IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of?

28

Lecture 11
Optics 1. Refraction Lecture
and anisotropic minerals
4: Optics and Crystals
on of common rock-forming minerals is fundamental to all aspects of Earth Sciences.
An immensely
lready seen in practicals how it ispowerful
possible totool for studying
identify a rock
minerals using theirishand
to look at a thin
specimen
section
tics and will know under
that this the
is only microscope
feasible — while rocks.
for coarse-grained it is possible to gain some
A further limitation
e minerals haveunderstanding by looking
a wide range of solid atitbulk
solution: properties
is not possible toinsay
a hand specimen,
very much about most
mposition from rocks are too fine-grained
hand specimens for this
alone. A way round and
these can onlyisbe
difficulties truly unlocked
provided by the by
ic microscope. looking on the sub-millimetre length scale.
A thin section a piece of rock that has been thinned to 30 µm (0.03
raphic microscopemm)
IA Earth such
is used to that
Sciences: light
What’s
examine can
thin pass
the
slicesEarththrough
of rockmade it.areThis
whichof? allows
so thin us to
that they areidentify28
ransparent. The which minerals
way in which light are present
passes throughand their properties,
and interacts with mineralwhich
grains is
in key to
understanding the tool
history of that rock.
ce provides an immensely Lecture 11
powerful for identifying minerals, constraining the
n of minerals with solid solution, and deducing information about the rock’s history from
In this
f the mineral grains andlecture, we will
their spatial explore how
relationships a rock
with each interacts with light and why
other.
ptics 1. Refraction
they look the wayand anisotropic
they do minerals
under the microscope.
of three lectures and practicals you will discover how the petrographic microscope works
e can use itrock-forming
common to identify minerals.
minerals is fundamental to all aspects of Earth Sciences.
seen in practicals how it is possible to identify minerals using their hand specimen
of light
d will know that this is only feasible for coarse-grained rocks. A further limitation
ransverse
erals haveelectromagnetic
a wide rangewave, composed
of solid of perpendicular
solution: electricto
it is not possible field
say(E) and much about
very
eld (B) components. The vibration direction is taken to be parallel to E, and is
ion from hand
lar to the travel
specimens alone. A way round these difficulties
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals is provided by the
froscope.
the wave (Fig. Vibration
direction (VD)

microscope is used to Eexamine thin slices of rock which are so thin that they are
d lightThe
rent. vibrates
wayinin which light passes throughWavelength,
and interacts with mineral grains in
ns perpendicular
vides an immensely powerful tool for identifying minerals, constraining the
l direction.
minerals with solid solution, and deducing information about the rock’s
ght vibrates in
history from
Travel
direction (TD)
mineral
rection. grains and their spatial relationships with each other.
n can be obtained B

elight
lectures
throughand
a practicals you will discover how the petrographic
E E E
microscope works
laroid.
use The
it to Properties
identify minerals.of light: Crucially, light is Ean electromagnetic
E
Fig.wave
27 with an
ansmits light thatelectric component (E) and a magnetic E component E (B) that oscillate in-
one particular sync perpendicular to each other. We treat the vibration direction as
ht totally absorbs
nd
E E
parallel to E, which is perpendicular to the direction of travel.
E E
ing at right angles E
rse electromagnetic wave, composed of perpendicular electric field (E) and
ction.
) components. The vibration direction is taken to be parallel to E, and is
the
ght travel
wave (Fig. Vibration
of light in a materialdirection
is inversely
(VD)
proportional to its refractive index, n:
E c0 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
c=
vibrates in Properties of n light: Light from a Wavelength,
normal source (like a bulb or the Sun)
pendicular is unpolarised - the orientations of the vibrations among the photons
the speed of light
ction. areinrandom.
a vacuum.ItThe higher theto
is possible refractive
create index,
polarised the slower
light,thewhere
light only one
Travel
isotropic material will have
vibration the same
direction is refractive
present. index in allbe
This can directions
induced(i.e. no matter
using a polariser - (TD)
a
brates in direction
bration directionmaterial
is, light with
always travels with the same speed). In an anisotropic
finely-spaced thin slits (often found in sunglasses).
n.
be obtained B

hrough a E
E E
The E E
Fig. 27
s light that E E
articular
E E
lly absorbs
E E
right angles E

t in a material is inversely proportional to its refractive index, n:

c0
 2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 29
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
material, however, light vibrating in one direction will experience a different refractive index (and
travel at a different speed) to light vibrating in a different
direction.

Thin sections
A thin section is made by grinding down a slice of rock
which has been glued to a glass slide, until it reaches a
Petrographic standardmicroscope:
thickness of 0.03 mm (30 μm). contains
Almost all minerals
become optically transparent at this thickness and can be
a
polariser beneath
studied bythe samplemicroscopy.
transmitted-light (which is almost
always in place) and an
The petrographic analyser above the
microscope
sample (which can microscopes
Petrographic be be make sliduseinof plane
andpolarized
outlight of
place). So petrographic
(vibrating E-W) producedmicroscopes
beneath the stage by aalways
piece of
Polaroid known as the polariser. The polarised light passes
have a polarised
throughlight source.
the crystals Theon polarisation
in a thin section a graduated rotating
direction of stage
thebeforeanalyser andthe magnifying
passing up through polariser are
lenses of
microscope tube. A second piece of polaroid, the analyser,
the

orthogonal. can be inserted in the light path to allow only the N-S
vibrational component of the emerging beam to pass to the
eye.

What can we see?

Habit or shape: euhedral (well-shaped), anhedral (poorly
shaped), prismatic, tabular, bladed, acicular, fibrous, etc. Fig. 28

Microstructure: e.g. cleavage (planes of weakness in the mineral’s atomic structure),

twinning, zoning (changes in composition from the centre to the edge of a grain).

Colour: Our perception of colour depends upon the wavelength of the light impinging on the
sensors in the eye’s retina. Colourless
minerals absorb no wavelengths
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
preferentially and white light passes
through unaffected. Opaque minerals
absorb all wavelengths and appear black
(e.g. magnetite, hematite, graphite, etc.).

Relief
Crystals embedded in either a liquid or a
As we learnt mounting
last lecture, crystals have an ordered atomic structure
medium glue will be invisible if
they have the same RI as that of the
with distinct bond lengths
medium, there and orientations.
being no refraction at the When a lightSnell’s
wave law
hits a
bond, the electric and magnetic components interact with the
surfaces of the grains (Snell’s Law - Fig.
29). Relief is the term used to describe
electrons in the bond,
how clearly influencing
the edge the properties of the light
of a grain or crystal sin (direction
1 n2
=
and energy). can
Asbe seen,
such,
difference betweenthe the RIsmineralogy
and it depends on the
of the grain and (which minerals sin are 2present)
n1
and the orientations
the embedding ofmedium
the(Fig.crystals
30). with respect to the light influence
the properties of the light. The following properties Fig. 29 are all
observed with the analyser out, i.e., just with the polariser in.

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

What can we see under the microscope:
-Habit: euhedral (well-shaped), Shape: tabular, bladed, fibrous,
subhedral (partially well-shaped), acicular (needle shaped)
anhedral (poorly shaped).
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
What can we see under the microscope:
-Microstructure: cracks, cleavage (planes of weakness in the atomic
structure along which minerals often break or peel off), twinning, zoning

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

What can we see under the microscope:
-Colour: certain bonds adsorb certain wavelengths of light, which can
give crystals a colour. Some are colourless (do not absorb visible
light, e.g., diamond). Some are opaque (absorb all wavelengths of light
(e.g., magnetite, graphite).
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 32

Glaucophane (Na-bearing
W E W E amphibole) can appear
purple.

Fig. 34

Vibration directions
Polarised light in an anisotropic medium is only permitted to vibrate along two perpendicular
permitted vibration directions. In a crystal, the orientation of the permitted vibration directions
are constrained by its symmetry (i.e. the crystal system).

Consider the y-z plane of a crystal composed of atoms densely packed in one direction (y) (Fig. 35).
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
Light is passed through the plane in the x direction (i.e. out of the page). The anisotropic nature of
the crystal means that the incident electric vector is split into two which, in this particular case,
What can we see under the microscope:
vibrate either parallel to the y-axis or parallel to the z-axis (the relationship between the crystal
structure and the two vibration directions is controlled by the symmetry of the crystal lattice (see
Lecture 13).
-Colour: certain bonds adsorb certain wavelengths of light, which can
givelayerscrystals a tocolour.
of atoms leads a high valueSome are colourless
of RI. In contrast, (do not absorb visible
For the beam vibrating parallel to the y-axis, strong interaction with the electron clouds of the
densely packed the beam vibrating parallel
light,
to the z-axis, alonge.g., diamond).
which the atoms are moreSome
widely spaced, opaque
areinteracts (absorb
less with allthewavelengths of light
the atoms and
(e.g., magnetite, graphite).
RI is lower.

c0
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 32
c=
n
Small n
fast
W E W E
Large n
slow

Fig. 34

Vibration directions
Polarised light in an anisotropic medium is only permitted to vibrate along two perpendicular
permitted vibration directions. In a crystal, the orientation of the permitted vibration directions
Fig. 35
are constrained by its symmetry (i.e. the crystal system).
The difference in RI means that light vibrating along y will travel more slowly than light vibrating
Consider the y-z plane of a crystal composed of atoms densely packed in one direction (y) (Fig. 35).
along z. We refer to these directions as the slow and fast directions, respectively.
Light is passed through the plane in the x direction (i.e. out of the page). The anisotropic nature of
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
What can we see under the microscope:
-Colour: certain bonds adsorb certain wavelengths of light, which can
give crystals a colour. Some are colourless (do not absorb visible
light, e.g., diamond). Some are opaque (absorb all wavelengths of light
(e.g., magnetite, graphite).
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 32

Pleochroism -
colour change
with orientation;
W E W E introducing
concept of
anisotropy

Fig. 34

Vibration directions
Polarised light in an anisotropic medium is only permitted to vibrate along two perpendicular
permitted vibration directions. In a crystal, the orientation of the permitted vibration directions
are constrained by its symmetry (i.e. the crystal system).

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

Consider the y-z plane of a crystal composed of atoms densely packed in one direction (y) (Fig. 35).
Light is passed through the plane in the x direction (i.e. out of the page). The anisotropic nature of
the crystal means that the incident electric vector is split into two which, in this particular case,
Without
vibrate either parallel to the y-axis or parallel to the polariser
z-axis (the relationship between the crystal
structure and the two vibration directions is controlled by the symmetry of the crystal lattice (see
Lecture 13).

For the beam vibrating parallel to the y-axis, strong interaction with the electron clouds of the
densely packed layers of atoms leads to a high value of RI. In contrast, the beam vibrating parallel
to the z-axis, along which the atoms are more widely spaced, interacts less with the atoms and the
RI is lower.

c0
c=
n
Small n
fast

Large n
slow

Fig. 35

The difference in RI means that light vibrating along y will travel more slowly than light vibrating
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
along z. We refer to these directions as the slow and fast directions, respectively.

With polariser
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
What can we see under the microscope:
-Relief: how strongly a mineral stands out. Thin sections are
embedded on a glass slide using an epoxy or glue, and the difference
refractive indices between the mineral and these other materials can
make a2019/20
mineral stand out more
IA Earth Sciences:prominently.
What’s the Earth made of? 30

Fig. 30

The RI of the glue used in making thin sections is

close to n = 1.54 – 1.55. Thus the mineral quartz, n
~ 1.55, will be nearly invisible in this medium and
has low relief whereas olivine, n = 1.65 – 1.75 will
2019/20 show up with
IA Earth bold outlines
Sciences: What’sand
thehas high
Earth reliefof?
made (Fig. 30
31).

The Becke Test

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
Observation of relief does not by itself indicate
whether the grain has higher or lower RI than the
medium. This can be found by the Becke Test. With
What can we see under the microscope:
the substage diaphragm closed down slightly, and
the microscope stage lowered or raised a little so as Fig. 31
to move the focal plane, a bright fringe called the
-Relief: how strongly a mineral stands out. Thin sections are
Becke Line can often be observed
Fig. 30 either just
embedded on a glass slide using an epoxy or glue, and the difference
outside or just inside the crystal outline. On raising
the focal plane the Becke Line moves
refractive indices between the mineral and these other materials can
into the medium of higher RI.
make a mineral stand out more prominently.
The RI of the glue used in making thin sections is
N.B.the
close to n = 1.54 – 1.55. Thus Rule = Raise
mineral focalnplane —
quartz,
BeckeinLine
~ 1.55, will be nearly invisible moves toand
this medium higher RI
medium.
has low relief whereas olivine, n = 1.65 – 1.75 will
show up with bold outlines and has high relief (Fig. Quartz: n ~ 1.55, which is
If the crystal has higher RI than the
31).
medium, the Becke Line will move
very similar to the glue, so
into the crystal has low relief
The Becke Test
Olivine: n ~ 1.65, so has
Observation of relief does Ifnot
thebyadjacent medium has higher RI
itself indicate high relief and stands out.
whether the grain has higherthan
orthe crystal,
lower the line
RI than the will move
medium. This can be foundinto by the
themedium.
Becke Test. With
the substage diaphragm closed down slightly, and
the microscope stage lowered or raised a little so as Fig. 31
to move the focal plane, a bright fringe called the
Becke Line can often be observed either just
outside or just inside the crystal outline. On raising
the focal plane the Becke Line moves Fig. 32
into the medium of higher RI.
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 30

N.B. Rule = Raise focal plane —

Becke Line moves to higher RI
medium.
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
What can we see under the microscope:
If the crystal has higher RI than the
medium, the Becke Line will move
into the crystal
-Relief: how stronglyFig. 30
a mineral stands out. Thin sections are
embedded on a glass slide using an epoxy or glue, and the difference
If the adjacent medium has higher RI
than the crystal, the line will move
refractive indices between the mineral and these other materials can
into the medium.
make a mineral stand out more prominently.
The RI of the glue used in making thin sections is
close to n = 1.54 – 1.55. Thus the mineral quartz, n
~ 1.55, will be nearly invisible in this medium and
has low relief whereas olivine, n = 1.65 – 1.75 will
show up with bold outlines and has high relief (Fig.
Fig. 32 Quartz: n ~ 1.55, which is
31). very similar to the glue, so
has low relief
The Becke Test
Olivine: n ~ 1.65, so has
Observation of relief does not by itself indicate high relief and stands out.
whether the grain has higher or lower RI than the
medium. This can be found by the Becke Test. With
the substage diaphragm closed down slightly, and
the microscope stage lowered or raised a little so as Fig. 31
to move the focal plane, a bright fringe called the
Becke Line can often be observed either just
outside or just inside the crystal outline. On raising
the focal plane the Becke Line moves
into the medium of higher RI.

N.B. Rule = Raise focal plane —

Becke Line moves to higher RI
medium.
 Anisotropy in plane polarised light
In the petrographic microscope, the electric field of the incident light vibrates in an E-W direction.
Hence the light ‘probes’ the properties of the crystal (e.g. its refractive index, colour, etc.) in an E-
W direction. Observations we make regarding a mineral’s relief and colour etc. will depend on how
the mineral grain is oriented with respect to the E-W direction, and we may see these properties
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
change as the stage is rotated:

e.g. variation in relief

What can we see under the microscope:
The refractive index for an anisotropic crystal will be different for light vibrating along different
-Relief: the refractive index as depends on the bond properties, so also
directions within the crystal structure. With the crystal orientated as shown on the left of Fig. 33, the
refractive index measured in the E-W direction is very different from the surrounding medium, and
depends
the grainon the
shows orientation
a high relief. With the of the
crystal lightas with
oriented shown on respect
the right of to
Fig. the
33, thecrystal. As
such,refractive
relief index
canmeasured
change asE-W
in the a sample is rotated.
direction is similar to the surrounding medium, and the grain
shows low relief.

2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 32

W E W E

W E W E

Fig. 33

Fig. 34
e.g. pleochroism (colour change with orientation)
Vibration directions
Many coloured anisotropic minerals display a change of colour as the stage is rotated in plane
Polarised
polarised light light in the
(without an anisotropic
analyser medium is only
inserted). Thepermitted
colour, todue
vibrate along two perpendicular
to absorption of certain wavelengths
permitted vibration directions. In a crystal, the orientation of the permitted vibration directions
of light, varies with vibration direction (just as RI varies). Each vibration direction can be studied
are constrained by its symmetry (i.e. the crystal system).
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
separately and its characteristic absorption colour noted.
Consider the y-z plane of a crystal composed of atoms densely packed in one direction (y) (Fig. 35).
Light is passed
Fig. 34 illustrates through the
the example ofplane in the x direction
glaucophane (i.e. out of the
(a Na-bearing page). The anisotropic
amphibole), which shows naturea of
What can the
remarkable we see
crystal means
change under
that the
in colour thevibrates
asincident
light microscope:
electric vector
eitherisparallel
split into or
twoperpendicular
which, in this particular case, chains of
to the double
vibrate either parallel to the y-axis or parallel to the z-axis (the relationship between the crystal
SiO4 tetrahedra.
structureAnother common
and the two vibrationmineral
directionsthat shows pronounced
is controlled by the symmetry pleochroism
of the crystalislattice
biotite
(see(a mica).
directions:
-Vibration Lecture 13).
polarised light in an anisotropic medium (e.g., a
non-cubic For
crystal) is only
the beam vibrating parallelpermitted
to the y-axis, strongto vibrate
interaction with thealong twoof theperpendicular
electron clouds
densely packed layers of atoms leads to a high value of RI. In contrast, the beam vibrating parallel
directions. toThese twowhich
the z-axis, along directions
the atoms are moreare widelycontrolled bywiththe
spaced, interacts less symmetry
the atoms and the of the
crystal. RI is lower.

c0
c=
n
Small n
fast

Large n
slow

Fig. 35

The difference in RI means that light vibrating along y will travel more slowly than light vibrating
along z. We refer to these directions as the slow and fast directions, respectively.

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

What can we see under the microscope:
-Vibration directions: polarised light in an anisotropic medium (e.g., a
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 33

non-cubic crystal) is only permitted to vibrate along two perpendicular

Double refraction

directions. These two directions are controlled by the symmetry of the

The fact that light travels through an anisotropic material as two separate rays, vibrating in
perpendicular directions, can be demonstrated with a cleavage rhomb of calcite placed over a line of

crystal. dots drawn on paper: the effect is known as double refraction.

Ordinary ray
Extraordinary ray

Fig. 36

Due to refraction effects, the two rays of light in the crystal travel in slightly different directions
(Fig. 36). One ray, called the ordinary ray, is unrefracted. The other, called the extraordinary ray,
travels at a slight angle to the ordinary ray. This causes the image of each spot to be split into two
(Fig. 37). This can be shown by rotating the crystal: one set of spots stays still, whereas the others
rotate around (see double refraction movie on Moodle).

Fig. 37. Two images of each dot are

e produced by double refraction, one
o ordinary image (o) and the other a
displaced extraordinary image (e).
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
What can we see under the microscope:
-Birefringence: with bothexperience athe polariser and analyser in (called
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 29
material, however, light vibrating in one direction will different refractive index (and
crossed polars).
travel at a different speed) to light vibrating in a different
direction.

Thin sections
A thin section is made by grinding down a slice of rock
which has been glued to a glass slide, until it reaches a
standard thickness of 0.03 mm (30 μm). Almost all minerals
become optically transparent at this thickness and can be
studied by transmitted-light microscopy.

The petrographic microscope

Petrographic microscopes make use of plane polarized light
(vibrating E-W) produced beneath the stage by a piece of
Polaroid known as the polariser. The polarised light passes
through the crystals in a thin section on a graduated rotating
stage before passing up through the magnifying lenses of the
microscope tube. A second piece of polaroid, the analyser,
can be inserted in the light path to allow only the N-S
vibrational component of the emerging beam to pass to the
eye.

What can we see?

Habit or shape: euhedral (well-shaped), anhedral (poorly
shaped), prismatic, tabular, bladed, acicular, fibrous, etc. Fig. 28

Microstructure: e.g. cleavage (planes of weakness in the mineral’s atomic structure),

twinning, zoning (changes in composition from the centre to the edge of a grain).

Colour: Our perception of colour depends upon the wavelength of the light impinging on the
sensors in the eye’s retina. Colourless
minerals absorb no wavelengths
preferentially and white light passes
through unaffected. Opaque minerals
absorb all wavelengths and appear black
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
(e.g. magnetite, hematite, graphite, etc.).

Relief

Isotropic medium (e.g., liquid, glass, cubic crystal).

Crystals embedded in either a liquid or a
mounting medium glue will be invisible if
they have2019/20
the same RI as that of the IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 35
medium, there being no refraction at the
surfaces of the grains (Snell’s Law - Fig. Snell’s law
29). Relief is the term used to describe
how clearly the edge of a grain or crystal
Lecture
sin 1 n12
2
=
can be seen, and it depends on the
difference between the RIs of the grain and sin 2 n1
the embedding medium (Fig. 30). Optics 2. Crossed polars and birefringence
Fig. 29
Observations under crossed polars
With the analyser of the petrographic microscope inserted, the microscope is being operated under
‘crossed polars’, i.e. the polariser at the bottom of the microscope is oriented E-W and the analyser
is oriented N-S. With no specimen placed between the polariser and analyser, no light gets through,
since the E-W polarised light is completely absorbed by the N-S oriented analyser. However, when
a specimen is placed between the polariser and analyser, a number of intriguing observations can be
made:

i. If an isotropic material (e.g. glass, or a crystal belonging to the cubic crystal system) is placed
between the polariser and analyser, no light gets through, no matter how the material is oriented.

ii. If an anisotropic material is placed between the polarised and analyser, light of a specific colour
gets through.

iii. However, if the anisotropic material is oriented so that one of its permitted vibration directions is
parallel to the polariser, then no light gets through (an extinction position). Extinction positions
are observed every 90° as the crystal is rotated.

Lecture
By the end of this lecture we aim to4: Optics
have explained and Crystals
all of these observations and illustrate how they
help us to identify minerals in thin section.
Isotropic medium (e.g., liquid, glass, cubic crystal).
Why do isotropic materials appear black under crossed polars?
- No light gets through the analyser. On average, the light is not
For an isotropic material, every direction is a permitted vibration direction. Hence polarised
rotated
light canfrom its incoming
travel straight direction
through an isotropic because
medium all orientations
without changing of bond
its polarisation state (Fig.
are38):
present, so the effects cancel.

Light enters the isotropic Light travels through the Light exits the isotropic
material vibrating along the isotropic material vibrating material vibrating along the
E-W direction along the E-W direction E-W direction, and then gets
completely absorbed by the
N-S analyser. The isotropic
material appears black!
Fig. 38
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
Anisotropic medium (e.g., non-cubic crystal).
IA-Earth
It is Sciences: What’s
orientation the Earth madebut
dependent, of? light
38
of a certain colour can be seen.
ference, or retardation (Δ). For a
with thickness t, the optical path op ic
ce is given by (try deriving this for Isotr
es!):
ming
= t(n1 n2 ) Inco ation
r is
pola
and n2 are the refractive indices of
permitted vibration directions. The
pic
ce (n1 - n2) is known as the
otro
gence of the material. Note that Anis
ence is necessarily zero for an
material (n1 = n2).

ifference between fast and slow

ents
e slow component exits the material
bines with the fast component. The
he resultant wave depends on the
phase of the fast and slow
ents. As shown in Fig. 42, the two
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
ents start off in phase with each other
ey enter the material. Anisotropic
However, due tomedium (e.g., non-cubic crystal).
erent speeds (and hence IA-Earthis Sciences:
Itdifferent What’s
orientation the Earth madebut
dependent, of? light of a certain colour
38 can be seen.
gths)
ference,theyordevelop a phase
retardation difference
(Δ). For a
ravel through the
with thickness material.
t, the opticalIfpath
Δ
opic
λ ,is3λ
ce , etc.)
given bythe
(trytwo
deriving this for Isotr
ents
es!): will be in phase with each

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he top surface of the material.
ming
= t(n
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olaris n1
hand
other p
n at
2 arethe
thetop surface. indices of
refractive Optical Path
permitted vibration directions. The Difference
n2
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ce (n1 - n2) is known as the
IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? n isotro 38
gence of the material. Note that A
ence isor
rence, necessarily
retardation zero(Δ).
for For
an a
material
ith (n1 =t, nthe
thickness 2). optical path
opic s (t)
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knes
ifference between fast and slow Birefringence
!):
ents g Fig. 41
min n
= t(n1 n2 ) Inco io
e slow component exits the material risat
bines with the fast component. The pola
nd n2 are the refractive indices of
he resultant wave depends on the
rmitted
wo vibrationexit
components directions.
in phaseThewith each other, the resulting light vibrates in exactly the
phase
(n1 - As
ents.
of the fast and
n2)shown
is known
slow
as the
in same
Fig. direction
42,
Lecture 4: Optics andoCrystals
the twoas the incident light (i.e. E-W). trop
ic
nce of the material. Note that
ents start off in phase with each other Anis
woenter
nce
ey components
is necessarily Anisotropic
exit
zero
the material. out
forofanphase
However, tomedium
duewith (e.g.,
each other, the non-cubic
resulting lightcrystal).
vibrates at 90° to
material nthe
2). vibration
(n1 = (and direction of the incident light (i.e. N-S).
erent speeds - It is orientation dependent, but light of a certain colour can be seen.
hence different
gths) they develop a phase difference
erence
ravel between
through the fast and slow
material. If Δ
λts, 3λ , etc.) the two
ents will be in phase with each
slow component
he top surface ofexits the material
the material.
nes
2 (orwith theorfast
3λ/2, component.
5λ/2, etc.) the The
resultantwill
ponents wave depends
be out on the
of phase n1
hase of the
other fasttop
at the andsurface.
slow
Optical Path
ts. As shown in Fig. 42, the two Difference
ts start off in phase with each other n2 Δ = t (n1 - n2)
enter the material. However, due to
ent speeds (and hence different
hs) they develop a phase difference
s (t)
vel through the material. If Δ knes
Thic
, 3λ , etc.) the two Birefringence
ts will be in phase with each
Fig. 41
e top surface of the material.
(or 3λ/2, or 5λ/2, etc.) the
onents will be out of phase n1
other at the top surface. Optical Path
wo components exit in phase with each other, the resulting light vibrates in exactly the
Difference
n2
same direction as the incident light (i.e. E-W). Δ = t (n1 - n2)
components
When the slow component exits the material
it recombines with the fast component. The
state of the resultant wave depends on the
relative phase of the fast and slow
components. As shown in Fig. 42, the two Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
components start off in phase with each other
when they enter the material. However, due to
Anisotropic medium (e.g., non-cubic crystal).
their different speeds (and hence different
wavelengths) they develop - Itaisphase
orientation
difference dependent, but light of a certain colour can be seen.
as they travel through the material. If Δ
= λ (or 2λ , 3λ , etc.) the two
components will be in phase with each
other at the top surface of the material.
If Δ = λ/2 (or 3λ/2, or 5λ/2, etc.) the
two components will be out of phase n1
with each other at the top surface. Optical Path
Difference
n2 Δ = t (n1 - n2)

s ( t)
knes
Thic
Birefringence
Fig. 41

If the two components exit in phase with each other, the resulting light vibrates in exactly the
same direction as the incident light (i.e. E-W).

If the two components exit out of phase with each other, the resulting light vibrates at 90° to
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
the vibration direction of the incident light (i.e. N-S).

Anisotropic medium (e.g., non-cubic crystal).

- It is orientation dependent, but light of a certain colour can be seen.
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 39

Fast and slow exit out of phase Fast and slow exit in phase
Δ = 3λ/2 Δ=λ

Air Air

Crystal
Crystal

Slow Ray Fast Ray

Slow Ray Fast Ray Incident light

Incident light
Fig. 42

Why does light with a specific wavelength get through?

Fig. 43 illustrates the sequence of events that occurs for the case Δ = λ.

a) The incident light is vibrating parallel to the polariser.

b) The light enters the material and is resolved into two components.

c) At the top of the crystal, the two components are in phase with each other (Δ = λ).

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

d) The resulting light vibrates in the same direction as the incident light, and does NOT pass
through the analyser.

Fig. 44 illustrates how the last two events differ for the case Δ = λ/2.

Anisotropic medium (e.g., non-cubic crystal).

a) At the top of the crystal, one component is out of phase with respect to the other (Δ = λ/2).

-Light passes through polariser and adopts one vibration orientation.

b) The resulting light vibrates at 90° to the incident light, and DOES pass through the analyser.

-Light enters crystal, and splits into two perpendicularly vibrating

waves.
-Due to the anisotropic nature of the crystal, these waves travel at
different speeds.
-When they recombine as they leave the crystal, the plane of vibration
can be different to when it entered.
-A component of this new wave can pass through the analyser
because it it not entirely perpendicular to the slits.
-Birefringence = t Δn
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
-Birefringence = t Δn
-If biref = λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ,…. then the waves recombine to produce the
same wave orientation as the one that entered the crystal and the
wave does not pass through the analyser at all.
-If biref = λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, 7λ/2,…. then the waves recombine to
produce a wave that is oscillating perpendicular to the initial wave
and the waveMonochromatic
does pass through the analyser.
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 41
light

-If t is between these

Fig. 45 values,
shows the intensity variation for aa component
single of theThe recombined
wavelength with varying retardation.
is a minimum (zero) for Δ = i λ, and a maximum at (i + 1/2) λ, where i is an integer.
intensity wave
passes through the analyser.

Fig. 45

Quartz wedge in monochromatic light

A quartz wedge is a single crystal of quartz that has been cut into a wedge shape so that its
thickness increases gradually along its length. Since Δ = t (n1 - n2), the value of Δ increases
smoothly along the length of the wedge as t increases. If viewed under crossed polars in
monochromatic light with wavelength λ, the wedge will show a variation in intensity equivalent to
that shown in Fig. 45. Whenever Δ = i λ, no light of that wavelength is let through the analyser and

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

the intensity is reduced to zero; whenever Δ = (i + 1/2)λ the maximum intensity is let through the
analyser, leading to a pattern of bright and dark fringes. Note that the spacing of the fringes depends
on λ (larger for red light than blue light, Fig. 46).

Δ = t (n1 - n2)
-White light contains wavelengths between 450 - 700 nm.
2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 42

-Let’s imagine a crystal with t = 0.03 mm and Δn = 0.04. This has a

White light.

birefringence of 1200 nm.

In white light there is a continuum of wavelengths from around 400 - 750 nm. Thus for a given
thickness t, some wavelengths within the visible spectrum will be cut out (Δ = i λ) and others will
be passed at maximum intensity (Δ = (i + 1/2) λ). The effect of this is to leave the white light

-So wavelengths of 800 nm, 480 nm, 342 nm, etc. pass through the
selectively enriched in certain wavelengths (and depleted in others) which gives it a characteristic
colour - the so-called interference (or polarisation) colour. This colour depends entirely on the value

analyser, while wave lengths of 1200 nm, 600 nm, 400 nm, etc. do
of the retardation Δ.

Example: Consider a slice 0.03 mm thick and with birefringence δn = 0.04. Using Δ = t δn we

not pas through the analyser.

have a path difference (retardation) of Δ = 1200 nm. The wavelengths for conditions of maximum
intensity Δ= (i + 1/2) λ and for zero intensity Δ = i λ for various values of i are then:

Condition Wavelength, λ Intensity Colour

1λ 1200 nm Zero Infrared

1.5 λ 800 nm Max Infrared
2λ 600 nm Zero Orange Fig. 46
2.5 λ 480 nm Max Blue
3λ 400 nm Zero Violet

So this crystal will look blue-

UV IR
green under the microscope.
Intensity

2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 43

In white light, therefore, instead of a series of dark fringes, the result is a scale of colours (Newton's
400scale) beginning 600 with 800a colour sequence
1000 which terminates in a characteristic violet shade known as
1200
the sensitive tint. There is then a different sequence ending in another violet band, this sequence
Wavelength
being subsequently repeated, the essential difference being that the tints become paler with each
Fig. 47
successive repetition. The violet bands, called sensitive tint, are used to separate the scale into
The resultant colour seen will be of a blue/green hue.
orders.
greenish yellow
sensitive tint

sensitive tint

bluish green
sensitive tint

light green

The Michel-Levy chart

rose red
pale grey

carmine
orange

yellow
orange

yellow
yellow

green
green

blue
Black

white

blue
grey

red
red

The
Δ
2nd order

400 600
4th order

1000
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
Michel-Levy colour chart shows Newton's colour scale superimposed on a plot of thickness t
1st order 3rd order
against retardation. Radial lines are drawn, labelled for birefringence δn (remember Δ = t δn). The
200 800 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
chart is normally used to determine a crystal's birefringence as an aid in mineral identification. The
δn
polarization colour determines a value for Δ (horizontal scale) and the thickness of the slide
0.01 0.02

Michel-Levy chart
0.03 0.04 0.05 birefringence for 0.03 mm thin slice

Fig. 48
(vertical scale), normally 30μm (0.03 mm), allows an estimate of the birefringence to be made.

! = t (n1 - n2) in nm
Fig. 49

It is very important to remember that it is the maximum value of birefringence which is diagnostic
for a mineral. This is because the birefringence colour you observe depends on the orientation of the
grain. To understand how the birefringence varies with direction, we need to examine the properties
of the ‘optical indicatrix’. This will be the subject of the next lecture.
 Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 36

Since every direction is a permitted vibration direction, no matter how we orient the material, it will
always appear black under crossed polars. This is a unique distinguishing feature of isotropic
materials (e.g. cubic minerals, such as garnet, or volcanic glass).

Why do anisotropic materials go extinct every 90°?

If one of the permitted vibration directions (either fast or slow) of an anisotropic material is parallel
to the polariser, then the same sequence of events as depicted in Fig. 38 takes place: the light
vibrating E-W travels through the crystal along the permitted vibration direction, and is then
completely absorbed by the analyser. The crystal is said to be in an extinction position. Extinction
positions occur every 90° because there are always two permitted vibration directions at 90° to each
other.

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

This2019/20
birefringent effect orientation
is Sciences:
IA Earth What’s the dependent,
Earth made of? with crystals 36 go
extinct
Sincein cross
every polars
direction every
is a permitted 90˚ when
vibration direction,rotated.
no matter how we orient the material, it will
-When one black
always appear of under
the crossed
permitted vibration
polars. This directions
is a unique distinguishing is ofparallel
feature isotropic to the
materials (e.g. cubic minerals, such as garnet, or volcanic glass).
incoming wave vibration, the wave doesn’t split at all, so passes
through the crystal
Why do anisotropic without
materials go extinctbeing
every 90°?altered, so cannot pass through
theIf analyser.
one of the permitted vibration directions (either fast or slow) of an anisotropic material is parallel
to the polariser, then the same sequence of events as depicted in Fig. 38 takes place: the light
-These
vibratingspecific
E-W travelsorientations
through the crystal are
Straightcalled extinction
extinction
along the permitted angles.
vibration direction, and is then
completely absorbed by the analyser. The crystal is said to be in an extinction position. Extinction
positions occur every 90° because there are always two permitted vibration directions at 90° to each
other.
Straight
90

Polariser Polariser Polariser

extinction

Analyser Analyser Analyser

Inclined extinction

Polariser Straight extinctionPolariser Polariser

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

This birefringent effect is orientation dependent, with crystals go
extinct in cross
Analyser
polarsPolariser
every 90˚Analyser
when rotated. Analyser
90

Polariser Polariser

-When one of the permitted vibration Fig. 39 directions is parallel to the

incoming wave vibration, the wave doesn’t split at all, so passes
through the crystal without being
Analyser Analyser
altered, so cannotAnalyser
pass through
the analyser.
-These specific orientationsInclined are called extinction angles.
extinction

Inclined
Polariser Polariser Polariser
extinction

Analyser Analyser Analyser

Fig. 39
 diagnostic property.

Measurement of extinction angle:

(i) Rotate the stage so that the feature of interest (e.g. the length of the crystal) is oriented N-S. Note
the angular position of the graduated stage.
Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
(ii) Rotate the crystal clockwise to an extinction position. Note the angular position of the stage.

Because both
(iii) Repeat i and crystal
ii, but this timehabit
rotate theand
stagebirefringence
anticlockwise to theare controlled
extinction position. by the
crystal structure, extinction positions often relate to the shape of the
crystal or the
(ii) Calculate clear
anglemicrostructure feature
between the feature of (e.g.,
interest and cracks,
whichever cleavages
vibration planes,
direction was
closest.
etc.). As such, extinction angle can be used as a diagnostic tool to
identify minerals.
Other categories of extinction are depicted in Fig. 40.

straight symmetrical inclined no obvious

extinction angle
Fig. 40

What happens if we try and sendIAlight

2019/20 through
Earth Sciences: thethecrystal
What’s vibrating
Earth made of? in a non-permitted
43

direction? In white light, therefore, instead of a series of dark fringes, the result is a scale of colours (Newton's
scale) beginning with a colour sequence which terminates in a characteristic violet shade known as
thean
If light entering sensitive tint. Theremedium
anisotropic is then a different sequenceat
is polarised ending in another
a general violet band,
angle to thethistwo
sequence
permitted vibration
being subsequently repeated, the essential difference being that the tints become paler with each
directions (Fig.successive
41a), itrepetition.
gets resolved
The violetinto
bands,two components,
called sensitive tint, areeach one
used to vibrating
separate the scalealong
into one of the
permitted vibration Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
orders. directions (Fig. 41b). The component vibrating along the direction with the
smaller refractive index travels faster than the component vibrating along the direction with the
Extinction
larger refractivealso
The impacts
Michel-Levy
index. Hence, chart
by the timeMichel-Levy
the slow component coloursexits the(if you theare
material, fast on an
extinction
component hasTheposition,
already exited
Michel-Levy
the
colour
crystal
thechart
material appears
and
shows Newton's travelled
colour scale
black).
an additional
superimposed
So Michel-Levy
ondistance known
a plot of thickness
against retardation. Radial lines are drawn, labelled for birefringence δn (remember Δ = t δn). The colour
t as the optical

is also a diagnostic
chart is normally used tool, asa crystal's
to determine long as the
birefringence colour
as an aid is at itsThe maximum
in mineral identification.
polarization colour determines a value for Δ (horizontal scale) and the thickness of the slide
eachscale),
value (i.e., (vertical mineral
normally 30μm has a characteristic
(0.03 mm), colour).
allows an estimate of the birefringence to be made.

2019/20 IA Earth Sciences: What’s the Earth made of? 46

Minerals belonging to the tetragonal,
hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems are
uniaxial. The indicatrix is an ellipsoid of
revolution around the z axis (the rotational
symmetry axis), like in the calcite example! = t (n1 - n2) in nm
above. The indicatrix contains a single Fig. 49
isotropic section and a single optic axis. The
optic axis is always parallel
It is very importantto to zremember
(i.e. parallel to maximum value of birefringence which is diagnostic
that it is the
the rotation axis)
for and the This
a mineral. isotropic
is becausesection is
the birefringence colour you observe depends on the orientation of the
always parallel grain. To understand how the birefringence varies with direction, we need to examine the properties
tothe(001).
of ‘optical indicatrix’. This will be the subject of the next lecture.

We define two flavours of uniaxial indicatrix

(Fig. 54): Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals
Fig. 53
Optical
Positive indicatrix:
uniaxial a 3D
for ε > ω (e.g. ellipsoid
quartz) where the length along each axis
depends
Negative on for
uniaxial theε <refractive index
ω (e.g. calcite) along that direction.

optic axis (// z)

ε optic axis (// z)

ω ε
ω

Positive Negative
ε>ω ε<ω

Fig. 54
Remember: Playing rugby is a positive thing to do, but eating burgers is a negative thing to do!

Use of the indicatrix

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals

Lecture 4: Optics and Crystals