reliable operation of inverter systems. In their

research, Patel and Singh (2019) investigate advanced control algorithms for maintaining stable

output voltage. The study delves into the application of proportional-integral-derivative (PID)

controllers and fuzzy logic control to achieve precise voltage regulation. Understanding these

techniques is essential for improving the performance of the designed solar powered 2.5KVA

inverter system.

C. Efficiency Optimization Strategies

Optimizing the efficiency of inverter systems has been a focus of recent research efforts. The

work by Zhang et al. (2021) explores novel approaches to improve efficiency, including the use

of advanced semiconductor materials and innovative cooling techniques. This research provides

valuable insights into strategies that can be applied to enhance the energy efficiency of the solar

powered 2.5KVA inverter system, contributing to the overall sustainability of the design.

D. Component Selection and Reliability Studies

Studies by Sharma and Gupta (2017) and Li et al. (2022) delve into the selection of electronic

components in inverter systems, emphasizing the importance of choosing reliable components to

ensure the longevity of the system. These works discuss the impact of component quality on

overall reliability and provide guidance on optimal component selection. Such insights are

crucial for the successful construction of a robust solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system.

28
E. Inverter Applications and Case Studies

Several studies focus on real-world applications of inverter systems. Research by Kim et al.

(2019) explores the use of inverters in solar power systems, highlighting the challenges and

opportunities in grid-tied and off-grid applications. Understanding practical applications is

essential for tailoring the solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system to meet specific user needs,

whether for residential backup power or integration into renewable energy setups.

F. Standards and Certifications

Research by Yang and Wang (2018) reviews the standards and certifications relevant to inverter

technologies, emphasizing the importance of adherence to industry guidelines. Understanding

and incorporating these standards into the design process ensures the safety and compatibility of

the solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system with existing electrical infrastructure.

G. Emerging Trends in Smart Inverters

Recent studies, such as the work by Chen et al. (2023), explore the integration of smart

technologies into inverter systems. Smart inverters offer advanced features such as grid support,

self-diagnosis, and communication capabilities. Investigating these emerging trends provides

insights into potential enhancements for the solar powered 2.5KVA inverter system to align with

future advancements in smart grid technologies.

H. Comparative Studies

Several comparative studies, such as the work by Gupta and Jain (2020), provide insights into

the performance of different inverter systems in terms of efficiency, reliability, and cost-

effectiveness. These comparative analyses aid in benchmarking the solar powered 2.5KVA

29
inverter system against existing solutions, guiding improvements and optimizations in the

design.

These related works contribute to the body of knowledge and practical implementations in the

field of inverter systems, providing valuable references and insights for the design and

construction of the solar powered 2.5kVA inverter system. The diverse range of works reflects

the multidimensional nature of inverter technology and its applications in various domains,

including renewable energy integration, pure sine wave output, and practical construction

methodologies.

30
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Brief Outline of the Chapter

This chapter contains the design, block diagram of the project and determination of components

values.

3.2 Research Design of the Project

The design and construction of a solar powered 2.5kva inverter primarily combines elements of

experimental research to test and validate the renewable energy system's functionality and design

research to create and optimize the system. Inverters, which convert direct current (DC) into

alternating current (AC), providing a stable and continuous power source. The converted AC can

be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and

control circuits. Inverters are mostly powered by batteries or solar panels (Bryan, 2016).

Inverters use the concept of accepting the DC supply into the oscillator section which converts

the high current DC signal to a low current AC; these signals are carried by high current

switching devices (MOSFETs) at a fixed frequency from the oscillator. Since the MOSFETs are

connected to a step-up transformer, the voltage is now increased to a desired output level

depending on the transformer windings (Ryan, 2012)

3.3 Block Diagram of the Design

The block diagram of the solar powered 2.5kva inverter is as shown in figure 3.1.

31
 2.5KVA
Solar Charge AC Control Protection
Battery Inverter
Panel Controller Output Circuit Circuit
Unit

Figure 3.1 Block diagram of the inverter

1. Solar Panel

The solar panel generates direct current (DC) electricity, which is then converted into alternating

current (AC) electricity by the solar inverter. The inverter is a crucial component of a solar

energy system that transforms the variable DC output from the solar panels into a usable

120V/240V AC output that can be utilized in homes or workplaces. The inverter also monitors

the system and provides a portal for communication with computer networks. Solar-plus-battery

storage systems rely on advanced inverters to operate without any support if they are designed to

do so. The sun shines down on the solar panels, which are made of semiconductor layers of

crystalline silicon or gallium arsenide. These layers are a combination of both positive and

negative layers, which are connected by a junction. When the sun shines, the semiconductor

layers absorb the light and send the energy to the PV cell. This energy runs around and bumps

electrons lose, and they move between the positive and negative layers, creating a flow of

electricity.

2. MPPT Charge Controller

The Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller is an essential component of the

solar power system. Its primary function is to optimize the efficiency of the system by ensuring

that the solar panels operate at their maximum power point. This is achieved through a process of

32
continuously adjusting the electrical operating point of the panels, allowing them to deliver the

maximum available power under the given conditions.

The MPPT charge controller is particularly valuable in situations where environmental factors,

such as shading, cloud cover, or changes in temperature, can cause fluctuations in the power

output of the solar panels. By dynamically tracking and adjusting for these variations, the MPPT

controller helps to maximize the energy harvest from the solar panels, ultimately increasing the

overall efficiency and output of the solar power system.

The MPPT charge controller works in tandem with the inverter to ensure that the DC electricity

generated by the solar panels is efficiently converted into usable AC electricity. By optimizing

the power output of the solar panels, the MPPT charge controller contributes to the overall

performance and effectiveness of the solar power system, making it an integral part of the energy

conversion process.

3. Battery

In an inverter, the battery plays a crucial role in providing the direct current (DC) electricity that

is then converted into alternating current (AC) electricity. The inverter is responsible for this

conversion process, and it can be powered by various sources such as batteries or solar

panels. When the inverter is connected to a battery, it utilizes the DC electricity from the battery

to produce the AC electricity that is used to power electrical appliances.

The battery's capacity and power directly influence the runtime of an inverter when it is powered

by batteries. The formula to calculate inverter battery capacity is given by:

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Load (In Watts) X Usage Time (in hours) / Input Voltage (V).

33
Additionally, the addition of extra batteries to the inverter can prolong its runtime, but it is

essential to prevent rapid discharge or overcurrent by using diodes or intelligent monitoring

when multiple batteries are connected.

4. 2.5kva Inverter Unit

The 2.5kVA inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) electricity into

alternating current (AC) electricity. It is designed to provide a stable and reliable power supply

for various applications, such as powering electrical appliances or feeding energy back into the

electrical grid. The 2.5kVA inverter typically consists of the following components:

 DC input: The inverter is connected to a DC power source, such as a battery or a solar

panel, which provides the electricity to be converted.

 Inverter circuit: The inverter circuit is responsible for converting the DC electricity into

AC electricity. This is achieved through a process called pulse-width modulation (PWM),

where the DC voltage is switched on and off at high frequencies to create an AC

waveform.

 Output: The AC electricity produced by the inverter is output to the electrical loads or

the electrical grid, depending on the specific application.

 Protective devices: The inverter is equipped with various protective devices, such as

overload protection, short-circuit protection, over-temperature protection, and voltage

protection, to ensure safe and reliable operation.

34
  Control circuit: The control circuit monitors the input voltage and current, and adjusts

the output voltage and frequency as needed to maintain a stable and efficient power

supply.

In summary, the 2.5kVA inverter works by converting DC electricity into AC electricity,

providing a stable and reliable power supply for various applications. It is equipped with various

protective devices and a control circuit to ensure safe and efficient operation.

5. AC Output

The final AC output of the inverter system is designed to be compatible with household

appliances, ensuring they receive the correct voltage and frequency to operate safely and

efficiently. To achieve this, the inverter unit converts the DC power stored in the battery bank

into AC power using sophisticated electronic circuits. The conversion process involves several

steps to ensure the output is of high quality, mimicking the smooth sinusoidal waveform of the

grid power. This is crucial because many household appliances are designed to operate optimally

with a pure sine wave AC power, which reduces the risk of damage and ensures efficient

performance.

The inverter's control circuit plays a vital role in regulating the AC output. It continuously

monitors the output voltage and frequency, making real-time adjustments to maintain stability.

This regulation ensures that the connected appliances receive a stable and reliable power supply,

protecting them from potential damage and ensuring their efficient operation.

35
6. Control Circuit

This block acts as the brain of the inverter, performing a multitude of critical functions that

ensure the system operates reliably and efficiently. The microcontroller or Digital Signal

Processor (DSP) is tasked with managing the entire process of converting DC power from the

battery into AC power, as well as monitoring and optimizing various parameters throughout the

system.

One of the primary functions of the microcontroller or DSP is switching control. In an inverter,

switching control involves precisely managing the operation of power electronic devices such as

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) or Insulated Gate Bipolar

Transistors (IGBTs). These devices are essential for converting DC power into AC power. The

microcontroller or DSP generates high-frequency control signals that turn these devices on and

off in a carefully timed sequence. This process, known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM),

allows the inverter to produce a series of pulses that, when filtered, form a smooth and stable AC

output. This output closely mimics the sinusoidal waveform of the grid power, ensuring

compatibility with household appliances and electronic devices.

Ensuring efficient power conversion is another crucial responsibility of the microcontroller or

DSP. Efficient conversion is essential for minimizing energy losses and maximizing the overall

performance of the inverter system. The microcontroller or DSP employs advanced algorithms to

optimize the switching patterns of the power electronic devices, thereby reducing switching

losses and enhancing the efficiency of the DC to AC conversion process. This involves adjusting

the timing and duration of the PWM signals to achieve the desired output characteristics while

minimizing energy wastage.

36
7. Protection Circuit

The protection block within an inverter system is crucial for ensuring the overall safety and

reliability of the system. This block is designed to guard against various electrical faults and

abnormal conditions that could potentially damage the inverter or connected appliances, or pose

safety hazards to users. By incorporating multiple layers of protection, this block helps to

maintain the integrity and longevity of the system, preventing failures and minimizing downtime.

One of the primary functions of the protection block is to safeguard against overload conditions.

An overload occurs when the connected load exceeds the rated capacity of the inverter. This can

cause excessive current flow, which may lead to overheating and damage to internal components

such as transistors, capacitors, and inductors. The protection block continuously monitors the

current flowing through the inverter. If it detects an overload condition, it immediately triggers a

response to either reduce the load or shut down the inverter temporarily until the condition is

resolved. This response helps to prevent permanent damage to the inverter and ensures that it can

resume normal operation once the overload condition is cleared.

3.3.1 Other Sections

1. Oscillator Section

The oscillator stage consists of a resistor-capacitor network connected to a multi-signal IC to

form a multi-vibrator circuit which produces the sinusoidal wave at the output terminals of the

IC. The voltage regulator LM7812 keeps the 24volts input voltage constant at 12volts for the

circuit to oscillate properly.

37
The IC SG3524 (integrating circuit) is used in the oscillating section of this inverter. This IC is

used to generate the 50Hz frequency required to generate AC supply by the inverter (Aryan,

2014). To start this process, battery supply is given to the pin-15 of the ICSG3524 through on/off

switch which passes through the normally close contact of the relay. Pin-8 is connected to the

negative terminal of the battery. A voltage regulator LM7812 is connected across the battery

through two capacitors connected in parallel and grounded as shown in the circuit below. This

regulates the 12V supply from the battery.

The circuit diagram of the oscillation section is shown below.

INPUT (DC) VOLTAGE INTEGRATED

Figure 3.2 Basic oscillator block diagram

2. Driver Section

The driver section is responsible for controlling the switching of the power transistors or

MOSFETs that make up the inverter's power stage. The driver section converts the input signal

(usually a PWM signal) into a bipolar signal that can be used to drive the power transistors or

MOSFETs. This is essential for the proper operation of the inverter, as it allows the power stage

to switch the DC voltage on and off at the desired frequency, creating the AC waveform needed

to power electrical devices.

The specific operation of the driver section in an inverter can vary based on the design and type

of inverter. However, the fundamental function remains consistent in terms of controlling the

switching of the power transistors or MOSFETs to create the desired AC waveform.

38
3. Charging Section

The charging section is responsible for managing the charging of the battery or battery bank

connected to the inverter. When the inverter is in operation, it converts DC power from a battery

into AC power for use in various electrical devices. However, when an external AC power

source, such as a generator or grid power, is available, the charging section of the inverter comes

into play to replenish the battery.

The charging section typically involves a battery charger that is integrated into the inverter.

When the inverter is connected to an AC power source, the charger commences the charging

process. This involves different stages such as "Bulk," "Absorption," or "Float," depending on

the charger mode. The charger works to ensure that the battery is maintained at an optimal level

of charge, thereby ready for use when the inverter is not connected to an external power source.

When the mains input (240v) comes in, the transformer steps down the voltage to about 27volts

and the bridge rectifier converts the ac to dc, then the rectified voltage is sent to the battery

through the charge controller, when the battery is fully charged to about 27.5volts (the batteries

have tolerance of 2(+/-2.5volts) because they are in series, the controller disconnects the battery

from the charger with the help of a relay, thereby keeping the battery cells in a good charge

condition.

3.4 Determination of Components Values

Table1: components value

S/n Components Rating Purpose

1 Solar Panel 24V, 300W It converts sunlight into electricity by

39
 using photovoltaic cells

2 Battery 100Ah It stores the electrical energy

generated by the solar panels. During

the day, then it supplies DC current

when there is no sunlight.

3 Power switching devices 400V, 25A To control and monitor power supply

but also play a crucial role in

ensuring the smooth operation and

optimal efficiency of the system

4 Gate drivers 10A To accepts a low power input from a

controller IC and produces the

appropriate high current gate drive

for a power device

5 DC bus capacitors 400V,40µf To smooth out the voltage ripple on

the DC bus

6 Inductors 7mH To develop electromotive force in the

direction that reduces fluctuation

when a fluctuating current flows and

storing electric energy as magnetic

energy

7 AC output filter capacitors 220V, 7µf To reduce the AC pulsating voltage

(ripple coefficient)

8 Cooling: Heat sink with fan To properly remove heat from device
cooling
components to improve device

40
 performance and extend its life.

9 Enclosure IP65 rated This means that the enclosure is

dust-tight and can withstand low-

pressure water jets from any

direction

10 Voltage Regulator (linear Efficiency To maintain a steady voltage.

11 Fuses 10A To provide overcurrent protection of

an electrical circuit.

12 Diodes 1N4007, To directs the flow of electricity in a

1A single direction

13 Thermal protector 85-130°C To stop the motor from overheating

and catching on fire.

14 Isolation transformer 100VA to transfer electrical power from a

source of alternating current (AC)

power to some equipment or device

while isolating the powered device

from the power source

15 Surge protector 500 Joules To guards against the damage that

sudden power surges can cause

41
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

4.1 Brief Outline of the Chapter

This chapter explains the principle of operation of the solar powered 2.5kva Inverter system and

the explanation of various units of its circuit diagram.

4.2 Explanation of Various Units of the Circuit Diagram

The solar powered 2.5kva Inverter system consists of various units which are listed below and

explained according the circuit diagram shown in figure 4.4:

i. Solar Panel (24V, 300W)

ii. MPPT Charge Controller

iii. Battery (100Ah)

iv. 2.5kva Inverter Unit

v. AC Output

vi. Control Circuit

vii. Protection Circuit

4.2.1 Solar Panel (24V, 300W)

This section consists of photovoltaic (PV) cells that convert sunlight into electrical energy

through the photovoltaic effect. Each PV cell is made of semiconductor materials, typically

silicon, which generates direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight. The light

photons hit the semiconductor material, knocking electrons loose and creating an electric current.

42
Individual PV cells are connected in series and parallel configurations to form a solar panel.

Series connections increase the voltage output, while parallel connections increase the current

output. The overall voltage and current produced by the panel depend on the number of cells and

their configuration, designed to match the system's power requirements.

The electrical output from the solar panel is DC electricity. The panel’s power output is

influenced by factors such as sunlight intensity, angle of incidence, temperature, and shading.

Under optimal conditions, the panel produces its rated power output, typically specified in watts.

The DC output from the solar panel is fed into a charge controller. The charge controller

regulates the voltage and current going to the battery bank to prevent overcharging and deep

discharging, which can damage the batteries and reduce their lifespan. It ensures that the

batteries are charged efficiently and safely.

The regulated DC power from the charge controller is stored in a battery bank. The battery bank

stores the electrical energy generated during daylight hours for use when solar power is not

available, such as during the night or on cloudy days. This stored energy is crucial for

maintaining a continuous power supply.

The solar panel section is fundamental in the solar-powered inverter system, providing the

primary source of energy by converting sunlight into usable electrical power. By integrating PV

cells, a charge controller, and a battery storage system, the solar panel section ensures a steady

and reliable power supply, leveraging renewable energy to power AC devices efficiently.

43
 Fig. 4.1: Solar Panel

4.2.2 MPPT Charge Controller

Its primary role is to optimize the efficiency of power conversion from the solar panels to the

battery bank. The MPPT charge controller ensures that the solar panels operate at their maximum

power point (MPP) - the point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve where the product of current

and voltage (and thus power) is maximized. Solar panels have a nonlinear I-V characteristic that

changes with sunlight intensity and temperature. The MPP varies with these conditions, and the

MPPT charge controller dynamically adjusts to track this point to maximize the energy harvest.

The solar panels produce a variable DC output depending on sunlight conditions. The MPPT

charge controller regulates this output to match the optimal charging voltage and current for the

battery bank. By continuously adjusting the input voltage, the MPPT controller ensures that the

solar panels operate at the voltage corresponding to the MPP. The MPPT charge controller

employs a DC-DC converter, typically a buck (step-down) converter or a buck-boost converter,

to adjust the solar panel voltage to the appropriate level for charging the batteries. If the solar

panel voltage is higher than the battery voltage, a buck converter is used to step it down. If it is

lower, a boost converter is used to step it up.

44
In addition to optimizing power conversion, the MPPT charge controller provides protection and

management features for the battery bank. It prevents overcharging by limiting the voltage once

the batteries reach their maximum charge level. It also prevents deep discharging by

disconnecting the load when the battery voltage drops below a safe threshold. Some controllers

include temperature compensation to adjust the charging voltage based on battery temperature,

further protecting the batteries and extending their lifespan.

The MPPT charge controller is essential for maximizing the efficiency of a solar-powered

inverter system. By dynamically tracking the maximum power point, it ensures that the solar

panels operate at their peak efficiency, converting the maximum amount of solar energy into

electrical energy for storage. Additionally, the MPPT charge controller provides crucial battery

management and protection functions, ensuring safe and efficient operation of the entire system.

4.2.3 Battery (100AH)

The primary function of the battery in the solar-powered inverter system is to store the electrical

energy generated by the solar panels. During the day, when the solar panels receive sunlight,

they convert this solar energy into direct current (DC) electricity. This electricity is then

regulated by the MPPT charge controller to ensure the correct voltage and current for charging

the batteries. The batteries store this energy in chemical form, which can be converted back to

electrical energy when needed.

The charging process is managed by the MPPT charge controller, which ensures that the

batteries are charged efficiently and safely. The charge controller regulates the flow of electricity

from the solar panels to the batteries, preventing overcharging by limiting the voltage and current

45
once the batteries reach their maximum charge level. It also monitors the state of charge (SOC)

of the batteries, adjusting the charging parameters as needed to maintain optimal battery health.

When the solar panels are not generating electricity, such as during the night or on cloudy days,

the stored energy in the batteries is used to power the inverter. The inverter converts the DC

electricity stored in the batteries into alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be used to

power household appliances and other AC devices. The discharging process is controlled to

ensure that the batteries do not discharge below a certain threshold, which could damage them

and shorten their lifespan.

The battery section is essential for storing energy generated by the solar panels and ensuring a

continuous power supply in a solar-powered inverter system. By efficiently managing the

charging and discharging processes and providing necessary protection and monitoring, the

battery section helps maintain the system's reliability and longevity.

Fig. 4.2: Battery

46
4.2.4 2.5kva Inverter Unit

The solar powered 2.5kva inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC)

electricity into alternating current (AC) electricity. It is designed to provide a stable and reliable

power supply for various applications, such as powering electrical appliances or feeding energy

back into the electrical grid. The solar powered 2.5kva inverter typically consists of the

following components:

 DC input: The inverter is connected to a DC power source, such as a battery or a solar

panel, which provides the electricity to be converted.

 Inverter circuit: The inverter circuit is responsible for converting the DC electricity into

AC electricity. This is achieved through a process called pulse-width modulation (PWM),

where the DC voltage is switched on and off at high frequencies to create an AC

waveform.

 Output: The AC electricity produced by the inverter is output to the electrical loads or

the electrical grid, depending on the specific application.

 Protective devices: The inverter is equipped with various protective devices, such as

overload protection, short-circuit protection, over-temperature protection, and voltage

protection, to ensure safe and reliable operation.

 Control circuit: The control circuit monitors the input voltage and current, and adjusts

the output voltage and frequency as needed to maintain a stable and efficient power

supply.

47
In summary, the solar powered 2.5kva inverter works by converting DC electricity into AC

electricity, providing a stable and reliable power supply for various applications. It is equipped

with various protective devices and a control circuit to ensure safe and efficient operation.

Fig. 4.3: 2.5KVA Inverter

4.2.5 AC Output

The final AC output of the inverter system is designed to be compatible with household

appliances, ensuring they receive the correct voltage and frequency to operate safely and

efficiently. To achieve this, the inverter unit converts the DC power stored in the battery bank

into AC power using sophisticated electronic circuits. The conversion process involves several

steps to ensure the output is of high quality, mimicking the smooth sinusoidal waveform of the

grid power. This is crucial because many household appliances are designed to operate optimally

with a pure sine wave AC power, which reduces the risk of damage and ensures efficient

performance.

48
The inverter's control circuit plays a vital role in regulating the AC output. It continuously

monitors the output voltage and frequency, making real-time adjustments to maintain stability.

This regulation ensures that the connected appliances receive a stable and reliable power supply,

protecting them from potential damage and ensuring their efficient operation.

4.2.6 Control Circuit

This unit acts as the brain of the inverter, performing a multitude of critical functions that ensure

the system operates reliably and efficiently. The microcontroller or Digital Signal Processor

(DSP) is tasked with managing the entire process of converting DC power from the battery into

AC power, as well as monitoring and optimizing various parameters throughout the system.

One of the primary functions of the microcontroller or DSP is switching control. In an inverter,

switching control involves precisely managing the operation of power electronic devices such as

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) or Insulated Gate Bipolar

Transistors (IGBTs). These devices are essential for converting DC power into AC power. The

microcontroller or DSP generates high-frequency control signals that turn these devices on and

off in a carefully timed sequence. This process, known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM),

allows the inverter to produce a series of pulses that, when filtered, form a smooth and stable AC

output. This output closely mimics the sinusoidal waveform of the grid power, ensuring

compatibility with household appliances and electronic devices.

Ensuring efficient power conversion is another crucial responsibility of the microcontroller or

DSP. Efficient conversion is essential for minimizing energy losses and maximizing the overall

performance of the inverter system. The microcontroller or DSP employs advanced algorithms to

optimize the switching patterns of the power electronic devices, thereby reducing switching

49
losses and enhancing the efficiency of the DC to AC conversion process. This involves adjusting

the timing and duration of the PWM signals to achieve the desired output characteristics while

minimizing energy wastage.

4.2.7 Protection Circuit

The protection block within an inverter system is crucial for ensuring the overall safety and

reliability of the system. This block is designed to guard against various electrical faults and

abnormal conditions that could potentially damage the inverter or connected appliances, or pose

safety hazards to users. By incorporating multiple layers of protection, this block helps to

maintain the integrity and longevity of the system, preventing failures and minimizing downtime.

One of the primary functions of the protection block is to safeguard against overload conditions.

An overload occurs when the connected load exceeds the rated capacity of the inverter. This can

cause excessive current flow, which may lead to overheating and damage to internal components

such as transistors, capacitors, and inductors. The protection block continuously monitors the

current flowing through the inverter. If it detects an overload condition, it immediately triggers a

response to either reduce the load or shut down the inverter temporarily until the condition is

resolved. This response helps to prevent permanent damage to the inverter and ensures that it can

resume normal operation once the overload condition is cleared.

4.3 Principle of Operation of the Project

The system begins with solar panels, which are composed of photovoltaic (PV) cells. These cells

convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Each PV cell

is made of semiconductor materials, typically silicon, which generates electric current when

50
exposed to sunlight. The solar panels are connected in series and parallel configurations to

achieve the desired voltage and current output.

The DC electricity generated by the solar panels is variable and depends on the intensity of the

sunlight. To optimize the efficiency of power conversion and ensure safe charging of the

batteries, the system employs a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller. The

MPPT charge controller continuously adjusts the voltage and current from the solar panels to

operate at the maximum power point (MPP), where the product of voltage and current is

maximized. This ensures that the maximum possible power is extracted from the solar panels

under varying sunlight conditions.

The regulated DC power from the MPPT charge controller is used to charge a battery bank. The

batteries store the electrical energy generated during the day for use when solar power is not

available, such as during the night or on cloudy days. The battery bank is configured to provide a

stable DC voltage to the inverter. The charge controller also protects the batteries from

overcharging and deep discharging, which can damage them and reduce their lifespan.

The inverter is a critical component that converts the DC power stored in the batteries into

alternating current (AC) power. The inverter uses electronic circuitry to switch the DC input

voltage into an AC output voltage. The output is typically at a standard voltage and frequency

suitable for household appliances (e.g., 230V at 50Hz or 120V at 60Hz). The inverter's capacity

of 2.5kVA (kilovolt-amperes) determines the maximum load it can handle.

During daylight hours, solar panels generate DC electricity from sunlight. The MPPT charge

controller optimizes the output from the solar panels to ensure they operate at their maximum

power point. The MPPT charge controller regulates the DC power and charges the battery bank,

51
storing energy for later use. The charge controller protects the batteries by preventing

overcharging and deep discharging. When solar power is insufficient or unavailable, the stored

energy in the batteries is used. The inverter converts the DC power from the batteries into AC

power, providing electricity to household appliances. The system continuously monitors the state

of charge of the batteries and adjusts the charging parameters as needed. Temperature sensors

and other protective components ensure safe and efficient operation of the batteries and the entire

system.

The solar-powered 2.5kVA inverter system is designed to harness renewable energy efficiently

and provide a reliable power supply. By integrating solar panels, an MPPT charge controller, a

battery bank, and an inverter, the system ensures maximum energy harvest, efficient storage, and

reliable conversion to AC power. This setup not only reduces dependence on traditional power

sources but also promotes the use of clean and sustainable energy.

52
Figure 4.4 Circuit diagram of the system

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS OF THE DESIGNED PROJECT

5.1 Brief Outline of the Chapter

This chapter contains the practical construction of the solar powered 2.5kva Inverter system,

choice of material used, how it was constructed and the bill of engineering measurement and

evaluation (BEME) table.

5.2 Choice of Materials

In the construction of this project, materials and components were chosen on the basis of the

following factors;

 Availability: The most factors considered in the construction of this project is the

availability of the material used so as to prevent any delay in the project construction.

 Cost: Standard materials of affordable price were selected so as to ensure that all the

materials and components needed are acquired as a result of limited capital.

 Easy Installation: Another factor considered is the easy and accurate installation of the

components, which is of great significance for the successful operation of the project.

 Durability: The selection of the choice of material used in the construction of the project

was also based on their ability to withstand all sort of external constraint for a long period

of time.

 Maintainability: The case with which a faulty device can be repaired and brought back

to service was also considered in the material selection.

54
5.3 Construction of the project

The construction of a solar-powered 2.5kVA inverter system involves integrating solar panels,

batteries, an inverter, and associated circuitry to convert DC power from the solar panels into AC

power for household or commercial use. Here is the breakdown of the steps for the construction

of the project:

5.3.1 Component Selection

Firstly, high-efficiency solar panels capable of generating sufficient power to meet the 2.5kVA

requirement are chosen. Multiple panels can be connected in series or parallel to achieve the

desired voltage and current. Next, a battery bank with adequate capacity to store the energy

generated by the solar panels is selected. Deep cycle batteries are recommended for their

durability and ability to handle regular charging and discharging cycles. A 2.5kVA inverter is

then chosen to convert the DC power from the battery bank into AC power, featuring overload

protection, short circuit protection, and efficiency optimization.

Transformers (TR1 and TR2) are crucial for stepping up or down the voltage as needed, handling

the power rating of the system. Relays (RL1, RL2, RL3) are used for switching operations within

the circuit, ensuring that the power is directed correctly based on the system's requirements.

Diodes (D1, D2, D3) are used for rectification and to prevent reverse current flow, protecting the

circuit components. Various resistors and capacitors are used for filtering, stabilizing the voltage,

and current limiting purposes. Voltage regulators and Zener diodes ensure stable voltage levels

within the circuit, crucial for the reliable operation of the inverter.

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5.3.2 Circuit Design

The circuit diagram is divided into three main sections, each responsible for a different part of

the system's operation. The input stage consists of the AC input from the grid and the connection

to the solar panels. An input switch and a two-way switch allow manual selection between the

grid and solar power. The control and regulation section includes the relays, voltage regulators,

and Zener diodes. The relays control the switching between different power sources and protect

against overvoltage, while voltage regulators ensure a stable output voltage. The output stage

includes the transformers, which step up the DC voltage to AC voltage suitable for household

appliances. The output switch and indicator LED provide user interface and operational status.

5.3.3 Construction Steps

The construction process begins with assembling the printed circuit board (PCB) as per the

schematic diagram, ensuring all components are placed correctly and solder joints are secure.

The transformers (TR1 and TR2) are then mounted on the PCB or within the enclosure, ensuring

they are securely fixed and properly wired according to the schematic. The relays and diodes are

installed on the PCB, with close attention paid to the orientation of the diodes to prevent reverse

current flow.

Next, the solar panels and battery bank are connected to the input section of the inverter circuit,

using appropriate connectors and cables to handle the current and voltage levels. Before

powering up the system, continuity checks are performed to ensure there are no short circuits.

Gradually, the system is powered up, and each section is tested individually. A multimeter is

used to verify voltage levels, and calibration settings are adjusted as needed.

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Once testing is complete, the PCB and components are mounted inside an appropriate enclosure,

ensuring proper ventilation and access to switches and indicators. All connections are secured,

and the enclosure is closed. A final round of testing is performed under load conditions to verify

the system's performance, testing with various loads to ensure the inverter can handle the

maximum rated power.

5.4 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

Table 5.1: BEME Table

S/n Components Quantity Unit Price Amount

1 2.5KVA Inverter 1 290,000 290,000

Total 290,000

5.5 Testing and Results

5.5.1 Testing

To ensure the reliability, efficiency, and safety of the 2.5kVA solar-powered inverter system, a

comprehensive testing procedure was conducted. This included initial power-up tests, load

testing, efficiency measurements, and safety evaluations. Each phase of testing was designed to

validate the performance of the inverter system under various conditions and to verify that all

components functioned as expected.

The initial power-up tests began with a thorough visual inspection of the assembled PCB and

components. This was carried out to identify any visible defects such as solder bridges, cold

joints, or misplaced components. Following this, continuity tests using a multimeter ensured that

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all connections were properly made and that there were no short circuits or open circuits. The

inverter was then connected to the solar panels under controlled lighting conditions to simulate

sunlight. Initial power-up tests confirmed that the inverter powered on correctly and that the

input switch functioned as intended.

Load testing involved using a variable load simulator to mimic the behavior of different

household appliances. This allowed for testing under various load conditions and verified that the

inverter could deliver up to 2.5kVA. During load testing, voltage and current were continuously

monitored using digital multimeters and oscilloscopes to ensure that the inverter maintained a

stable output and operated within the desired parameters. Additionally, the temperature of the

inverter components was monitored to ensure they operated within safe limits, indicating

effective thermal management.

Efficiency measurements were crucial to evaluate the performance of the inverter. The efficiency

of the inverter was evaluated by measuring the input power from the solar panels and the output

power delivered to the loads. Precision power meters were used for these measurements.

Efficiency was calculated as the ratio of output power to input power, expressed as a percentage.

Multiple tests were conducted at different load levels to determine the inverter's efficiency across

its operating range. Efficiency measurements showed that the inverter operated at an efficiency

of 85-90% across different load levels, with the highest efficiency observed at mid-range loads,

and slightly lower efficiency at maximum and minimum loads.

Safety evaluations included testing the overcurrent protection, overvoltage protection, short

circuit response, and reverse current protection. The overcurrent protection mechanism was

verified by gradually increasing the load beyond the 2.5kVA limit. The inverter's response was

observed to ensure it correctly limited the current and protected the circuit. Overvoltage

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protection was tested by simulating conditions where the input voltage from the solar panels

exceeded normal levels, ensuring the inverter could handle these conditions without damage. A

controlled short circuit test was performed to verify that the inverter’s safety features could

effectively protect against short circuits, shutting down safely without causing harm to the

components or the battery. The reverse current protection circuitry was tested by disconnecting

the solar panels and observing the inverter to ensure no reverse current flowed back into the

circuit.

5.5.2 Results

The results of the initial power-up tests were positive, with the inverter passing the visual

inspection and continuity tests, indicating proper assembly and connection. The inverter

successfully powered on, and the input switch operated correctly. During load testing, the

inverter maintained a stable output at various load conditions, delivering up to 2.5kVA as

specified. Voltage and current monitoring confirmed that the inverter operated within the desired

parameters. The temperature of the components remained within safe limits during extended

periods of load testing, demonstrating effective thermal management.

Efficiency measurements showed that the inverter operated at an efficiency of 85-90% across

different load levels. The highest efficiency was observed at mid-range loads, while slightly

lower efficiency was noted at maximum and minimum loads. The safety evaluations

demonstrated that the inverter successfully limited the current when the load exceeded 2.5kVA,

showing effective overcurrent protection. It handled overvoltage conditions without damage,

safely managing input voltages higher than normal operating levels. During the short circuit test,

the inverter shut down safely, protecting both the circuit and the battery. The reverse current

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protection circuitry effectively prevented any reverse current flow, ensuring no discharge

occurred back into the solar panels or inverter.

The 2.5kVA solar-powered inverter system successfully passed all testing phases. The inverter

demonstrated reliable performance, high efficiency, and robust safety features, making it a

dependable solution for converting solar energy into usable AC power. The system's advanced

protection mechanisms ensure both the inverter and the batteries are safeguarded against

common electrical hazards, contributing to the overall longevity and reliability of the system.

This testing and validation process confirms that the solar-powered inverter system is ready for

practical application, providing a sustainable energy solution for various needs.

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 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

The construction and testing of the 2.5kVA solar-powered inverter system have demonstrated its

efficacy as a reliable and efficient solution for converting solar energy into usable AC power.

The system successfully integrates solar panels, a battery bank, and an inverter to provide a

sustainable energy solution for household and commercial applications. Throughout the testing

phases, the inverter showed excellent performance, maintaining stable output under various load

conditions and achieving high efficiency levels of 85-90%.

The comprehensive safety features, including overcurrent, overvoltage, short circuit, and reverse

current protection, ensured the system's safe operation. These protections safeguard the inverter

and the batteries, enhancing their longevity and reliability. The project underscores the feasibility

and practicality of utilizing solar energy, contributing to the broader adoption of renewable

energy technologies.

6.2 Recommendation

The following are the recommendation that could be made from the experience acquired during

the course of this project.

 Design the system to be easily expandable with additional solar panels and batteries.

 Ensure components are weatherproof and durable for outdoor use.

 Integrate with smart grid and (Internet of Things) IoT for remote monitoring and control.

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  The choice of project topic should be based on student’s specialization to enhance the

interest and effectiveness in completion of the project work.

6.3 Contribution to knowledge

The project contributed in the following ways:

1. It demonstrates practical use of solar power in a 1.5kVA inverter system, showcasing its

potential for reliable, sustainable energy solutions.

2. It provides insights into efficient inverter design and construction, serving as a reference

for future research in power electronics.

3. It offers a framework for scalable solar power systems, adaptable to various power needs

and environments.

4. It promotes solar energy use, contributing to sustainability and carbon footprint

reduction.

5. It serves as a comprehensive guide for students, researchers, and practitioners,

encouraging further innovation in renewable energy.

This project enhances the application of solar energy in inverters and sets the stage for future

advancements in renewable energy technologies.

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