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Microwave Electronics

Drawing on over 20 years of teaching experience, this comprehensive yet self-contained text pro-
vides an in-depth introduction to the field of integrated microwave electronics. Ideal for a first
course on the subject, it covers essential topics such as passive components and transistors; lin-
ear, low-noise and power amplifiers; and microwave measurements. An entire chapter is devoted
to CAD techniques for analysis and design, covering examples of easy-to-medium difficulty for
both linear and nonlinear subsystems, and supported online by ADS and AWR project files. More
advanced topics are also covered, providing an up-to-date overview of compound semiconductor
technologies and treatment of electromagnetic issues and models. Readers can test their knowl-
edge with end-of-chapter questions and numerical problems, and solutions and lecture slides are
available online for instructors. This is essential reading for graduate and senior undergraduate
students taking courses in microwave, radio-frequency and high-frequency electronics, as well as
professional microwave engineers.

Giovanni Ghione is Professor in Electronics at Politecnico di Torino, Italy, and a Fellow of the
IEEE. He has authored or co-authored several books, including Semiconductor Devices for High-
Speed Optoelectronics (Cambridge, 2009), and is the Editor in Chief of IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices.

Marco Pirola is Associate Professor at Politecnico di Torino, where he coordinates the Microwave
Laboratory.

13:27:24, subject to the Cambridge Core

The Cambridge RF and Microwave Engineering Series
Series Editor
Steve C. Cripps, Distinguished Research Professor, Cardiff University

Editorial Advisory Board

James F. Buckwalter, UCSB
Jenshan Lin, University of Florida
John Wood, Maxim Integrated Products

Peter Aaen, Jaime Plá and John Wood, Modeling and Characterization of RF and Microwave
Power FETs
Dominique Schreurs, Máirtín O’Droma, Anthony A. Goacher and Michael Gadringer (Eds.), RF
Amplifier Behavioral Modeling
Fan Yang and Yahya Rahmat-Samii, Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures in Antenna
Engineering
Enrico Rubiola, Phase Noise and Frequency Stability in Oscillators
Earl McCune, Practical Digital Wireless Signals
Stepan Lucyszyn, Advanced RF MEMS
Patrick Roblin, Nonlinear RF Circuits and the Large-Signal Network Analyzer
Matthias Rudolph, Christian Fager and David E. Root (Eds.), Nonlinear Transistor Model
Parameter Extraction Techniques
John L. B. Walker (Ed.), Handbook of RF and Microwave Solid-State Power Amplifiers
Anh-Vu H. Pham, Morgan J. Chen and Kunia Aihara, LCP for Microwave Packages and Modules
Sorin Voinigescu, High-Frequency Integrated Circuits
Richard Collier, Transmission Lines
Valeria Teppati, Andrea Ferrero and Mohamed Sayed (Eds.), Modern RF and Microwave
Measurement Techniques
Nuno Borges Carvalho and Dominique Schreurs, Microwave and Wireless Measurement
Techniques
David E. Root, Jason Horn, Jan Verspecht and Mihai Marcu, X-Parameters
Earl McCune, Dynamic Power Supply Transmitters
Hossein Hashemi and Sanjay Raman (Eds.), Silicon mm-Wave Power Amplifiers and
Transmitters
Isar Mostafanezhad, Olga Boric-Lubecke and Jenshan Lin (Eds.), Medical and Biological
Microwave Sensors
Giovanni Ghione and Marco Pirola, Microwave Electronics

Forthcoming
Richard Carter, Microwave and RF Vacuum Electronic Power Sources
T. Mitch Wallis and Pavel Kabos, Measurement Techniques for Radio Frequency Nanoelectronics
Pedro, Root, Xu and Cotimos Nunes, Nonlinear Circuit Simulation and Modeling
Michael Schröter and Martin Claus, Carbon Nanotube Electronics for Analog Radio-Frequency
Applications

13:27:24, subject to the Cambridge Core

Microwave Electronics
G I O VA N N I G H I O N E
Politecnico di Torino

MA RCO P IR OLA
Politecnico di Torino

13:27:24, subject to the Cambridge Core

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107170278
DOI: 10.1017/9781316756171

c Cambridge University Press 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ghione, Giovanni, 1956– author. | Pirola, Marco, author.
Title: Microwave electronics / Giovanni Ghione (Politecnico di Torino),
Marco Pirola (Politecnico di Torino).
Other titles: Cambridge RF and microwave engineering series.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge
University Press, 2018. | Series: The Cambridge RF and microwave
engineering series | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017025023| ISBN 9781107170278 (hardback ; alk. paper) |
ISBN 1107170273 (hardback ; alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Microwave devices. | Electronics. |
Microwave integrated circuits.
Classification: LCC TK7876 .G48 2018 | DDC 621.381/3–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017025023
ISBN 978-1-107-17027-8 Hardback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/ghione
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.

13:27:24, subject to the Cambridge Core

To our families: Simonetta and Gianluca Ghione, and Patrizia, Giorgio and Dario
Pirola.

13:27:32, subject to the Cambridge Core

13:27:32, subject to the Cambridge Core
 Contents

Preface page xv
Notation and Symbols xix

1 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics 1

1.1 Radio Frequencies, Microwaves, Millimeter Waves 1
1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 4
1.2.1 A Review of Signal Modulation 5
1.2.2 The RF Interface: Architecture 7
1.2.3 Linear and Nonlinear Building Blocks of the RF Interface 14
1.3 Enabling Technologies for RF, Microwaves and mm Waves 18
1.3.1 Examples of (M)MICs 22
1.4 Questions and Problems 25
1.4.1 Questions 25
1.4.2 Problems 26
References 26

2 Passive Elements and Circuit Layout 28

2.1 Transmission Lines 28
2.1.1 Transmission Line Theory 28
2.1.2 Parameters of Quasi-TEM Lines 38
2.1.3 The Reflection Coefficient and the Smith Chart 43
2.2 Planar Transmission Lines in Microwave Integrated Circuits 51
2.2.1 The Coaxial Cable 53
2.2.2 The Microstrip 54
2.2.3 The Coplanar Waveguide 59
2.2.4 Coupling and Radiation Losses in Planar Lines 62
2.3 Lumped Parameter Components 65
2.3.1 Inductors 66
2.3.2 Capacitors 71
2.3.3 Resistors 72
2.3.4 Chip Inductors, Resistors and Capacitors 73
2.4 Layout of Planar Hybrid and Integrated Circuits 74
2.4.1 Some Layout-Related Issues 75

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viii Contents

2.4.2 Hybrid Layout 78

2.4.3 Integrated Layout 79
2.5 Microwave Circuit Packaging 81
2.6 Questions and Problems 84
2.6.1 Questions 84
2.6.2 Problems 84
References 85

3 CAD Techniques 87
3.1 Modeling of Linear and Nonlinear Blocks 87
3.2 Power Waves and the Scattering Parameters 89
3.2.1 Representations of Linear Two-Ports 89
3.2.2 Power Waves 92
3.2.3 Power Wave n-Port Model: The Scattering Matrix 93
3.2.4 Properties of the S-Matrix 97
3.2.5 Power Wave Equivalent Circuit 100
3.2.6 Direct Evaluation of the Scattering Parameters 102
3.2.7 Reference Plane Shift 103
3.2.8 Cascade Connection of Two-Ports: The T-Matrix 105
3.2.9 Solving a Network in Terms of Power Waves 106
3.3 Analysis Techniques for Linear and Nonlinear Circuits 108
3.3.1 Time-Domain vs. Frequency-Domain Methods 108
3.3.2 The Harmonic Balance Technique 108
3.3.3 The HB Technique: Multi-Tone Excitation 112
3.3.4 The Envelope HB Time-Frequency Technique 119
3.4 Circuit Optimization and Layout Generation 123
3.5 Questions and Problems 124
3.5.1 Questions 124
3.5.2 Problems 125
References 126

4 Directional Couplers and Power Dividers 129

4.1 Coupled Quasi-TEM Lines 129
4.1.1 Analysis of Symmetrical Coupled Lines 129
4.1.2 Coupled Planar Lines 134
4.1.3 Coupled Microstrips 135
4.2 The Directional Coupler 139
4.2.1 General Properties of Directional Couplers and Power
Dividers 141
4.3 The Two-Conductor Coupled Line Coupler 144
4.3.1 Frequency Behavior of the Synchronous Coupler 149
4.3.2 Effect of Velocity Mismatch and Compensation Techniques 152
4.4 Multiconductor Line Couplers 155
4.4.1 The Lange Coupler 160

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 Contents ix

4.5 Interference Couplers 162

4.5.1 Branch-Line Coupler 162
4.5.2 Lumped-Parameter Branch-Line Couplers 168
4.5.3 The Hybrid Ring 172
4.6 Power Combiners and Dividers 173
4.6.1 The Wilkinson Distributed Divider 174
4.6.2 Wilkinson Lumped Dividers 179
4.7 Directional Couplers Summary 181
4.8 Questions and Problems 182
4.8.1 Questions 182
4.8.2 Problems 183
References 184

5 Active RF and Microwave Semiconductor Devices 185

5.1 Active Microwave Components 185
5.1.1 Semiconductor Microwave Components 185
5.1.2 Device Modeling Approaches 190
5.2 Semiconductors and Semiconductor Alloys for Microwave
Transistors 192
5.2.1 Semiconductor Properties: A Reminder 193
5.2.2 Transport Properties 197
5.2.3 Heterostructures and Semiconductor Alloys 199
5.2.4 The Substrate Issue 202
5.3 Heterojunctions and Reduced Dimensionality Structures 203
5.4 Microwave Schottky-Gate Field-Effect Transistors 205
5.4.1 FET DC Model 209
5.4.2 Choice of the DC Working Point 211
5.4.3 FET Small-Signal Model and Equivalent Circuit 211
5.4.4 Scaling the Small-Frequency Parameters vs. the Gate
Periphery 218
5.4.5 Frequency Behavior of the Scattering Parameters 219
5.4.6 High-Speed Compound Semiconductor FETs: The HEMT
Family 222
5.5 The RF MOSFET 230
5.6 Microwave FETs: A Comparison 232
5.7 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 234
5.7.1 HBT Equivalent Circuit 237
5.7.2 HBT Choices and Material Systems 240
5.8 Measurement-Based Microwave FET Small- and Large-Signal
Models 242
5.8.1 Small- and Large-Signal Circuit Models 242
5.8.2 Extracting the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit from
Measurements 242
5.8.3 Large-Signal FET Circuit Model Principles 246

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x Contents

5.8.4 MESFET LS Models 249

5.8.5 HEMT LS Models 252
5.9 Measurement-Based Bipolar Small- and Large-Signal
Models 254
5.10 Questions and Problems 255
5.10.1 Questions 255
5.10.2 Problems 256
References 257

6 Microwave Linear Amplifiers 261

6.1 Introduction 261
6.2 Generator-Load Power Transfer 262
6.2.1 Generator Directly Connected to Load 262
6.2.2 Power Transfer in Loaded Two-Ports 265
6.3 Power Gains of a Loaded Two-Port 268
6.3.1 Maximum Gain and Maximum Power Transfer 268
6.3.2 Operational Gain 270
6.3.3 Available Power Gain 274
6.3.4 Transducer Gain 275
6.3.5 Power Matching and Unconditional Stability 275
6.4 Two-Port Stability 276
6.4.1 Analysis of Stability Conditions 279
6.5 Two-Port Stability Criteria 283
6.5.1 Two-Parameter Criteria 283
6.5.2 Proof of Two-Parameter Stability Criteria 284
6.5.3 One-Parameter Stability Criterion 289
6.5.4 Proof of the One-Parameter Criterion 289
6.6 Two-Port Stability and Power Matching 290
6.6.1 Unconditional Stability and Simultaneous Power
Matching 290
6.6.2 Managing Conditional Stability 292
6.6.3 Stability Circles and Constant Gain Contours 292
6.6.4 Unilateral Two-Port 293
6.7 Examples of FET Stability Behavior 295
6.7.1 Stability and Gains at Constant Frequency 295
6.7.2 Stability and Gains as a Function of Frequency 297
6.8 Linear Microwave Amplifier Classes 300
6.8.1 The Linear Amplifier – Design Steps 303
6.9 The Open-Loop Narrowband Amplifier 304
6.9.1 Design of Matching Sections 306
6.10 Active Device Stabilization and Bias 314
6.10.1 Stabilization 314
6.10.2 DC Bias 318
6.11 The Open-Loop Wideband Amplifier 320

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 Contents xi

6.11.1 The Balanced Amplifier 321

6.12 The Wideband Feedback Amplifier 326
6.13 The Distributed Amplifier 334
6.13.1 The Continuous Distributed Amplifier 336
6.13.2 The Discrete Cell Distributed Amplifier 342
6.14 Questions and Problems 349
6.14.1 Questions 349
6.14.2 Problems 349
References 350

7 Low-Noise Amplifier Design 352

7.1 Introduction 352
7.2 A Review of Random Processes 353
7.2.1 First- and Second-Order Statistics 353
7.2.2 Random Process Through Linear Systems 357
7.2.3 Symbolic Frequency-Domain (Phasor) Notation 358
7.3 Analyzing Circuits with Random Generators: The Symbolic
Technique 359
7.4 Equivalent Circuit of Noisy Linear N-Ports 362
7.4.1 Noisy One-Ports 362
7.4.2 Noisy N-Ports 363
7.5 The Physical Origin of Noise 366
7.5.1 Thermal and Diffusion Noise 367
7.5.2 RG Noise 367
7.5.3 1/f or Flicker Noise 368
7.6 Noise Models of Passive Devices 368
7.6.1 Noise in Passive Devices: The Nyquist Law 369
7.6.2 Noise in Junction Diodes 371
7.7 System-Oriented Device Noise Parameters: The Noise Figure 372
7.7.1 Evaluating the Noise Figure 374
7.7.2 The Minimum Noise Figure 381
7.8 Noise Models of Microwave Transistors 385
7.8.1 Noise Models of Field-Effect Transistors 385
7.8.2 Noise Models for Bipolar Transistors 389
7.9 Noise Figure of Cascaded Two-Ports 390
7.9.1 Noise Measure 392
7.10 Low-Noise Amplifiers 392
7.10.1 Common-Gate (Base) LNA Stage 394
7.10.2 LNA with Inductive Source/Emitter Series Feedback 398
7.11 Questions and Problems 407
7.11.1 Questions 407
7.11.2 Problems 408
References 409

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xii Contents

8 Power Amplifiers 411

8.1 Introduction 411
8.2 Characteristics of Power Amplifiers 412
8.2.1 Power, Gain, Distortion 412
8.2.2 AM–AM and AM–PM Characteristics 420
8.2.3 Dynamic Range 422
8.2.4 Efficiency and Power Added Efficiency 423
8.2.5 Input Matching 424
8.3 Power Amplifier Classes 424
8.4 The Quasi-Linear Power Amplifier (Class A) 426
8.4.1 Class A Design and the Load-Pull Approach 432
8.5 Analysis of Distortion and Power Saturation in a Class A Amplifier 437
8.5.1 Power-Series Analysis of Compression and Intermodulation 437
8.5.2 Power Saturation in Class A 443
8.6 Nonlinear Amplifier Classes: AB, B, C 444
8.6.1 Single-Ended Class B Amplifier 445
8.6.2 From Class A to Class C Amplifier 448
8.7 High-Efficiency Amplifiers 456
8.7.1 Harmonic Loading: The Class F Amplifier 456
8.7.2 The Switching Class E Power Amplifier 460
8.7.3 The Doherty Amplifier 468
8.8 Layout and Power Combining Techniques 481
8.9 Linearization Techniques 481
8.10 Questions and Problems 484
8.10.1 Questions 484
8.10.2 Problems 486
References 487

9 Microwave Measurements 489

9.1 Introduction 489
9.2 Basic Microwave Instrumentation Tools 489
9.3 The Reflectometer 491
9.4 The Vector Network Analyzer 497
9.4.1 Downconversion Module Solutions 497
9.4.2 VNA Calibration 499
9.4.3 Defining the Error Model 500
9.4.4 Calibration Algorithms 501
9.5 Load and Source Pull Characterization 507
9.5.1 Scalar Systems 508
9.5.2 Vectorial Systems 509
9.5.3 Load Tuning Techniques 510
9.6 System-Level Characterization 513
9.7 Noise Measurements 514
9.8 Questions and Problems 517

13:27:28, subject to the Cambridge Core

 Contents xiii

9.8.1 Questions 517

9.8.2 Problems 518
References 519

10 CAD Projects 522

10.1 Introduction 522
10.2 Microstrip Line and Stub Matching of a Complex Load 522
10.3 Design of a 3 dB Directional Coupler at 20 GHz 524
10.4 Fitting and Optimization of a Field-Effect Small-Signal Equivalent
Circuit 528
10.5 Small-Signal FET Stabilization 531
10.6 Design of a Maximum Gain Amplifier at 15 GHz 532
10.7 Design of a Two-Stage Balanced Amplifier 538
10.8 Design of Parallel Resistive Feedback Wideband Amplifiers 543
10.9 Design of a Uniform DAMP with 40 GHz Bandwidth 546
10.10 FET Noise, Single-Ended and Balanced LNA Design 550
10.11 Design of 5 GHz LNA with Source Inductive Series Feedback 554
10.12 Design of a 3.5 GHz Narrowband Hybrid Class A Power Amplifier 556
10.13 Design of a 3.5 GHz Narrowband Hybrid Class B and AB Power
Amplifier 561
References 564
Index 566

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13:27:28, subject to the Cambridge Core
Preface

Microwave and millimeter-wave electronics is today far more widespread than it used
to be only 20 years ago. Traditional applications based on metal waveguide approaches
are still on the market (think about radar systems and some satellite-based systems);
however, the introduction of solid-state hybrid and above all monolithic microwave inte-
grated circuits (MMICs) using III-V semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, initially
in the low microwave range but now covering frequencies up to millimeter waves, has
allowed for a dramatic reduction in the size, weight and cost of many microwave systems
in fields ranging from wireless telecommunications to space applications to automotive
radars.
Starting from the beginning of this century, a new revolution has taken place in
MMICs, with the introduction of RF, microwave and now also mm-wave silicon-based
ICs (CMOS but also SiGe). This has finally marked the entrance of microwave systems
in the area of low-cost consumer electronics. At the same time, new semiconductor
materials for high-power applications (such as gallium nitride) are gradually entering
the market of microwave systems, with a promise of size and cost reduction related to
the record power densities achievable. And yet, despite the widespread conversion to
solid-state electronics, in some areas vacuum tubes are still successfully surviving1 and
expanding their potential, e.g., in the field of THz sources.
The design of microwave circuits is largely based today on Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) techniques that have turned the “black magic” associated with the design of dis-
tributed (transmission line or waveguide) circuits into a routine that is easily manageable
by the designer – of course, provided that he or she has well understood the basics of
microwave electronics. Alternative approaches based on lumped parameter components,
which make the design of microwave integrated circuits quite similar to that of analog
integrated circuits at large, have indeed become increasingly popular in MMICs, at least
up to the middle microwave range. On the other hand, high-frequency monolithic and
hybrid ICs still have to partly rely on distributed components and the related design
styles. In conclusion, today’s microwave design is a well-balanced blend of distributed
and lumped technological approaches that the designer should be able to master.

1 Think about the high-power sources exploited in long-range radars and also consumer goods like
microwave ovens, where the power source is a 1 kW power magnetron – a vintage device invented during
the Second World War.

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.001
xvi Preface

Microwave CAD tools initially emerged in the 1980s, following the early develop-
ment of circuit simulators such as the open source software, SPICE (Simulation Program
with Integrated Circuit Emphasis). Early tools were limited to the analysis, and some-
times optimization, of linear circuits, and used analytical, closed-form models for the
components, or measured small-signal parameters in a tabular format. Data input was
carried out through quite user-unfriendly ASCII netlists. Since those beginnings, the
evolution of CAD tools has been substantial. On the one hand, such tools now benefit
from the graphical interfaces available under today’s operating systems; netlists have
been replaced by the direct entry of graphical schematics, layout generation has been
added, and flexible data output and effective visualization tools have been made avail-
able. On the other hand, CAD tools have dramatically extended their potential in two
directions: the analysis and optimization of nonlinear circuits through techniques such
as the harmonic balance method; and the seamless integration of the circuit simulator
into fast 3D or 2.5D electromagnetic solvers. As a final step, most microwave circuit
CAD tools are now in turn integrated within system-level simulation design suites, thus
allowing the loop between circuit-level and system-level design to be effectively closed
by the designer.
However powerful and user-friendly microwave CAD tools have become, their user
should nevertheless be aware of a number of issues that affect high-frequency analog cir-
cuit design. Even a simple problem like a transmission line matching of a load through
CAD can lead to unrealistic results if the designer is not aware of all aspects related the
behavior of distributed circuits, and also to their physical implementation with a spe-
cific technology. Fitting a simple lumped parameter FET model to measured scattering
parameters can become a nightmare if the initial guess where to start the optimization is
chosen at random.
Taking into account the above remarks, it is not surprising that an introductory text-
book on microwave electronics should try to work at several levels, where system-level
applications, enabling technologies, component and circuit theory, and CAD techniques
seen both in their theoretical basis and in their practical use, should interact in order to
provide the student with a realistic vision of microwave design.
To this end, we choose to start (Chapter 1) from a system-level overview, selecting as
a target the ubiquitous telecommunication transceiver. A RF or microwave transceiver
(besides being in most students’ pockets as a part of a smartphone or in most stu-
dents’ backpack as the WLAN transceiver of their notebook) hosts the most important
microwave subsystems, such as low-noise, high-gain and power amplifiers, mixers,
oscillators and frequency synthesizers, together with passive elements such as switches
and filters. In this introductory chapter, a glimpse is also given at the enabling tech-
nology choices, with a stress on the planar (hybrid or monolithic) integrated circuit. A
broad system level should allow the reader to correctly place the role of the different
microwave subsystems, and in particular of the amplifier, that is in fact the main focus
of the text. Limiting the treatment to amplifiers within the framework of a first course
on microwave electronics is in our opinion a reasonable choice, that allows the material
to be kept self-contained and the textbook of a reasonable size.

13:26:44, subject to the Cambridge Core

.001
 Preface xvii

Linear elements and subsystems can be a convenient starting point for the detailed
treatment of microwave circuits. Chapter 2 covers the technology of passive (distributed
or lumped) elements and their modeling. Chapter 3 introduces the scattering param-
eters as a natural and convenient representation of a linear N-port and provides an
early introduction to the basic concepts of microwave CAD (linear and nonlinear cir-
cuit frequency-domain analysis; optimization techniques; layout). The presentation of
harmonic-balance techniques also includes aspects that should not considered any more
as “advanced,” since they are now available in some widespread CAD tools, like multi-
tone and envelope analysis. Chapter 4 completes the review of passive elements with the
presentation of coupled transmission lines and directional couplers and dividers, both in
distributed and in lumped form.
Chapter 5 is entirely devoted to microwave active devices and their linear and non-
linear equivalent circuits. Some emphasis is placed on semiconductor theory, material
choices and enabling technologies, covering both III-V compound semiconductor FETs
(from the vintage MESFET to the HEMT in its more recent varieties) and Si-based RF
nanometer-scale MOSFETs; III-N (GaN-based) FETs are also reviewed together with
the LDMOS as power device solutions. Although the design examples provided by the
text are mostly carried out with FETs, III-V and SiGe bipolars are also introduced in
some detail.
Having completed the treatment of passive and active components, Chapter 6 intro-
duces the design of linear, high-gain amplifiers, starting from the theory of loaded
two-ports and the issue of two-port stability. The discussion concerns not only general
design strategies for the traditional open-loop amplifier, but also a number of specific
topics that are popular in microwave amplifier design, such as the balanced amplifier
and the distributed amplifier.
Chapter 7 is devoted to a discussion of noise modeling in active devices and of
low-noise amplifiers. Taking into account that noise is a difficult subject whose back-
ground from communication theory courses has sometimes to be refreshed, the initial
part of Chapter 7 includes a review of the theory of random processes. After intro-
ducing the device noise models and system-level parameters like the noise figure, the
traditional low-noise design approach based on noise figure minimization is introduced,
stressing its possible shortcomings in terms of input matching. Then, typical low-noise
topologies, like the common-gate and the series inductively degenerated stages, are
discussed.
Chapter 8 is entirely devoted to the design of power amplifiers; after a discussion of
the characteristic parameters describing power gain, distortion and efficiency, the opti-
mum design of class A amplifiers is introduced with the help of the Cripps analytical
load-pull model. The review of traditional high-efficiency classes (AB to B to C) is
followed by the introduction of more advanced solutions, such as the harmonic-loaded
amplifier (class F), the switching amplifier (class E) and high-efficiency combined solu-
tions (the Doherty amplifier). Chapter 9 covers the topic of microwave measurements
(linear, power and noise), with an emphasis on the calibration theory.
A modern introductory course in microwave electronics should include a set of CAD
laboratories; however, at the same time, CAD tools exhibit continuous evolution that

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xviii Preface

makes it difficult to create a stable textbook.2 Although some “paper and pencil” design
examples are provided in the text, we devote one last chapter (Chapter 10) to the presen-
tation of a number of “CAD examples” or “CAD projects,” to be seen as potential CAD
laboratory traces. The level of the traces is intentionally tutorial, even if most features
of CAD tools are covered, including linear and nonlinear circuit examples. To avoid
early obsolescence, the traces are schematic and only provide a glimpse of the design
process, with some significant results. The related projects are made available online as
additional material, allowing the reader to run all cases in the original CAD environ-
ment. Apart from Chapter 10, each chapter is finally followed by a set of questions and
problems that may be helpful to check what has been learned and to apply some of the
techniques presented.
This book is the result of work begun almost 20 years ago when the authors started
to give lectures in Microwave Electronics at the II Faculty of Engineering of Politec-
nico di Torino in the (now vanished) Vercelli campus. By and by, lecture notes were
collected and an early textbook in Italian, covering some of the material presented here,
was assembled. Although this was an entirely new course, part of the material covered
was actually adapted from courses given in earlier years by senior (and now retired) col-
leagues, like Professor Gianpaolo Bava, Professor Carlo Naldi and Professor Claudio
Beccari, to whom the authors are indebted.
Later, the course in Microwave Electronics was somewhat transplanted (with a slight
downsizing from 10 to 6 credits) to the III Faculty of Engineering of Politecnico di
Torino, in the main Turin campus, where it was given for a number of years by Professor
Simona Donati Guerrieri; she contributed with helpful suggestions and corrections to the
Italian textbook trace, to the course slides and to the development of CAD lab traces.
The authors are indebted to her for her contribution and for helpful discussions. Finally,
from the beginning of the last decade the lectures on Microwave Electronics became
part of a Master degree in Electronics offered entirely in English; this suggested the
rewriting in English of the lecture traces, adding and updating material and ultimately
leading to the present textbook.
The authors would like to thank a number of colleagues from Politecnico di Torino
who have, directly or indirectly, contributed to this book: Professor Vittorio Camarchia,
who managed for some years the organization of the Microwave Electronics CAD
labs; Professor Andrea Ferrero, for his contribution to Chapter 10 on microwave mea-
surements; Professor Fabrizio Bonani, for helpful discussions, in particular concerning
noise. Finally, the authors would like to mention a number of Italian colleagues with
whom they have had and continue to have fruitful research collaboration in the design
of microwave circuits (in geographical order, north to south): Professor Fabio Filicori
and Vito Monaco of Bologna University; Professor Giorgio Vannini of Ferrara Univer-
sity; Professor Franco Giannini, Ernesto Limiti and Paolo Colantonio of University of
Roma Tor Vergata; Dr Claudio Lanzieri, now with Leonardo.

2 Also gray literature like CAD lab traces used in the courses have to be updated almost every year.

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Notation and Symbols

x(t) scalar variable, time domain

X(ω) scalar variable, frequency domain
x(t) vector variable, time domain
X(ω) vector variable, frequency domain
x(t) tensor (matrix) variable, time domain
X(ω) tensor (matrix) variable, frequency domain
X0 , XDC scalar variable, DC
δx(t) scalar variable fluctuation, time domain
δX(ω) scalar variable fluctuation, frequency domain
xn (t) random (noise) variable, time domain
Xn (ω) random (noise) variable, frequency domain
x(t) time average of deterministic function or random process x(t)
x(t) ensemble average of random process x(t)
x ensemble average of random variable x
Sx (ω) power spectrum of x (also Sxx )
XX ∗ power spectrum of x in terms of spectral average
Sxy (ω) correlation spectrum between x and y
Rx (τ ) autocorrelation function of x (also Rxx )
Rxy (τ ) correlation function between x and y
P scalar parameter
P vector parameter
a [eV m2 ] derivative of EF − Ec (0) vs. ns (modulation doped structure)
a bipolar transistor common base current gain
a [m] lattice constant
a, b [W1/2 ] forward and backward power waves
α [m−1 ] attenuation
αc [m−1 ] conductor attenuation
αd [m−1 ] dielectric attenuation
ACPR Adjacent Channel Power Ratio
A/D Analog to Digital
AFM Artificial Frequency Mapping
b bipolar transistor base transport factor

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xx Notation and Symbols

B [Hz] bandwidth
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
β [m−1 ] propagation constant
β bipolar transistor common emitter current gain
c0 [m s−1 ] speed of light in vacuum, c0 = 2.99792458 × 108 m s−1
Cch [F m−2 ] channel capacitance per unit surface (FETs)
Ceq [F m−2 ] equivalent 2DEG capacitance (HEMTs)
CGS [F] gate-source capacitance
Cj [F] junction capacitance
C [F m−1 ] capacitance per unit length
Ca [F m−1 ] capacitance per unit length in air
CIMR Carrier to Intermodulation Ratio
δ [m] skin penetration depth
δ [rad] loss angle
Ec [J] [eV] conduction band discontinuity
Ev [J] [eV] valence band discontinuity
D/A Digital to Analog
DPA Doherty Power Amplifier
DUT Device Under Test
E(k) [J] [eV] dispersion relation
E(ω) [V m−1 ] electric field, frequency domain
Ec [J] [eV] conduction band edge
ED [J] [eV] donor energy level
EF [J] [eV] Fermi level
EFh [J] [eV] quasi-Fermi level, holes
EFi [J] [eV] intrinsic Fermi level
EFn [J] [eV] quasi-Fermi level, electrons
Eg [J] [eV] energy gap
Eg [V] generator open-circuit voltage
Et [J] [eV] trap energy level
Ev [J] [eV] valence band edge
ENR Excess Noise Ratio
EVM Error Vector Magnitude
E [V m−1 ] electric field
Ebr [V m−1 ] breakdown electric field
 [F m−1 ] dielectric permittivity
(ω) [F m−1 ] complex dielectric permittivity, frequency domain;  =   (ω) −
j  (ω)
eff effective permittivity
r relative dielectric permittivity
0 [F m−1 ] vacuum dielectric permittivity, 0 = 8.854187817 × 10−12 F m−1
η drain or collector efficiency
f [Hz] frequency
fmax [Hz] maximum oscillation frequency

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 Notation and Symbols xxi

fT [Hz] cutoff frequency

F noise figure
Fmin minimum noise figure
FET Field Effect Transistor
φ, ϕ [rad] phase
φ [V] electric potential
φch [V] channel potential
G power gain
Gass associated power gain
Gav available power gain
Gop operational (operative) power gain
Gss small-signal power gain
Gt transducer power gain
gm [S] transconductance
gn [S] series noise conductance
Gn [S] parallel noise conductance
G [S m−1 ] conductance per unit length
γ [m−1 ] complex propagation constant, γ = α+jβ
γ bipolar transistor emitter efficiency
reflection coefficient
hij two-port hybrid matrix element (dimensions vary)
Hn [W1−1 ] harmonic or intermodulation product conversion gain
HB Harmonic Balance
HBT Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
HEMT High Electron Mobility Transistor
HGA High-Gain Amplifier
IB [A] base current
IC [A] collector current
ID [A] drain current
IDS [A] drain current
IDSS [A] saturation drain current
IE [A] emitter current
IG [A] gate current
IS [A] source current
I0 [J] [eV] ionization
IBO [dB] Input Power Backoff
IMPn n-th-order Intermodulation Product
K Linville stability factor
k [m−1 ] wavevector
kT [m−1 ] transverse wavevector
kB [J K−1 ] Boltzmann constant, kB = 1.3806568 × 10−23 J K−1
Lg [m] gate length
L [H m−1 ] inductance per unit length
La [H m−1 ] inductance per unit length in air

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xxii Notation and Symbols

LDMOS Laterally Diffused MOS

LNA Low-Noise Amplifier
λ [m] wavelength
λ0 [m] in vacuo wavelength
λg [m] guided wavelength
M Noise Measure
MAG Maximum Available Gain
MHEMT Metamorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor
MIC Microwave Integrated Circuit
MMIC Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit
(M)MIC Hybrid and Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits
MOS Metal Oxide Semiconductor field-effect transistor
MSG Maximum Stable Gain
MUG Maximum Unilateral Gain
μ [H m−1 ] magnetic permeability
μh [m2 V−1 s−1 ] hole mobility
μn [m2 V−1 s−1 ] electron mobility
μr relative magnetic permeability
μ0 [H m−1 ] vacuum magnetic permeability, μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1
n [m−3 ] electron concentration
ni [m−3 ] intrinsic carrier concentration
ns [C m−2 ] QW carrier sheet concentration
NA [m−3 ] acceptor concentration
ND [m−3 ] donor concentration
NF Noise Figure
NFM Noise Figure Meter
OBO [dB] Output Power Backoff
p [m−3 ] hole concentration
pin (t) [W] input (optical or electrical) power, time domain
pn (f ) [W Hz−1 ] noise available power spectral density
PRC parameters of the Cappy noise FET model
Pav [W] generator available power
Pin [W] input power
Pout [W] output power
Psat [W] saturation output power
PA Power Amplifier
PAE Power Added Efficiency
PAPR Peak to Average Power Ratio
PHEMT Pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor
%Q q [C] electron charge, q = 1.60217733 × 10−19 C
q(t) [C] electric charge
qχ [J] [eV] electron affinity
Q resonator quality factor
Qch [C m−2 ] channel mobile charge per unit surface (FETs)

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 Notation and Symbols xxiii

QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

QSOLT Quick Short Open Load Thru calibration
R power reflectivity
Rg [] generator internal resistance
RG [] generator internal resistance
RG [] gate resistance
RS [] generator (source) internal resistance
Rin [] input resistance
Rn [] parallel noise resistance
rn [] series noise resistance
R [m−1 ] resistance per unit length
S scattering matrix
SNR Signal over Noise Ratio
Si (ω) [A2 Hz−1 ] current (i) power spectrum
Si1 i2 (ω) [A2 Hz−1 ] correlation spectrum between i1 and i2
Sv (ω) [V2 Hz−1 ] voltage (v) power spectrum
Sv1 v2 (ω) [A2 Hz−1 ] correlation spectrum between v1 and v2
σ [Sm−1 ] conductivity
SOLR Short Open Load Reciprocal calibration
T [s] period
T [K] absolute temperature
τt [s] transit time
TRL Thru Reflect Line calibration
U0 [J] [eV] vacuum level
vf [m s−1 ] phase velocity
vg [m s−1 ] group velocity
vh,sat [m s−1 ] hole saturation velocity
vn [m s−1 ] electron drift velocity
vn,sat [m s−1 ] electron saturation velocity
Vbr [V] breakdown voltage
VDS [V] drain-source voltage
VDS,br [V] drain-source breakdown voltage
VDS,k [V] drain-source knee voltage (corresponding to drain current saturation)
VGS [V] gate-source voltage
VT [V] thermal voltage
VTH [V] threshold voltage
VNA Vector Network Analyzer
W [m] FET gate width or periphery
Y [S] admittance matrix
Y Y-factor in noise measurements
Z [] impedance matrix
Zg [] generator internal impedance
ZG [] generator internal impedance

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xxiv Notation and Symbols

Zin [] input impedance

ZL [] load internal impedance
Zout [] output impedance
Zs (ω) [] Zs = Rs + jXs surface impedance (resistance, reactance)
ZS [] generator (source) internal impedance
Z0 [] characteristic impedance
Z∞ [] characteristic impedance
z normalized impedance

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1 A System Introduction to Microwave
Electronics

1.1 Radio Frequencies, Microwaves, Millimeter Waves

The meaning of high-speed and high-frequency electronics has changed in a century of

technological evolution; see [1]. Radio-frequencies (RF) were at first introduced within
the framework of radio broadcasting and point-to-point transmission at the beginning of
the twentieth century; however, new applications (such as TV broadcasting and above
all the radar around 1940), fostered in turn by the availability of RF signal generators
at increasing frequency, caused a gradual explosion of new application fields in the RF,
microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands. Before 1970, high-frequency systems
were based on vacuum tube generators; in the following decades, solid-state semicon-
ductor devices able to operate above 1 GHz, based both on Silicon and on compound
semiconductor technologies, were gradually introduced, leading to a new paradigm, the
hybrid and then monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit, (M)MIC, see, e.g., [1, Ch. 16].
Integration and the resulting downsizing of RF and microwave systems ultimately made
microwave electronics, at least in high-volume applications, a low-cost commodity well
suited to the consumer market.
For the sake of clarity, let us focus on the meaning of the terms RF, microwaves and
millimeter waves and on some of the significant applications in each frequency band:

• The RF band includes frequencies between a few MHz and 1 GHz, with free space
wavelengths of the order of 1 m (30 cm at 1 GHz); the applications include analog
radio broadcasting through frequency modulation (FM), and also many other systems,
like TV broadcasting, point-to-point communications (for instance, the lowest band
in European GSM systems), long-range radar systems, industrial applications like RF
heating and RF drying.
• The microwave frequency band includes frequencies between 1 GHz and 30 GHz,
with free space wavelengths between 30 cm and 1 cm.1 In the microwave range, sev-
eral applications exist: below 10 GHz we have all mobile phone systems up to the
LTE (Long-Term Evolution, commonly known as 4G LTE) standard, many Wireless
Local Area Network (WLAN) applications, terrestrial and satellite radio links, radar
systems, positioning systems. Also the electronic part of long-haul optical commu-
nication systems operates in this band, although in this case many of the exploited
1 Notice that the name microwaves is somewhat misleading, since the related wavelength is much larger
than 1 μm!

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2 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

circuit architectures are digital rather than analog. It should be taken into account that
the speed requirement is similar both in fast digital and analog circuits, but digital
circuits typically require lower output voltages and power, while analog circuits often
have more demanding requirements in terms of output power (think, for instance,
of the typical requirement of mobile handset power amplifiers to transmit 1 W of
radiated power at the output antenna).
• Beyond microwaves we find the millimeter wave band, with frequencies between 30
GHz and 100 (300) GHz, free space wavelengths below 1 cm. Typical applications
range from radio links to radar systems (e.g., automotive radar). Conventional elec-
tronic circuits (e.g., in integrated form) become increasingly difficult to manufacture
above 100 GHz, even if working subsystems (e.g., receivers) have been demonstrated
above 500 GHz.

Compound semiconductor technologies like GaAs, SiGe and InP help to push almost
conventional integrated circuit concepts beyond the microwave range (GaAs roughly up
to 50 GHz, SiGe similar but with reduced output power, InP being the highest perfor-
mance but also highest cost semiconductor), but with decreasing output power, so that
above a few hundred GHz (and certainly above 1 THz) no conventional (i.e., transistor-
based) electronics is feasible [3, Ch. 14]. The region above 300 GHz, also referred to
as the Teraherz (THz) range, is of great interest today for many applications, but the
enabling technologies above 1 THz are fairly different from the ones exploited in con-
ventional electronics, and sometimes similar to optical technologies. A sketch of the
frequency regions with the related applications (audio, video, radio broadcasting, radar)
is shown in Fig. 1.1. On the top row we find the so-called ITU (formerly CCIR; ITU

In vacuo wavelength
100 km 10 km 1 km 100 m 10 m 1m 10 cm 1 cm 1 mm 0.1 mm

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

Radio
broadcasting Radar

RF

Audio frequencies Microwaves Infrared

Video frequencies mm-waves

30 Hz 3 kHz 300 kHz 30 MHz 3 GHz 300 GHz

300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz
Frequency

Figure 1.1 Frequency bands and related applications together with the free space wavelengths.
The bands in the top row are defined according to the ITU (formerly CCIR) denomination;
see [2].

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 1.1 Radio Frequencies, Microwaves, Millimeter Waves 3

UHF L S C X Ku K Ka V W mm

0.3 GHz 2 GHz 8 GHz 18 GHz 40 GHz 110 GHz

1 GHz 4 GHz 12 GHz 27 GHz 75 GHz 300 GHz

Gamma Cosmic
ELF SLF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF IR Light X-Rays
Rays Rays

300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 430 THz 1018 Hz 1028 Hz
30 Hz 3 kHz 300 kHz 30 MHz 3 GHz 300 GHz 1000THz 10 Hz20

Figure 1.2 Frequency bands in the RF, microwave and millimeter wave range and their IEEE
denominations (above). In the row below a more extended range has been considered according
to the ITU standard. For the IEEE band names [2] see also Table 1.1.

stands for International Telecommunication Union) radio frequency denominations (the

letter F in the band names stands for Frequency, L, M and H stand for low, medium and
high, respectively, while the first letter qualifies the second, e.g., ELF is Extremely Low
Frequency, UHF Ultra High Frequency etc.).
Taking into account that the ITU system does not allow for specific denominations
for the frequency bands in the RF, microwave and millimeter wave range, standard
denominations have been proposed for these bands according to a number of different
systems. The IEEE standard, see Fig. 1.2, is still the most commonly used denomi-
nation; notice that, according to the IEEE standard, millimeter waves actually have
a lowest frequency of 40 GHz.2 Some more details on the IEEE band denomination
are given in Table 1.1. According to the IEEE standard, mobile phones can operate,
for instance, in the L and S bands, while terrestrial microwave point-to-point links are
mainly in the X band and satellite links in the K-Ka band; automotive radars are in the
W band.
The allocation of the frequency bands to specific systems and services, that is decided
at an international level, is related to many considerations. Increasing the operating
frequency of a system from RF to millimeter waves may have advantages:

• Reducing the wavelength, antenna systems become more directive and propagation
is quasi-optical, thus allowing for space diversity, i.e., the capability to exploit in the
same environment different radiation beams without causing interference.
• With increasing frequency, the capacity of a channel having the same fractional
bandwidth increases.
• Finally, the use of higher frequencies is fostered by the gradual occupation of lower
frequency bands.

2 Extending the term “microwaves” to denote frequencies above 30 GHz is not without meaning, since the
enabling technology, above all at the integrated circuit level, does not significantly change around 30 GHz.

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4 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

Table 1.1 IEEE denomination of frequency bands [2] The notes are from [4, 5].

Band Frequency range Note

HF 3 to 30 MHz High Frequency
VHF 30 to 300 MHz Very High Frequency
UHF 300 to 1000 MHz Ultra High Frequency
L 1 to 2 GHz Long wave or long-range surveillance
S 2 to 4 GHz Short wave
C 4 to 8 GHz Compromise between S and X (?)
X 8 to 12 GHz X for fire-control crosshair, or for secrecy?
Ku 12 to 18 GHz K-under
K 18 to 27 GHz German Kurz, meaning short
Ka 27 to 40 GHz K-above
V 40 to 75 GHz unknown – Very strongly absorbed in atmosphere?
W 75 to 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet
mm 110 to 300 GHz Millimeter

Of course, increasing the operating frequency also has a number of shortcomings:

• The atmospheric attenuation of the Hertzian channel increases with frequency and
exhibits sharp peaks in some frequency bands starting from the millimeter waves;
see, e.g. [6].3
• The development of integrated circuits becomes more and more difficult when
increasing the frequency due to the active element performances (such as the avail-
able power, which decreases roughly as the inverse of the square of the frequency)
and to the losses introduced by passive elements.
• Costs increase, since low-cost silicon circuits have to be replaced by more expensive
III-V-based circuits.

1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves

To understand the basic reason for using RF or microwaves within the framework of
a communication system exploiting transmission through the Hertzian channel, we
have to recall that the basic information content, both in digital and analog form, is
mainly a baseband or lowpass signal, i.e., a signal whose spectrum extends from DC
(approximately) to some maximum frequency. For instance:

• A digital bit sequence at a given rate has a spectral occupation roughly extending
from DC to a frequency of the order of the bit rate.
• An analog audio signal with a bandwidth sufficient for High Fidelity standards has a
spectrum extending from almost DC up to about 20 kHz. If the same signal is sampled
3 The atmospheric attenuation at sea level (T = 20 ◦ C, water vapor density 7.5 g/m3 ) has a first peak due to
H2 O absorption around 22 GHz (0.2 dB/km) to increase up to around 20 dB/km near 60 GHz, due to O2
absorption. Two transmission windows exist in the range 60–118 GHz and 118–183 GHz, with minimum
attenuation around 0.2 dB/km. At 183 GHz the attenuation reaches 30 dB/km. Due to the large attenuation,
the 60 GHz band is not allocated (i.e., free).

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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 5

at the Nyquist frequency (40 kHz) and represented with N bits the spectral occupation
of the 40 × N kbps digital signal will be of the order of 40 × N kHz.

A baseband signal cannot be typically transmitted as it is through electro-magnetic

propagation. While a few transmission media (like a coaxial cable or a two-wire cable)
are intrinsically wideband, others (like a rectangular metal waveguide) have a lower
cutoff frequency and globally behave like narrowband systems. If, as in many cases in
the RF and microwave range, the Hertzian channel is to be exploited through propaga-
tion in free space, proper radiator systems (or antennas) have to be used to couple a
guided signal to free space propagation. Unfortunately, however, most antennas are res-
onant or narrowband, and the antenna size itself should be of the order of magnitude of
the wavelength of the signal (e.g., λ0 /4). Signals including a significant low-frequency
portion would therefore require a huge antenna system. Moreover, low-frequency sig-
nals typically propagate in free space all over the Earth (since for them the ionosphere
behaves like a resonant cavity), making it impossible for different users to use the same
frequency band.
In order to make use of suitably small antenna systems and to operate with frequency
bands where more than one user can be supported, the baseband signal should be upcon-
verted to a suitably high frequency through modulation of a carrier. The modulation
principle (under the form of analog modulation, amplitude or frequency) dates back
to the beginning of the twentieth century [1]; as is well known, in analog amplitude
modulation the resulting spectrum of the modulated signal has the width of the Nyquist
frequency and is located around the carrier. The same approximate result is obtained for
low-index frequency modulation.
Thanks to modulation (analog or digital), the low-frequency baseband signal is con-
verted into a (usually) narrowband signal around the RF carrier; see Sec. 1.2.1 for a
short review.
In conclusion, communication systems making use of propagation through a Hertzian
channel transmit and receive some baseband information (today typically in digital for-
mat) representing data, voice, video signals etc. However, in order to do so they must
modulate (according to an analog or digital modulation format) the baseband content
to RF before transmitting it through an antenna, and demodulate it to baseband once
received.

1.2.1 A Review of Signal Modulation

We may generally assume that a carrier at angular frequency ωc is both phase- and
amplitude-modulated (in analog or digital form) by two lowpass or baseband modulating
signals φ(t) and A(t) so that the modulated signal is:

x(t) = A(t) cos (ωc t + φ(t)) .

By applying trigonometric equalities we can also write:

x(t) = A(t) cos φ(t) cos ωc t + A(t) sin φ(t) sin ωc t (1.1)
= I(t) cos ωc t + Q(t) sin ωc t,

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6 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

where I(t) and Q(t) are referred to as the in-phase and quadrature components of the
modulating signals. They can also be defined as:
   
I(t) = Re A (t) ejφ(t) , Q(t) = Im A (t) ejφ(t) .

Given the spectra I(ω) and Q(ω) of the baseband signals I(t) and Q(t), the spectrum of
the modulated signal is readily obtained through Fourier transformation:
 ∞  ∞
X(ω) = I(t) cos (ωc t) exp (−jωt) dt + Q(t) sin (ωc t) exp (−jωt) dt
−∞ −∞
 
1 ∞ 1 ∞
= I(t)e−j(ω−ωc )t dt + I(t)e−j(ω+ωc )t dt
2 −∞ 2 −∞
 
1 ∞ 1 ∞
+ Q(t)e−j(ω−ωc )t dt − Q(t)e−j(ω+ωc )t dt
2j −∞ 2j −∞
1 1 1 1
= I(ω − ωc ) + I(ω + ωc ) − j Q(ω − ωc ) + j Q(ω + ωc ).
2 2 2 2
The resulting modulated signal has the shape of a superposition of two amplitude-
modulated signals, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
Examples of modulations are:
• the analog amplitude modulation, AM: A(t) is the modulating signal and φ(t) is
constant;
• the analog phase modulation: φ(t) is the phase modulating signal and A(t) is constant;
• if the total phase is ψ = ωc t+φ(t), we can define the instantaneous angular frequency
as dψ/dt = ωc + dφ(t)/dt = ωc + (t). In this case, with A(t) constant, we have the
analog frequency modulation, FM;
• the digital modulations: in the most general case, the phase φ and the amplitude A
(giving the signal envelope) assume in the complex plane I + jQ a discrete set of
values referred to as the signal constellation. As an example, the constellation of a
16QAM modulation is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.3 Spectrum of I and Q modulated signal.

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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 7

0000 0100 1100 1000

0001 0101 1101 1001

0011 0111 1111 1011

0010 0110 1110 1010

Figure 1.4 Constellation diagram of a 16QAM digital modulation.

RX
Amplification
Demodulation
Channel
Filtering
Baseband Duplexer RF
interface BB RF Band
Filtering
Antenna
Modulation
Amplification

TX

“RF Interface” or “RF Transceiver” or “Radio”

Figure 1.5 The RF interface of a RX/TX system and its main blocks.

1.2.2 The RF Interface: Architecture

The transmitter (TX) and the receiver (RX) stages are the two basic blocks in the RF
interface of a communication system, also called the transceiver. The main building
blocks of the RF interface, see Fig. 1.5, are, for the TX branch, a section providing
modulation and amplification, in which the signal is modulated from baseband to RF and
boosted to a suitable power level. The last part of the TX chain includes a passband filter,
whose main purpose is to avoid the radiation of power outside the system frequency
band, thus complying with electromagnetic compatibility standards. The RX branch
again shows at the input some passband filter aiming at restricting the signal bandwidth
to the system band (mainly to reduce input noise and suppress out-of-band interference),
some low-noise amplification, and finally the demodulation needed to bring the signal
from RF to baseband. The duplexer is a circuit enabling the antenna to work both as a
transmitter and as a receiver. Since, typically, the TX and RX frequencies are different, in

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8 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

many systems two separate antennas (RX and TX) may be used.4 If the two frequencies
are close enough, a single antenna can be used.
Let us have a closer look at the transceiver architecture starting from the receiver.
In downconverting the signal from RF to baseband, several choices are possible, the
main ones being direct conversion (from RF to baseband in a single step) and multi-step
conversion, called the heterodyne technique. In the heterodyne method, the RF signal is
downconverted to a lower frequency (typically in the MHz range), called the IF (Inter-
mediate Frequency), and this is in turn converted to baseband. Heterodyne systems can
also make use of multiple intermediate frequencies, typically two. The main reason for
introducing the heterodyne technique is the impossibility to filter, within the frequency
bandwidth allocated to the system, the single channel we intend to receive, for two
reasons:

• The quality factor Q ≈ f0 /f of the passband filter required to select at RF the desired
channel (of bandwidth f , centered around f0 ) would be prohibitively large. Filtering
becomes possible if f0 is reduced by downconversion to IF.
• The desired channel to be received is not fixed but is often dynamically allocated
within the system bandwidth; an input channel filter should also be variable, another
extremely severe requirement that is simplified by demodulating the RF signal into a
fixed IF through the use of a syntonized Local Oscillator (LO).

A schematic picture of the heterodyne receiver is shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). The first ele-
ment in the receiver chain, after the antenna and the antenna duplexer, is a bandpass
band filter whose aim is to filter the system band, eliminating all out-of-band noise and
interference. As already noted, within this band (assuming that channels are allocated
according to frequency domain multiplexing) we find the desired channel. As we will
discuss in Chapter 7, in a receiver chain the signal noise is the main concern and, in the-
ory, the first element of the chain should be an amplifier exhibiting low noise and high
gain. In fact, a filter must be placed in front of such a low-noise amplifier (LNA) for the
reasons already mentioned, with a passband loss as low as possible. After the LNA we
have a second filter, called the Image Rejection Filter, whose purpose will be clarified
further on (see page 10). Finally, we find the element performing signal downconver-
sion or demodulation: this is a mixer, a two-input device having as a secondary input
the Local Oscillator (LO) and as the output the system band downconverted to the Inter-
mediate Frequency (IF). The IF section typically includes high-gain amplifiers (HGA)
that also appear in the RF section, for instance in cascade to the LNA or as stages of a
multi-stage LNA. In some cases, system optimization suggests the use of two IFs rather
than one.
Transmitters, see Fig. 1.6 (b), typically exploit direct conversion from the baseband to
the RF through an upconversion mixer driven again by the LO. The key element of the
transmission chain is the power amplifier (PA), an amplifier whose main purpose is to
bring the transmitted signal to an output power level suitable for the system considered.

4 There may be other reasons; for instance, in a radio repeater the received signal and the transmitted signal
(uplink and downlink) refer to two different directions in space.

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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 9

Figure 1.6 Scheme of a heterodyne RX (a) and of a direct conversion TX (b).

Figure 1.7 Downconversion and upconversion mixers.

While amplifiers (low-noise, high-gain, power) are, at least ideally, linear subsystems,
the mixer is (always ideally) a bilinear component whose output is the filtered product of
two input signals. In other words, the mixer is an analog multiplier followed by a filter.
Suppose that a phase and amplitude RF modulated signal is multiplied by an (ideally)
single-frequency LO; assuming that the mixer amplification AM and the mixer phase φM
be constant we obtain, as the multiplier output:

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10 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

Figure 1.8 Frequency spectrum of a downconversion mixer: high-side injection (a), low-side
injection (b).

y = ARF (t) cos(ωRF t + φRF (t)) × ALO cos(ωLO t + φLO )

ARF (t)ALO
= cos [(ωRF + ωLO ) t + φRF (t) + φLO ]
2
ARF (t)ALO
+ cos [(ωRF − ωLO ) t + φRF (t) + φLO ] ,
2
where |ωRF − ωLO | = ωIF is the intermediate frequency IF. Notice that two alternatives
are possible:
• ωIF = ωRF − ωLO → ωLO < ωRF (low-side injection or infradyne);
• ωIF = ωLO − ωRF → ωLO > ωRF (high-side injection or supradyne).
A schematic plot of the frequency distribution in a high-side (a) and low-side (b)
injection mixer is shown in Fig. 1.8. In a downconversion mixer the ωRF + ωLO product
is eliminated through low-pass filtering and the final mixer output is:
AM A(t)ALO
yM = cos [ωIF t + φ(t) + φLO + φM ] , (1.2)
2
i.e., the original signal is downconverted in frequency but retains its information content.
Notice that the multiplying (pumping) effect of the LO can globally lead to overall signal
amplification, at least in certain mixer classes. In the upconversion mixing the operation
is similar, but the low-frequency mixing product is eliminated by high-pass filtering,
while the high-frequency (RF) mixing product is the output.
A significant problem affecting heterodyne receivers stages is the so-called image
frequency issue. Consider a baseband signal with positive and negative spectral con-
tent; following upconversion around the RF, the modulated signal has a symmetric
sideband around the image frequency fIM , see Fig. 1.9 (a), and so has the negative
spectrum part. This symmetric (lower in this case) sideband can be eliminated by
high-pass filtering, leading to a single sideband RF signal, and its presence is of no
consequence.

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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 11

Figure 1.9 The image issue: in upconversion there is no aliasing (a) while aliasing of the desired
band occurs with the image in downconversion (b).

A completely different situation arises in downconversion; see Fig. 1.9 (b). In fact,
the unwanted image of the RF signal is downconverted to IF together with the desired
signal, so that aliasing occurs between the desired signal and the image. We have in fact
(for simplicity we use unmodulated signals):

y = [ARF cos ωRF t + AIM cos ωIM t] × ALO cos ωLO t

ARF ALO ARF ALO
= cos (ωRF + ωLO ) t + cos (ωRF − ωLO ) t
2 2
AIM ALO AIM ALO
+ cos (ωIM + ωLO ) t + cos (ωIM − ωLO ) t,
2 2
where the image frequency is symmetrical to the RF with respect to the LO. In this case
ωRF > ωLO and therefore:

ωIF = ωRF − ωLO → ωRF = ωLO + ωIF

ωIM = ωLO − ωIF → ωIM − ωLO = −ωIF ;

after low-pass filtering it follows that:

ARF ALO AIM ALO
y= cos ωIF t + cos (ωIM − ωLO ) t
2 2
ARF ALO AIM ALO
= cos ωIF t + cos (−ωIF ) t
 2 2
ARF ALO AIM ALO
= + cos ωIF t,
2 2
i.e., aliasing occurs of the RF and IM spectral contents. Notice that the image problem
exists, as such, only in heterodyne receivers. In direct conversion receivers, having zero
intermediate frequency, the LO frequency coincides with the RF frequency. If the RF
signal results from a simple amplitude modulation (e.g., from the modulation of the in-
phase or quadrature components only) the right and left sidebands of the RF signal (i.e.,

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12 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

Figure 1.10 Receiver architectures: (a) heterodyne; (b) direct conversion or homodyne.

the spectral content lower or higher than the RF frequency, respectively) are symmetric,
and the image coincides with either sideband; after downconversion, no aliasing arises
because the spectral content of the image is the same as that of the desired signal. The
situation is different if the RF signal originates from the modulation of the in-phase and
quadrature component; in such case a simple direct conversion to DC would not allow
both components to be recovered, and quadrature demodulation technique is needed, as
discussed in the next paragraphs.
In heterodyne receivers, the image frequency spectral content can be canceled through
filtering (the image rejection filters) or through proper receiver architectures called
image rejection receivers; see, e.g., [7]. Notice that in some microwave receivers oper-
ating at high frequency the image rejection filter is avoided due to the large distance
between the RF and the IF. Suppose for instance a RF at 60 GHz and the IF at 20 GHz
with a LO (low side) at 40 GHz; in this case the image frequency is at 20 GHz: far
enough away from the RF to allow for rejection from the band filter.
A more detailed structure of a heterodyne receiver is shown in Fig. 1.10 (a). After
the band select filter and the LNA we find as expected the image reject filter and the
mixer. Notice that, more correctly, the LO is labeled “RF/IF synthesizer” since not only
does it provide the two local oscillators at RF and IF, but it also allows the RF frequency
to be tuned in order to syntonize the receiver to a prescribed channel, which is then
downconverted always to the same IF. After the dowconversion mixer we find the chan-
nel selection filter (as opposed to the band selection filter at the system input) together

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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 13

with a high-gain amplifier and a variable-gain amplifier (VGA) that is intended to pro-
vide the demodulation stage from IF to baseband with a constant peak voltage signal.
The last demodulation block from IF to baseband includes a quadrature demodulator
implemented through two mixers fed by a sine and a cosine Local Oscillator (LO).
The need for quadrature demodulation arises from the fact that a general amplitude
and phase modulated signal can be expressed as ωc (the carrier frequency is here the
IF), as in (1.1). Clearly, mixing x(t) with a pure sine or cosine would yield only the Q
or I baseband component, respectively, while mixing with a combination would lead to
aliasing of the two components. Separately mixing with a sine and a cosine having the
same frequency instead yields (for simplicity we assume that the LO has unit amplitude
and that the mixer gain is one):

[I cos ωc t + Q sin ωc t] cos ωc t

 
1 1 1
= I+ Q sin 2ωc t + I cos 2ωc t
2 2 2 LP filtered
[I cos ωc t + Q sin ωc t] sin ωc t
 
1 1 1
= Q + − Q cos 2ωc t + I sin 2ωc t .
2 2 2 LP filtered

The scheme is shown in Fig. 1.11. Notice that quadrature mixing is only needed in down-
converting to baseband, not to IF. Going back to Fig. 1.10, after quadrature mixing and
low-pass filtering the I and Q signal components are typically sampled and converted to
digital format.
In direct-conversion (or homodyne) systems, see Fig. 1.10 (b), the RF is directly con-
verted to baseband; this architecture has the advantage of requiring only lowpass filters
that, contrarily to bandpass filters that require inductors or, even worse, surface acoustic
wave (SAW) components, can be monolithically integrated; although the design of the
quadrature demodulator is more critical due to the higher input frequency, this architec-
ture (or its variations) has become increasingly popular in recent years since it allows
for the complete monolithic integration of the receiver (and, sometimes, of the trans-
mitter as well). Notice that in conventional transceivers the conversion from analog to
digital takes place at baseband; with the availability of fast Analog to Digital Converters

Figure 1.11 Quadrature mixer. The angular frequency ωc corresponds to the IF frequency in
heterodyne systems and to the RF frequency in direct conversion systems.

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14 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

Figure 1.12 Receiver architectures: (a) digital IF; (b) software radio.

(ADCs) the possibility arises of performing this conversion at IF or even at RF (pro-

vided that the RF is low enough). The first approach is termed Digital IF, see Fig. 1.12
(a), and is comparatively popular, e.g., in basestation receivers. The last approach, the
so-called software radio, see Fig. 1.12 (b), allows for the greatest flexibility in terms
of multi-standard receivers, since the signal processing is entirely digital; however, the
need for high-speed ADCs makes the approach infeasible when the RF is large (e.g.,
in the microwave range), although problems can be alleviated by decreasing the gen-
erality of the receiver (e.g., if the signal to be received is, on the whole, narrowband,
subsampling can be performed in the conversion process).

1.2.3 Linear and Nonlinear Building Blocks of the RF Interface

In all architectures a number of building blocks systematically appear:
• amplifiers:
– low noise (LNA);
– high gain (HGA);
– power (PA);
• mixers (modulators, demodulators);

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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 15

• local Oscillators (as the engine of Frequency Synthesizers);

• filters (bandpass, lowpass);
• couplers;
• duplexers, RF switches, circulators.
Some blocks (like couplers and circulators) have not been mentioned yet and are listed
for the sake of completeness. From a system standpoint, some analog subsystems are
approximately linear (like the low-noise amplifier, the high-gain amplifier, the filters,
the duplexers, the coupler); others are quasi-linear (e.g., the power amplifiers), in the
sense that nonlinear effects are a serious concern in design, although the main operation
of the device is linear (in fact, nonlinear effects are unwanted). Oscillators and frequency
multipliers5 are intrinsically based on nonlinear effects. Finally, mixers exploit nonlinear
effects to implement a time-varying linear component essential to their operation.
Let us review, from a system and signal standpoint, the main features of linear vs.
nonlinear blocks. We suppose all blocks to be non-autonomous, i.e., the output is zero
for zero input.
In linear blocks the output y(t) is proportional to the input x(t). If the linear block is
memoryless (non-dispersive) we simply have y(t) = Ax(t); if the block is with memory
(dispersive) a linear relation exists between the Fourier transforms of y(t) and x(t), Y(ω)
and X(ω), respectively:
Y(ω) = H(ω)X(ω),
where H(ω) is the system transfer function, the Fourier transform of the pulse response
h(t). Notice that in linear blocks frequencies do not mix, i.e., sinusoidal input at f
leads to a sinusoidal output at the same frequency: no other frequencies are generated
(harmonics, intermodulation products). This behavior is shown in Fig. 1.13 (a).
Nonlinear blocks can in turn be memoryless (non-dispersive) or with memory (disper-
sive). Let us discuss first the memoryless case, since it yields all the main features of
nonlinear blocks. In such a case we simply have:
y(t) = f (x(t)),
where f does not explicitly depend on time. Assuming that f can be expanded in power
series (with f (0) = 0):
f (x) = f1 x + f2 x2 + f3 x3 + . . .
and supposing a sinusoidal input x = sin ωt, we immediately have:
y(t) = f1 sin ωt + f2 (sin ωt)2 + f3 (sin ωt)3 + . . .
 
1 3 1 1
= f2 + f1 + f3 sin ωt − f2 cos 2ωt − f3 sin 3ωt . . . .
2 4 2 4

We point out a number of effects of the nonlinearity:

• generation of harmonics (second and third if we truncate the series to the third power);
5 The frequency multiplier is a subsystem exploited to increase the output frequency of an oscillator.

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16 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

• generation of a DC term or rectification (depending on all even-order terms);

• generation of additional contributions to the first harmonic (depending on all odd-
order terms), i.e., distortion at the fundamental.
The relationship between the input and output spectrum for a single-tone input is
shown in Fig. 1.13 (c). If we make the input signal slightly more complex, introducing,
for example, a simple modulated input made of two sinusoidal tones having the same
amplitude, instead of a single one:
x = sin ω1 t + sin ω2 t,
we obtain:
y(t) = f1 (sin ω1 t + sin ω2 t) + f2 (sin ω1 t + sin ω2 t)2
+ f3 (sin ω1 t + sin ω2 t)3 + . . .
   
9 9
= f2 + f1 + f3 sin ω1 t + f1 + f3 sin ω2 t
4 4
1 1 1 1
− f2 cos 2ω1 t − f2 cos 2ω2 t − f3 sin 3ω1 t − f3 sin 3ω2 t
2 2 4 4
− f2 cos (ω1 + ω2 ) t + f2 cos (ω1 − ω2 ) t
3 3
+ f3 sin (2ω2 − ω1 ) t − f3 sin (ω1 + 2ω2 ) t
4 4
3 3
− f3 sin (2ω1 + ω2 ) t + f3 sin (2ω1 − ω2 ) t . . . .
4 4

Apart from the harmonics, the rectifying terms and the distortion at the fundamental,
a new class of terms appears, with frequency ±nf1 ± mf2 , called the intermodulation
products (IMP); see Fig. 1.13 (d). If the two frequencies are close and mimic a transmis-
sion channel with bandwidth from ω1 to ω2 = ω1 + ω we see that some of the IMPs
have frequencies much lower or much higher than the channel, but two are close to the
channel:
2ω2 − ω1 = 2ω1 + 2ω − ω1 = ω2 + ω
2ω1 − ω2 = 2ω1 − ω1 − ω = ω1 − ω.
If the channel is continuous between ω1 and ω2 , see Fig. 1.13 (e), it can be shown that a
continuous distribution of IMPs originating from the third-order term of the power series
expansion as frequency differences (“third-order IMPs”) arises between ω1 − ω and
ω2 +ω, i.e., such IMPs cause in-band intermodulation distortion. The same behavior is
found for all-odd power terms from the power series. While the generation of harmonics
is exploited in frequency multipliers, in-band distortion is the main factor limiting the
dynamics of a power amplifier for large values of the input.
While in linear blocks an exact system model always exists, in nonlinear blocks
this is only true if the block is memoryless (non-dispersive). For nonlinear disper-
sive systems the situation is complex: the exact model (the so-called Volterra series,
see Chapter 3) is impractical, and simplified models have to be devised by combining
linear dispersive and nonlinear memoryless blocks. In any case, harmonic generation
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 1.2 Transmitting Information Through RF and Microwaves 17

Figure 1.13 Linear (a) and bilinear (b) subsystems; nonlinear subsystems with single-tone (c),
two-tone (d) and narrowband (e) input. In case (e) only the neighborhood of the centerband
frequency is shown, neglecting DC and harmonics.

and intermodulation distortion are distinctive features also of nonlinear blocks with
memory.
A last remark concerns components like the mixer. Consider as a starting point an
amplifier exhibiting a variable gain; the gain A depends on a control variable z(t), so that
the system input–output relation reads y(t) = A [z(t)] x(t). Assuming that the dependence
of the gain on z(t) can be approximated as linear and homogeneous, i.e., A [z(t)] ≈ A z(t),
we obtain:
y(t) = A [z(t)] x(t) ≈ A z(t)x(t). (1.3)

The relationship (1.3) clearly is bilinear and can be exploited as a paradigm of a mixer
having input x, local oscillator z and output y (to complete the mixer of course further
elements, like filters, are needed). Notice that the above relation can be written more
compactly as:
y(t) = A(t)x(t),

where we stress that mixing occurs in a linear, time-varying system. Mixing of course
also takes place in a nonlinear system, as the generation of IMPs demonstrates. As we
have already shown, if a bilinear system has two single-tone inputs at f1 and f2 , f1 > f2 ,
the output will contain the frequencies f1 ± f2 ; see Fig. 1.13 (b).
Finally, many analog circuits (e.g., low-noise and high-gain amplifiers) operate in
small-signal conditions, i.e., with an instantaneous working point in the neighborhood of
the DC bias point. In such conditions, even if the component is nonlinear, a linear model
is enough to characterize operation. From a signal standpoint, and using for simplicity
a memoryless nonlinear system, we have that, separating the DC component from the
small-signal component:

x(t) = X0 + x̂(t), y(t) = Y0 + ŷ(t),

so that:

y(t) = F(x(t)) → Y0 + ŷ(t) = F(X0 + x̂(t))

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18 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

dF
≈ F(X0 ) + x̂(t) = Y0 + ŷ(t),
dx X0

i.e., separating the DC and time-varying components:

dF
ŷ(t) = x̂(t),
dx X0

that yields the small-signal model.

In general, models able to completely characterize a nonlinear device (e.g., a tran-
sistor) in any operating condition are denoted as large-signal models, often assuming
the form of a large-signal equivalent circuit; from large-signal models, linear models,
typically with memory, can be extracted through small-signal linearization, sometimes
again as a linear equivalent circuit.

1.3 Enabling Technologies for RF, Microwaves and mm Waves

RF, microwave and millimeter wave subsystems can be implemented today in a number
of technologies, that can be divided into two classes:

• the planar circuits, characterized by comparatively low cost and small size; can be
hybrid (integrating all circuit elements apart from the active ones, i.e., the transis-
tors) or monolithic (integrating on a semiconductor substrate all circuit elements,
passive and active), according to an approach very similar to the one pursued in low-
frequency monolithic or hybrid Integrated Circuits (ICs). Planar circuits exploit as
signal transducers planar transmission lines such as the microstrip or the coplanar
line;
• the waveguide circuits, where the signal transducers and passive components are
made with hollow metal waveguides (e.g., rectangular or circular). Due to the weight,
bulk and high cost of processing (and the inherently narrowband characteristics, due
to the waveguide dispersion features), closed metal waveguide circuits are used in
applications where the waveguide has superior properties with respect to the trans-
mission lines used in hybrid circuits, namely: ability to handle extremely high powers
without damage and without compatibility problems (high isolation); low attenuation,
and, consequently, possibility of building circuits with high quality factor (for exam-
ple, very frequency-selective resonators and filters); direct and efficient interfacing to
antenna systems.

The present book focuses on planar circuits, either hybrid or monolithic. The main dif-
ference between the monolithic and hybrid approaches consists in the level of integration
of the elements:

• in hybrid microwave circuits, integration concerns all distributed elements (transmis-

sion lines and components made with these), the lumped elements (such as resistors
and capacitors) are sometimes integrated but, often, introduced in discrete form; the
active elements (the transistors) are always discrete. The hybrid circuits often make

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 1.3 Enabling Technologies for RF, Microwaves and mm Waves 19

use of a design strategy based on distributed elements, and therefore have dimen-
sions proportional to the operating wavelength (large at low frequency, smaller at
high frequency);
• in monolithic microwave circuits (MMICs) all elements are integrated with the semi-
conductor substrate, although some elements may be added externally in discrete
form.6 The design is typically based on lumped elements as far as possible, since
such elements are more compact, and only above 20–30 GHz are distributed elements
exploited (also due to the increasing losses of lumped elements).

The choice between a hybrid and a monolithic implementation is then influenced by

a number of considerations, which can be summarized as follows:

• cost: monolithic and hybrid circuits have very different manufacturing and process-
ing costs. The hybrid realization has higher cost per unit, but the process setup costs
are low (and so is the turnaround time); conversely, the monolithic approach has a
low-cost per unit of output, but high costs and long times for the project setup (typ-
ically, months). The monolithic realization is therefore only suitable for large-scale
production, while the hybrid approach is well suited to low-volume production;
• repeatability: integrated circuits suffer from variability due to the technological pro-
cess, but on the whole have a more repeatable behavior, also depending on process
maturity;
• performance: certain performance benefits can only be obtained through tuning of
the realized circuit. This is possible only in hybrid circuits. There are therefore circuit
categories (typically narrowband) that are less critical to design in hybrid than in
monolithic form. On the other hand, parasitics (e.g., related to interconnects) are less
important in MMICs than in hybrid circuits.

Both hybrid and monolithic microwave integrated circuits are planar, i.e., realized on
a planar insulating substrate. In hybrid circuits the substrate is a thin dielectric layer;
dielectrics commonly used are Teflon and its derivatives (with relative dielectric con-
stants ranging from 2 to about 4) and ceramics (such as alumina), mechanically rigid,
and characterized by higher dielectric constants (around 10). The substrate is usually
bottom coated by a metal layer which serves as a ground plane. In monolithic circuits
the substrate is a semi-insulating semiconductor, for example, intrinsic GaAs (dielectric
constant 13). Silicon integrated circuits make use of low-doping substrates coated with
insulating dielectric layers (e.g., silicon oxide) to reduce substrate losses. In monolithic
integrated circuits the substrate is typically thin, for example, less than 300 μm thick.
Due to the comparatively small wavelength in the field of microwaves and millimeter
waves, hybrid and monolithic microwave integrated circuits follow, as already noted,
two different strategies:

6 Consider, for example, the DC blocking capacitors or RF blocking inductors whose large value makes
them inconvenient to realize in monolithic form.

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20 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

• the lumped approach, that exploits concentrated elements (like resistors, capacitors,
inductors or subsystems made thereof, like filters, couplers, power dividers, match-
ing sections) that must be small compared to the operating wavelength (typically
< λg /8). The lumped design is preferred in monolithic integrated circuits due to its
compactness.
• the distributed approach, making use of elements (couplers, filters, power dividers,
matching sections) based on planar transmission lines (e.g., the microstrip); the size
of the distributed elements is indicatively λg /4 at centerband, and therefore such ele-
ments are by no means extremely small. For this reason, the distributed approach is
preferred in hybrid circuits, and exploited in monolithic integrated circuits only above
a certain frequency (e.g., 30 GHz), or when indispensable.

The microstrip (consisting of a metal strip placed on a dielectric layer, with a ground
plane below) is by far the most common transmission line solution. Coplanar waveg-
uides (in which the strip and the ground planes are on the top surface of the substrate)
are sometimes used, e.g., at millimeter waves; see Chapter 2 for details.
Active microwave devices are either bipolar (conventional or heterojunction) or field-
effect (MESFETs, HEMTs, MOSFETs) transistors; see Chapter 5. The enabling active
device and monolithic IC semiconductor technologies can be summarized as follows:

• Silicon-based ICs cover the lower microwave range (up to a few GHz) in the conven-
tional bipolar version; however, bipolar Si MMICs are now obsolete and MOSFET
ICs cover all applications (apart from the power ones) up to 5–10 GHz and beyond,
reaching in some cases the millimeter wave range [8]. Power MOSFETs (LDMOS)
are also used up to 4–5 GHz.
• ICs based on Silicon–Germanium (SiGe) Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBT)
provide low-noise and low-power solutions up to millimeter waves. SiGe is, however,
a quite complex and expensive technology when compared to CMOS ICs.
• GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) ICs (HEMTs and HBTs) are the traditional solution for
microwave monolithic integrated circuits up to 50–70 GHz, covering both low-
noise and power applications. The technology is mature but more expensive than the
Si-based equivalent.
• InP (Indium Phosphide) ICs (HEMTs and HBTs) permit electronics to be pushed
well into the mm-wave range; however, they are expensive and confined to niche
applications.
• GaN (Gallium Nitride) devices and ICs are a rising, but not yet completely mature,
high-power microwave technology.
• GaSb (Gallium Antimonide) provides exceptionally low-noise circuits up to mm
waves; the technology is confined so far to niche applications; see [9] for a review.

Finally, vacuum tubes still successfully cover high-power applications (signal genera-
tion and amplification), sometimes coupled with extremely wide bandwidth (e.g., in the
Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) amplifiers).

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 1.3 Enabling Technologies for RF, Microwaves and mm Waves 21

Figure 1.14 The RF interface of a GSM single-band mobile phone handset from around 2000:
notice the variety of integrated circuits having different technologies.

An example of the progress in integration for very similar transceivers is shown in

Fig. 1.14 and Fig. 1.15. In the first figure, the RF transceiver is shown for a GSM hand-
set manufactured around 2000; the receiver stage with a heterodyne architecture is in
the above branch, below is the transmitter stage. In the RX chain the RF, IF and IF
to baseband blocks are realized with conventional bipolar circuits (the operating fre-
quency is low, assuming the phone will work in the initial European GSM band below
1 GHz), most filters are external and realized in the SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave)
technology, while the digital parts and the ADC–DAC block, together with the Phase
Locked Loop (PLL, one of the main components of the frequency synthesizer), are in
MOS Si technology. A few components however are in GaAs: the power amplifier (Si
bipolars are not able to achieve the ≈1 W maximum output power required by 2–4G
standards) and the switches (electronic switches with enough isolation cannot be real-
ized in Si). Tanks are the resonators of the RF and IF oscillators, usually implemented
through SAW or quartz discrete technologies.
Let us consider a more recent example of transceiver, to highlight the progress made
in technology and system integration. The simplified block scheme of the MAX2830
transceiver [10] is shown in Fig. 1.15. This is a direct conversion RF interface for Wire-
less Local Area Network (WLAN) applications at 2.4 to 2.5 GHz. It may be noticed that
the system includes a CMOS integrated circuit implementing all functions, including
low-noise and power amplification, exploiting external components only for the voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO) resonator, for the input and output filters, and for the antenna
switch, that is realized in GaAs technology to allow for better isolation. Thanks to the
much lower power prescribed by WLAN when compared to mobile phone standards, the

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22 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

Figure 1.15 The RF interface of a recent WLAN transceiver: note the complete integration of the
transceiver in Si CMOS technology.

circuit adopts a MOS power stage. Finally, notice that the architecture is balanced, i.e.,
in differential form, to enhance robustness to electromagnetic (EM) disturbances. Bal-
ancing Units (Baluns) are used to transform the balanced signals into single-ended ones.

1.3.1 Examples of (M)MICs

In the present section we discuss a few examples of hybrid and monolithic realizations
of microwave circuits. Details will be provided mainly to highlight the features of the
technological solutions.
We start in Fig. 1.16 with a laboratory prototype of hybrid balanced amplifier, a
tandem wideband architecture that will be discussed in detail in Sec. 6.11.1 [11]. The
balanced amplifier is made of two equal one-stage amplifiers in tandem; see the center of
Fig. 1.16; the active device (a GaAs FET) is mounted on a metal ridge providing the elec-
trical ground and heat sinking. On the left of the transistor, we have a distributed input
matching section made of microstrip lines and stubs. A similar output matching section
is located at the right of the active element. The bias circuit (“Bias T”), separating the
RF from the DC part and vice versa, is made of RF chokes, i.e., large inductors block-
ing the RF signal realized with a short wire coil in air, and bypass capacitors shorting
the RF signal to ground. The upper and lower external wires are the DC bias connec-
tors. The two tandem amplifiers are RF fed at the input by a separate packaged hybrid

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 1.3 Enabling Technologies for RF, Microwaves and mm Waves 23

RF
OUT

RF
IN

Figure 1.16 A hybrid microwave balanced amplifier. Courtesy of prof. C. Naldi [11].

implementing a Lange 3 dB directional coupler; see Sec. 4.4.1. The two input and out-
put couplers are connected to the amplifier by means of four coaxial connectors, while
the global input is lower left; the global output is in the upper right corner of the pic-
ture. The bolts screwed on the auxiliary input and output coaxial connectors are matched
loads. The amplifier operation is roughly as follows: the coupler splits the input power
in two equal parts, that are amplified by the two tandem amplifiers and recombine at the
output coupler. However, thanks to the properties of the coupler, the two outputs are in
phase quadrature; this allows the power reflected back by the two amplifier stages to be
deviated on the matched loads rather than directly reflected into the amplifier input or
output. The balanced amplifier therefore allows good input and output matching while
combining two amplifiers that may be considerably mismatched at the input or output –
a condition that often arises in the design of wideband amplifiers. In the example shown,
all transmission lines are microstrips on an alumina substrate (the white material visible
on top).
GaAs-based MMICs are not confined to the implementation of simple analog circuits.
A typical example of mixed digital–analog circuit is the so-called core chip, that per-
forms, on a transmitter or receiver stage, the function of a digitally controlled phase shift
and amplitude modulation. Such a function is typically required in the control circuitry
of steered-beam antenna arrays. The digital part consists of a serial-to-parallel (S2P)
converter, while commutation from the transmitter to the receiver stage is performed by
a switch. Although the design of III-V FET-based digital circuits is challenging [12],
the integration of the S2P converter allows the core chip architecture to be considerably
simplified, avoiding the introduction of a large number of digital parallel inputs.
An example of X-band core chip is shown in Fig. 1.17; the left inset in Fig. 1.17 iden-
tifies the separate functional blocks of the MMIC [13, 14]. The TX amplifier coplanar

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24 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

RF
In

RF
Out

Digital
inputs
1
2
4 3
5
6

Figure 1.17 A GaAs integrated core chip; in the left inset a scheme of the internal functional
blocks is shown: (1) TX stage amplifier; (2) RX stage amplifier; (3) switch between the TX and
RX stages; (4) 6-bit variable attenuator; (5) serial to parallel converter; (6) 6-bit phase shifter.
Copyright  c 2012 IEEE. All rights reserved. Adapted, with permission, from [14, Fig. 2].

output is on the upper left of the circuit, while on the upper right we find the RX ampli-
fier coplanar input. The digital input of the serial to parallel converter is on the right of
block (5) in the inset of Fig. 1.17. Both the RX and the TX amplifiers are multistage,
each stage using parallel feedback; spiral inductors and MIM capacitors are used in the
circuit to implement bias circuits and matching networks. The total chip size is around
16 mm2 and the technology is a 180 nm PHEMT process from the OMMIC foundry
[14] allowing for depletion and enhancement devices.
Fig. 1.18 shows a three-stage low-noise GaN HEMT MMIC [15]. The layout reveals
the presence of spiral inductors (the large coils) both for the DC bias circuits and for
interstage matching. GaN low-noise amplifiers have recently been introduced; they
exhibit robustness to input signal spikes without requiring, as in other technologies,
the introduction of protection circuitry. The low-noise nature of the circuit, that again
makes use of a microstrip technology but with coplanar input and output, is revealed by
the first stage (left) where the source of the field-effect GaN transistor is connected to
the ground through an inductor (in the dashed white rectangle) and an additional induc-
tor is connected to the gate (in the dashed white rectangle at the left of the first stage).
The amplifier with a source inductive series feedback is in fact one of the most common
microwave low-noise topologies; see Sec. 7.10.2.

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 1.4 Questions and Problems 25

DC DC DC DC DC DC

RF
OUT

RF
IN

DC DC DC DC DC DC

Figure 1.18 A three-stage monolithic low-noise GaN amplifier. On the coplanar input (left) and
output (right) the coplanar measurement probes are schematically shown. Above and below we
show the bonding wires for DC bias. Adapted from [15, Fig. 16]. Copyright c 2013 IEEE. All
rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

1.4 Questions and Problems

1.4.1 Questions
1. Define RF, microwaves and millimeter waves from the standpoint of frequency
allocation.
2. Suppose a radar has to be designed to detect objects of an average size of 1 cm: is
an RF operating frequency adequate for this? Explain why/why not. Suggest (if the
case) a more suitable frequency range.
3. Identify the L and the K bands (frequency limits). In what frequency band do mobile
phones operate?
4. Explain why signals cannot conveniently be transmitted in baseband through a
Hertzian channel, but rather they have to be upconverted through analog or dig-
ital modulations. Assume as an example a hi-fi signal with frequency between
(approximately) DC and 20 kHz.
5. Explain why transmitting the human voice in baseband through a portable phone
would for many reasons be impractical.
6. In a cellular system the same frequency channels (e.g., around 2 GHz) are used in
several cells. Explain why there is no interference between different users sharing,
in nearby cells, the same channel.
7. Describe a basic RF RX/TX (receiver/transmitter) scheme.

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26 A System Introduction to Microwave Electronics

8. List the basic RX section building blocks, starting from the antenna down to the
downconversion mixer.
9. List the basic TX section building blocks, starting from the upconversion mixer up
to the antenna.
10. What is the difference between a homodyne and a heterodyne receiver?
11. What is the difference between a low-noise, high-gain and maximum power
amplifier?
12. What are the typical features of planar vs. waveguide microwave circuits?
13. Explain the differences between a hybrid and a monolithic microwave circuit.
14. List in order of increasing frequency range the following semiconductors: indium
phosphide, silicon, gallium arsenide.
15. Explain the difference between a lumped and a distributed-parameter circuit. Why
can distributed elements not be integrated in an RF circuit?
16. Quote a few microwave field-effect or bipolar transistors with the related semicon-
ductor material.
17. Explain the difference between analog large-signal and small-signal models. Clarify
which models are linear and which models are nonlinear.
18. Explain the difference between a memoryless model and a model with memory.
19. Assume that the balanced amplifier in Fig. 1.16 has a centerband frequency of 4
GHz. Estimate the size of the amplifier. (Hint: the length of the multiconductor part
of the Lange amplifier is a quarter wavelength at centerband and the average guided
wavelength is the free space wavelength divided by the effective refractive index;
see Example 4.2 for an estimate of the coupler length. From the coupler length the
total size of the amplifier can be approximately estimated.)

1.4.2 Problems
1. An antenna is working at a frequency of 100 kHz. Assuming the antenna length is
equal to L = λ0 /100, evaluate L.
2. A dielectric medium has r = 9. Evaluate the free-space wavelength at 10 GHz and
the wavelength in the dielectric medium.
3. Estimate the typical size of a distributed element operating at 100 MHz and at 50
GHz. Assume, as the centerband dimension, a quarter of the wavelength, and as the
wavelength λ = λ0 /n where λ0 is the free space wavelength and n = 2.5 is the
effective refractive index.

References

[1] T. K. Sarkar, R. Mailloux, A. A. Oliner, M. Salazar-Palma, and D. L. Sengupta, History of

wireless. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-IEEE Press, 2006.
[2] “IEEE standard letter designations for radar-frequency bands,” IEEE Std 521-2002 (Revi-
sion of IEEE Std 521-1984), pp. 1–3, 2003.
[3] J. N. Burghartz, Guide to state-of-the-art electron devices, ser. Wiley-IEEE. Wiley, 2013.
[4] “Radio spectrum,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_spectrum#ITU.

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Reichszentrale für Arbeitsnachweise. II, 229.
Reims. III, 407, 437.
Relief Commission. II, 198.
Resolution zum uneingeschränkten U-Bootkrieg. II, 337.
Revaler Zusammenkunft. I, 27.
Revolution, Deutsche. III, 557ff.
Riga. III, 181.
Rohstoffe. II, 196f., 240ff.
Rostow. III, 467.
Rote Garde, russische. III, 444f., 465.
Roubaix-Tourcoing. II, 197.
Roye. III, 501.
Rückversicherungsvertrag. I, 14ff., 30, 32.
Rückzug. III, 28, 441, 502.
Rumänien: Äußere Politik, I, 179, II, 13, 57, 77ff., 82ff., 96, 102,
III, 298ff.; Kriegserklärung, II, 104; Getreidelieferung, II, 206;
Dynastie, III, 299ff.; Friedensbedingungen, III, 302ff.
Rußland: Äußere Politik, I, 14ff., 71, 103, 110, 160ff., II, 53;
Panslawismus, I, 15, 161, 166; Ausdehnungsbestrebungen, I,
15, 18, 25f., 40f., 60; Bündnis mit Frankreich, I, 16, 203;
Schwächung Rußlands, I, 22, 25, 72; Krieg mit Japan, I, 27;
Armee, I, 57ff.; Serbisches Ultimatum, I, 187, 191f.;
Mobilmachung, I, 183, 192f., 198f., 207ff.; Verluste, II, 76;
Revolution, III, 23ff., 239ff., 320f.; Bolschewikiregierung, III,
274f., 294f., 443, 462ff., 494ff.
Ruthenen. III, 553.

Saargebiet. III, 142ff.

Saloniki. II, 79, 93, 105, 108.
Salvador. III, 22.
Samoa-Abkommen. I, 31.
„Saturday Review“. I, 46f.
Schatzanweisungen. II, 133, 141.
Schiedsgerichte. II, 353.
Schleichhandel. II, 239.
Schlesien. II, 21.
Schutzhaft. III, 88.
Schwarze Listen. II, 195f.
Schweden. II, 195, III, 20.
Schweiz. II, 194f., 211f.
Seifenindustrie. II, 245.
Selbstbestimmungsrecht der Nationalitäten. III, 257, 262ff. 276f.,
281, 286f., 293, 387, 553.
Semendria. II, 91, 94.
Serajewo. I, 169ff., II, 25.
Serbien: Großserbische Bewegung; I, 69f., 99, 107, 111f., 169f.;
Balkanbund, I, 95; äußere Politik, I, 187f., II, 90;
Kriegsschauplatz, II, 59, 63, 94.
Serres. II, 79, 90.
Shatt el Arab. I, 145, 151.
Shimonoseki, Friede von. I, 30, 40.
Siam. III, 22.
Sibirien. III, 322.
Siebenbürgen. II, 78, 106.
„Siebenerkommission“. III, 169.
Siegfriedstellung. III, 502ff., 523.
Sinaifront. III, 29, 239.
Skagerrak, Schlacht am. II, 184.
Smyrna. I, 150, II, 90.
Smyrna-Aidin-Eisenbahngesellschaft. I, 153f.
Société Suisse de Surveillance Economique. II, 195.
Soissons. III, 181, 407, 439.
Somme. II, 98f., 106, 251, III, 440f.
Sonderfriedensangebot Österreich-Ungarns. III, 553f.
Sozialdemokratische Partei. II, 163, 167, 177, 269ff., 420f., III,
25, 74ff., 81ff., 104, 124, 230, 325, 433, 518, 531f., 564.
Sozialisierung. II, 126.
Sozialrevolutionäre. III, 345, 443, 446, 457, 482.
Spanien. I, 21, III, 22.
Sparmetalle. II, 240.
Spartakisten. III, 495.
„Spectator“. I, 223.
Sperrgebiet im U-Bootkriege. II, 413.
Sprengstoffindustrie. II, 116.
Staatsgerichtshof. III, 100.
Stahlindustrie. II, 252f.
Status quo der Mittelmächte. I, 37f., 61.
Stellungskrieg. II, 19f., 51.
Stempelvereinigung. II, 25.
Stickstoff-Frage. II, 115ff.
Stickstoff-Handelsmonopol. II, 120ff.
St. Jean de Maurienne. III, 142.
Stockholmer Friedenskonferenz. III, 148, 152.
St. Quentin. III, 505.
Streik, Berliner. III, 295f.
Südslawen. III, 553.
Suezkanal. II, 61.
„Sussex“-Fall. II, 338ff.
Syndizierung des Handels. II, 238.
Syrien. I, 132.

Tagliamento. III, 238.

Tanganyika Concession Ltd. I, 120.
Tannenberg. II, 21.
Tarnopol. III, 162.
Taurus. I, 132.
Tel Helif. I, 133.
„Temps“. I, 223.
Textilindustrie. II, 224, 240ff.
Tibet. I, 26.
Tigerbai. I, 119.
Trajanswall. II, 107.
Transito. II, 195.
Transportkrisis. II, 277ff.
Trentino. III, 143.
Triest. III, 143.
Tripolis. I, 28, 91ff.
„Triumph“, englisches Kriegsschiff. II, 62.
Trostberger Stickstoffwerk. II, 117.
Tschechen. III, 553.
Tschecho-Slowaken. III, 444, 464f., 553f.
Tschernabogen. III, 510.
Tunis. I, 15, 28.
Türkei: Äußere Politik, I, 34f., 42, 67; Revolution, I, 66, 135;
Balkankrieg, I, 95ff.; Krieg mit Italien, I, 32, 91ff.; Bagdadbahn,
I, 120ff.; Finanzen, I, 126, 128, 133ff., 147, II, 169f.; Wirtschaft,
II, 197f.; als Bundesgenosse, II, 52ff.; Munitionsmangel, II, 63;
Zusammenbruch, III, 509ff.; Kapitulation, III, 552, 555.

U-Boote, deutsche. II, 62, 30f.

U-Bootkrieg: Allgemeines, II, 287f., 299, III, 17; Ergebnisse, II,
300, 381, 395, III, 31ff., 414f.; Handelskrieg, II, 300f.; Deutsch-
Amerikanischer Notenwechsel, II, 307ff., 314ff.; verschärfter U-
Bootkrieg, II, 325ff.; uneingeschränkter U-Bootkrieg, II, 95,
335ff., 379ff., 395ff., 403ff., III, 17f., 30ff.; Einstellung, III, 546ff.
„U-Bremen“. II, 128.
„U-Deutschland“. II, 128ff.
Udine. III, 237.
Ukraine. III, 271ff., 281ff., 316ff., 321f., 333, 343f.
Ultimatum, serbisches. II, 25.
Umsatzstempel. II, 164f.
Unabhängige Sozialdemokraten. III, 82, 196f., 431f., 442, 495,
565, 568.
Ungarn. III, 554.
Unternehmertum im Kriege. II, 227f.

Valutakredite. II, 169.

Vaterlandspartei. III, 182f.
Venezuela. I, 31, III, 22.
Verbrauchssteuern. II, 161ff.
Verdun. II, 95ff., 180, 343ff.
Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute. II, 251ff., 254.
Vereinsgesetznovelle. III, 76f.
Verfassungsänderung. III, 562f.
Verfassungsausschuß. III, 95ff., 100, 104, 119.
Verkehrssteuern. II, 161ff.
Verschwörung unter den Flottenmannschaften. III, 192, 564f.
Verständigungsfrieden. II, 294.
Verviers. II, 197.
Vierzehn Punkte Wilsons. III, 366ff.
Villers-Cotterets. III, 407, 438.
Völkerbund. II, 355, 416, III, 370, 382.
Völkerrecht. II, 41, 184ff., 301f., 307ff., 315f., 332, 336, III, 20.
Volksernährung. II, 232ff.
„Vorwärts“. III, 132f., 149.
Waffenruhe. III, 250.
Waffenstillstand. III, 247ff., 533ff., 570f.
Wahlrecht, preußisches. III, 92, 97, 117ff., 154, 429ff., 518, 556.
Warschau. II, 21, 75.
Wehrpflicht. II, 256.
Wei-hai-wei. I, 30.
Weißrußland. II, 76.
„Wirtschaftlicher Generalstab“. II, 36.
Wirtschaftskrieg. II, 37ff.
„Wolf“, deutscher Hilfskreuzer. II, 185.
Wolffs Telegraphen-Bureau. III, 130.
Wolhynien. II, 76, 97.
Wologda. III, 466f.
Wytschaetebogen. III, 29.

Yangtse-Abkommen. I, 18.
Ypern. II, 74, III, 506f.

Zeitungsgewerbe. II, 246ff.

Zementindustrie. II, 245.
Zensur. III, 88, 216, 432.
Zentraleinkaufsgesellschaft. II. 207f.
Zentralisation des Einkaufs. II, 204ff.
Zentralrada. III, 284f.
Zentralstelle für Heeresverpflegung. II, 135.
Zentrums-Partei. II, 166f., 270ff., 382, 390ff., 421, III, 100, 104,
124, 579.
Zusatzverträge zum Brester Frieden. III, 450ff., 497ff.
Zwangswirtschaft. II, 239.
Zwei-Kaiser-Manifest. III, 53f.

Mit dem vorliegenden Band liegt das Werk

Der Weltkrieg
von
Dr. Karl Helfferich
vollständig vor
 *
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