Psychology and Work Today

This key textbook introduces students to the field of industrial and organizational
psychology, explaining how industrial-organizational psychologists make work
and working better. It explains how industrial-organizational psychologists help
organizations hire the best people, make work safer and less stressful, and support
managers and leaders to be more effective at leading others. It also describes how
industrial-organizational psychologists work with organizations to embrace diversity
in the workforce, design the physical work environment to best suit employees, and
market their products and services to consumers.

Key features of this edition include:

• Coverage of both the essential and traditional I-O topic areas such as job analysis,
employee selection, and work motivation, as well as topic areas that are important
in workplaces today such as stress and well-being, human factors, and preparing
for jobs of the future.
• New or expanded coverage of teams in organizations, remote/hybrid work, quiet
quitting, and diversity, equity, and inclusion issues.
• A streamlined methods chapter that focuses more on specific methods used
by industrial-organizational psychologists, such as focus groups, surveys, and
Gallup polls.

Rich with various pedagogical tools and real-world examples, the book will be
of interest to undergraduate students in introduction industrial-organizational
psychology or psychology of work behavior courses.
Carrie A. Bulger is a professor of psychology and an I-O psychologist at Quinnipiac
University. She has taught many different courses, including several I-O psychology
courses. She developed a concentration in I-O psychology for undergraduates and has
mentored many students on to careers in I-O psychology and related fields.
Duane P. Schultz is a former professor of psychology at the University of South
Florida.
Sydney Ellen Schultz is a writer, editor, and researcher who has developed print
and digital publications and teaching materials for publishers, government agencies,
schools, and professional associations.
“I have been using Psychology and Work Today for 12 years in my undergraduate
I/O Psychology class. The updates in the 12th edition continue to make this book
an engaging and relevant tool. I was pleased to see so much attention given to DEI
(including sections on cultural values, neurodiversity, intersectionality, and even a ref-
erence to the effects of menopause on women in the workplace!), as well as workplace
changes that were prompted by the pandemic (e.g., work from home, leading remote
workers, crisis leadership), the increasing need to address psychological health in the
workplace, and the proliferation of AI.”
Dr Birgit Bryant, SUNY Morrisville, USA

“The 12th edition of Psychology and Work Today is a comprehensive guide that inte-
grates contemporary issues into the study of Industrial/Organizational Psychology.
This updated edition thoroughly examines Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI),
including its historical foundations and the growing importance of demographic
diversity in a globalized workplace. It addresses key DEI challenges and their impact
on organizational success with a comprehensive look at identity experiences across
various dimensions, including race, gender, and neurodiversity. This edition also
explores topics such as Artificial Intelligence, team structure and effectiveness, and
non-traditional work arrangements, which are essential for understanding contempo-
rary work dynamics.
This textbook’s comprehensive coverage of these current issues make it an inval-
uable resource for both students and professionals, offering practical insights and evi-
dence-based strategies to navigate the evolving modern workplace.”
Dr Krista Howard, Texas State University, USA

“It's as if Carrie Bulger read my mind in the new edition by adding a chapter on Teams
and another on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI). The focus in the DEI chapter
is perfect, with some important background information and a concise, pitch-perfect
update on the current opposition to the topic. The Newsbreaks are a student favorite,
too. The combined chapters to streamline coverage were also welcome improvements.
Adding chapters on Teams and Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) makes this new
edition an even stronger guide for our students to the new, ever-evolving workplace.”
Peter Bachiochi, Professor of Psychological Science,
Eastern Connecticut State University, USA
Psychology and
Work Today
12th Edition

Carrie A. Bulger, Duane P. Schultz,

and Sydney Ellen Schultz
Designed cover image: gorodenkoff via Getty Images
Twelfth edition published 2025
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX4 14RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2025 Carrie A. Bulger, Duane P. Schultz, and Sydney Ellen Schultz
The right of Carrie A. Bulger, Duane P. Schultz, and Sydney Ellen Schultz to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pearson Education 1998
Eleventh edition published by Routledge 2020
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Schultz, Duane P., author. | Bulger, Carrie A., author. | Schultz,
Sydney Ellen, author.
Title: Psychology and work today / Carrie A. Bulger, Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen
Schultz.
Description: 12th edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2025. |
Duane P. Schultz appears as the first named author on earlier editions. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2024044304 (print) | LCCN 2024044305 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032592091 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003453543 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology, Industrial.
Classification: LCC HF5548.8 .S2025 356 (print) | LCC HF5548.8 (ebook) |
DDC 158.7—dc23/eng/20241107
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024044304
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024044305

ISBN: 978-1-032-59209-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-45354-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003453543
Typeset in Minion Pro
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Instructor Resources: www.routledge.com/9781032592091
To the students, alumni, and colleagues who inspire me daily.
To Ben, Laila, and William who are my heart.
—CAB
 Contents

Preface xviii

SECTION I FOUNDATIONS OF I-O PSYCHOLOGY 1

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational

Psychology 2
Learning Outcomes 3
Studying Psychology Related to Work and Working People 3
The Meaning of Work: Would You Work If You Didn’t Have To? 4
The Work of I-O Psychologists 5
I-O Psychology in Everyday Life 7
What I-O Psychology Means to Employers 7
An Overview of the Development of I-O Psychology 8
Pioneers in Personnel Selection 9
World War I and the Testing Movement 9
The Hawthorne Studies and Motivational Issues 10
World War II 11
Later Developments in I-O Psychology 11
Current Concerns in I-O Psychology 12
Technology and the Virtual Workplace 13
Artificial Intelligence in the Workplace 14
Gig Work 14
Worker Mental Health and Well-being 15
21st-century Employable Skills 17
Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the Workplace 18
Age Diversity in the Workplace 19
Careers in I-O Psychology 20
Practical Problems for I-O Psychologists 22
Fraudulent Practitioners 22
Credentials and Certification 23
Communicating with Management 23
Worker Resistance to New Ideas 23
Research or Application? 24
Areas of I-O Psychology Discussed in This Book 25
Foundations of Work in Organizations (Chapters 2, 3, and 4) 25
viii  Contents

Finding and Developing Talent (Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8) 25

Working Together (Chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12) 26
I-O Psychology and Related Disciplines
(Chapters 13, 14, and 15) 26
Summary 27
Review and Reflect 27
Additional Sources 28

CHAPTER 2 Studying Work and Working People 29

Learning Outcomes 30
Why We Need to Do Research in Organizations 30
An Example to Consider 31
Challenges in Doing Research 33
Asking the Right Questions 33
Designing the Right Study 35
Sampling the Right Participants 41
Ethics and Reproducibility 44
Science-practice Gap 45
Overcoming the Challenges 45
Triangulate! 46
Reviews and Meta-analyses 47
Involve Participants and Follow-up 48
Adopt New Techniques But Don’t Throw Out Old Ones 49
Summary 49
Review and Reflect 50
Additional Sources 50

CHAPTER 3 Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in the Workplace 51

Learning Outcomes 52
Workplace Diversity as a Foundation of I-O Psychology 52
Early Focus on Human Diversity in Efficiency 52
Increasing Demographic Diversity and Globalization 55
Important Terminology 55
The Need for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Work 58
Implicit Bias, Stigma, and Microaggressions 58
A Global Concern 59
DEI and Financial Success 60
Identity Experiences in the Workplace 61
Sex, Gender, Sexuality 62
Race, Ethnicity, Language 63
Age 64
Disability 64
 Contents   ix

Neurodiversity 65
Religious Affiliation 66
Intersectionality 66
A Backlash Against DEI Work and Solutions 68
Summary 69
Review and Reflect 69
Additional Sources 69

CHAPTER 4 Understanding Jobs and Job Performance 71

Learning Outcomes 71
Job and Work Analysis 72
Uses of Job Analysis Information 75
Gathering Job Analysis Information 77
Defining Job Performance 83
Task Performance 83
Contextual Performance 84
Counterproductive Work Behavior 84
Performance Taxonomies 85
Employee Productivity and Job Crafting 87
Summary 88
Review and Reflect 88
Additional Sources 89

SECTION II FINDING AND DEVELOPING TALENT 91

CHAPTER 5 Testing Job Applicants: Who Will Be a

Good Performer? 92
Learning Outcomes 93
Delivery of Psychological Tests and Assessments 94
Speed and Power Tests 94
Individual and Group Tests 95
Test Form 95
Computerized Adaptive Tests 97
What Do Tests Measure? 97
Cognitive Abilities 98
Physical Abilities 99
Aptitudes and Job Knowledge 100
Personality 100
Integrity 104
Situational Judgment 104
Previous Experience 105
x  Contents

Interviews 108
References and Letters of Recommendation 114
Assessment Centers 115
Interests 117
Problems with Using Psychological Tests 117
Recurring Limitations 117
Summary 120
Review and Reflect 121
Additional Sources 121

CHAPTER 6 Finding Applicants and Making Hiring Decisions 123

Learning Outcomes 124
The Process of Employee Selection 124
Characteristics of Psychological Tests and Assessments 125
Standardization 126
Objectivity 126
Test Norms 127
Reliability 128
Validity 129
The Recruitment Process 134
Sources for Recruiting 134
Realistic Job Previews 137
Recruiter Characteristics 138
Artificial Intelligence and Technology in Recruiting 139
Making Selection Decisions 140
Setting Cutoff Scores 140
Combining Multiple Selection Tests 141
Fair Employment Practices and Employment Laws 141
Employment Laws 141
Forms of Discrimination: Disparate Treatment, Adverse Impact,
Retaliation 145
Increasing Diversity at Work 147
Summary 147
Review and Reflect 148
Additional Resources 149

CHAPTER 7 Measuring Employee Performance on the Job 150

Learning Outcomes 151
Uses of Performance Information 152
Administrative Uses 152
Developmental Uses 154
 Contents   xi

Research Uses 154

Resistance to Performance Appraisal 154
Employees 155
Managers 155
Labor Unions 156
A Big Problem with Performance Appraisal 156
Performance Appraisal Techniques 158
Objective Performance Appraisal Techniques 158
Electronic Performance Monitoring 160
Subjective (Judgmental) Performance Appraisal
Techniques 162
Performance Appraisal Methods for Managers and Leaders 168
Assessment Centers 168
360-degree—or Multisource—Feedback 168
Artificial Intelligence and Performance Appraisal 169
Sources of Error and Bias in Performance Appraisal 170
The Halo Effect 170
Using Different Standards 170
Recency Bias 171
Inadequate Information 171
Central Tendency, Leniency, Severity Error 171
Cognitive Processes of Raters 172
Personality of Raters 173
Role Conflict 173
Impression Management 174
Racial and Gender Bias 174
Age Bias 174
Ways to Improve Performance Appraisals 175
Training 176
Providing Feedback to Raters 177
Subordinate Participation 177
Giving and Receiving Feedback 177
Giving Feedback 177
Receiving Feedback 178
Make Feedback More Regular 180
Summary 181
Review and Reflect 182
Additional Sources 183

CHAPTER 8 Training and Development 184

Learning Outcomes 185
xii  Contents

The Scope of Organizational Training 186

A Sample Training Program 186
Training the Future Workforce 187
Goal of Organizational Training Program: Transfer of Training 188
Determining What and Who Needs to Be Trained 189
Needs Assessment 189
The Pretraining Environment 192
Individual Differences in Ability 193
Pretraining Expectations 193
Motivation 193
Personality Traits 194
How People Learn 194
Active Practice 195
Massed and Distributed (Spaced) Practice 195
Whole and Part Learning 195
Retrieval Practice 196
Feedback 197
Staffing for Organizational Training 197
Types of Training Programs 197
On-the-job Training 198
Apprenticeship 198
Job Rotation 199
Simulations 199
Videos, Lectures, Conferences, and Meetings 200
Case Studies 201
Business Games 202
In-basket Training 203
Role Playing 203
Behavior Modeling 203
Executive Coaching 204
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Training Programs 204
E-training: Computers, Mobile Devices, Virtual Reality 205
Post-training Environment 206
Career Development and Planning 206
Informal Learning and Self-regulated Learning 208
Evaluating Organizational Training Programs 209
Summary 211
Review and Reflect 212
Additional Sources 212
 Contents   xiii

SECTION III WORKING TOGETHER 213

CHAPTER 9 Employee Motivation, Engagement, and Attitudes 214

Learning Outcomes 215
Work Motivation 215
Content Theories of Motivation 215
Process Theories of Motivation 224
Intrinsic Motivation 229
Self-determination Theory 229
Work Engagement and Job Involvement 230
Work Engagement 230
Job Involvement 231
Job and Work Attitudes 232
Job Satisfaction 232
Organizational Commitment 237
The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Organizational
Commitment 239
Organizational Justice 240
Types of Organizational Justice 241
The Importance of Organizational Justice 241
Summary 242
Review and Reflect 243
Additional Sources 244

CHAPTER 10 Leadership in Organizations 245

Learning Outcomes 246
The Importance of Leadership in Organizations 246
Supervisors, Managers, and Leaders: Different but the Same 247
What Do Effective Leaders Possess? 249
Power and Influence 249
Traits and Characteristics 251
Knowledge 253
Appearance 253
Relationships 253
What Do Effective Leaders Do? 256
Consideration and Initiating Structure: Two General Categories of
Behavior 256
Paternalistic Behaviors in Asian Leaders 258
Leaders Transform Followers 259
xiv  Contents

Leaders Are Inclusive 261

Situational Leadership 262
Positive Leadership 264
Authentic, Ethical, Servant Leadership 265
Abusive Supervision 265
Diversity in Leadership 266
Crisis Leadership 270
Leading Remote and Hybrid Employees 271
Leader Emergence and Development 272
Leader Emergence 273
Leader Development 273
Summary 274
Review and Reflect 275
Additional Sources 276

CHAPTER 11 Teams and Team Effectiveness 277

Learning Outcomes 278
Team Structures 279
Task Interdependence 280
Roles 282
Norms 282
Team Composition and Team Diversity 282
Team Cognitive Ability 282
Team Personality Traits 283
Team Diversity 283
Team Processes 286
Team Communication 286
Team Cooperation 287
Team Cognition 288
Specialized Teams 288
Teams in Healthcare 289
Teams in Space Exploration 290
Human-autonomous Teams 292
Summary 294
Review and Reflect 295
Additional Sources 295

CHAPTER 12 Organizations in the 21st Century 297

Learning Outcomes 297
Organizational Culture and Climate 298
 Contents   xv

Organizational Culture 298

Organizational Climate 300
Culture, Climate, and 21st-century Organizations 301
Organizational Structures 301
Bureaucracy and Hierarchy 303
Autonomy 304
Collaboration and Empowerment 305
Where (and When) Work Gets Done 307
Types of Work Arrangements 307
Precarious Work Arrangements 312
Summary 314
Review and Reflect 315
Additional Sources 315

SECTION IV I-O PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES 317

CHAPTER 13 Occupational Health Psychology 318

Learning Outcomes 320
Occupational Health Psychology 320
The Stress Process 322
A Simple Model of the Stress Process 323
Stressors in the Work Environment 323
Physical Stressors 324
Job-related Stressors 324
Strains 329
Physiological Strains 329
Psychological Strains 330
Behavioral Strains 331
Job-related Strains 332
Moderators of the Stressor–strain Relationship 332
Cognitive Appraisal of Stressors 333
Personality Factors 334
Lifestyle Factors 335
Control 335
Social Support 335
Special Topics in Occupational Health Psychology 336
Workplace Aggression and Violence 336
Causes of Workplace Aggression and Violence 337
Ways to Prevent Workplace Aggression and Violence 339
xvi  Contents

Work–family Interaction 339

Outcomes of Conflict and Enhancement 340
Technology and Work–family Interaction 341
Organizational Support for Work–family Interaction 342
Recovery from Work 342
Recovery Activities 343
Recovery Experiences 343
When and Where Can We Recover? 344
Sleep 344
Burnout 346
Outcomes of Burnout 347
Addressing Burnout 347
Stress Interventions 348
Primary Interventions Target Everyone 348
Secondary Interventions Focus on People at Risk 349
Tertiary Interventions Treat Problems Related
to Stress 350
Summary 350
Review and Reflect 351
Additional Sources 352

CHAPTER 14 Human Factors Psychology 353

Learning Outcomes 354
Human Factors Psychology 354
A Note on Labels 356
Human Factors Outside of Work 357
Prevention of Accidents, Illness, and Injuries 357
Rates of Workplace Deaths, Illnesses, and Injuries 357
Hazard Exposures 358
The Hierarchy of Controls 361
Anthropometry 362
Design and Redesign of Workspaces, Tools and Equipment, Controls
and Displays 365
General Human Factors Principles 365
Design Is Iterative 365
Person–machine Systems 367
Allocating Functions 369
Displays: Presenting Information 370
Controls: Taking Action 374
Automation: Reducing the Human Role 376
Special Topics in Human Factors Psychology 378
 Contents   xvii

Human Factors in Health Care 378

Human Factors in Transportation 379
Human Factors and Computers 381
Human Factors and Robots 381
Summary 384
Review and Reflect 385
Additional Sources 385

CHAPTER 15 Consumer Psychology 387

Learning Outcomes 388
Consumer Psychology 388
Research on Consumers 391
Observations of Consumers 392
Neuromarketing and Physiological Responses 394
Coupons and Rebates 395
Sales Tests 396
Psychological and Cultural Influences on Consumers 397
Influence of the Physical Environment 397
Influence of Social Cognition and Information Processing 398
Influence of Identity and Culture 402
Race and Ethnicity 403
Influence of Values 404
Advertising to Influence Consumers 406
Consumer Awareness of Ads 406
Institutional Advertising 406
Informational Advertising 407
Advertising Placement 407
Types of Advertising Appeals 407
Product Image 410
Effectiveness of Advertising Campaigns 412
Summary 414
Review and Reflect 415
Additional Sources 415

References 417
Subject Index 446
 Preface

This book provides an overview of the ways industrial-organizational psychologists

apply psychological research to investigate ways to make work and organizations more
satisfying, fulfilling, and effective. Even if you are not planning to pursue a career in
I-O psychology, or perhaps you are not even majoring in psychology, you will more
than likely be a part of an organization or be employed by some organization or per-
son later in your life. In this book, you will find that we discuss aspects of work and
working that will directly apply to you no matter your path in life, from applying for
jobs and getting hired, to being assessed and trained, to working on a team and expe-
riencing stress in the workplace among many other things. Our main goal in present-
ing this information is to help you understand how psychology applies to work and
organizations in modern society.
I-O psychology is one of the original domains of applied psychology. People
who work in this area are focused on understanding the experiences of employees,
teams, and leaders in order to improve those experiences with evidence-based prac-
tices and interventions. As much as possible, we offer examples and descriptions of
research that has implications for those interventions. We also discuss some of the
constraints faced by I-O psychologists who are practitioners in the field, including
time and money, when it comes to applying research to their work.
As you read this book, you will learn about the major theories, models, research
techniques, and findings of the science of I-O psychology. As you do so, you’ll develop
an understanding of the aims and goals of the field. You’ll also appreciate that there
are times when I-O psychology in practice is affected by the conditions and demands
of organizational life. We’ll help you with this as we discuss theories, methods, and
research results within the framework of actual work situations and job-related
problems.
As much as possible, we have attempted to cite research that uses working adults
to illustrate the ways psychology applies to work. Yet, we have also cited studies that
use college or graduate students, often working students, when the research findings
seem particularly applicable to the topic under discussion. As much as possible, we
have also attempted to describe I-O psychology interventions in action, showing how
they are developed and implemented in a variety of organizational settings, using
workers who differ by gender, age, culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.
The 21st-century workplace is global in scope, which means that I-O psycholo-
gists also engage in research and practice around the globe. To help you appreciate
the global workplace, we have included research conducted on employees in different
countries, including studies that compare findings across different nations and cul-
tures. In addition, ever-changing technology influences many aspects of work and
organizations, so we have included studies and practical examples of the many ways
people use technology to accomplish work, including smartphones, tablets, drones,
robots, and artificial intelligence.
The 12th edition of Psychology and Work Today is being published in a time
when work and organizational practices experienced major disruptions due to the
 Preface   xix

COVID-19 pandemic, social unrest in the United States and elsewhere, and the rapid
introduction of new forms of artificial intelligence into the workplace. As we have
updated this book for the new edition, we took care to include some of the most cur-
rent, most up-to-date issues and concerns related to psychology and work. Even as
we have attended to the current concerns in the field, we have made sure to discuss
long-standing and well-known findings in I-O psychology.
We overhauled some of the book in major ways, based mainly on feedback from
faculty users of the book. These major changes include:

1. The addition of two new chapters.

a. One new chapter describes the work I-O psychologists do on diversity,
equity, and inclusion in the workplace (Chapter 3). In this chapter, we
discuss why DEI is an important workplace issue all around the world.
We also discuss what research has shown about the workplace experiences
people have related to their identities.
b. The other new chapter focuses on what is known about teams and team
effectiveness (Chapter 11). The aim of the chapter is to discuss the ways
that teams operate in workplaces and the strategies used to enhance the
effectiveness of teams.
2. Three significantly revised and re-organized chapters.
a. Chapter 2 is now called “Studying Work and Working People” and is aimed
at describing some of the particular challenges I-O psychologists face when
they need to collect data and evidence about a workplace issue. The aim of
this chapter is to emphasize the importance of different kinds of research
without writing a chapter that could appear in any psychology textbook.
b. Chapter 12 is called “Organizations in the 21st Century.” This chapter is
aimed at helping readers understand the ways that organizations and work
can be structured and designed, particularly as we enter what some call the
fifth Industrial Revolution.
c. Chapter 14 is now called “Human Factors Psychology.” Much of the
content about working conditions and safety (two separate chapters in
the 11th edition) has been worked in to this chapter or into Chapter 13,
“Occupational Health Psychology.” This has streamlined this section of the
12th edition in a way that we think will be effective for readers.

We have also added learning goals to each chapter and more images and tables
throughout the book where appropriate, and we updated the resources suggested in
each chapter. Additional revisions and changes aim to capture ongoing changes in I-O
psychology. Chapters have been rewritten and reorganized to incorporate over 200
new citations reflecting findings and trends within 21st-century I-O psychology. Some
of the highlights of this edition include

• Descriptions of the ways the COVID19- pandemic impacted and continues to

impact the psychology of work throughout the book.
• Discussion of ever-changing technologies and the way they impact employees in
the workplace.
• Examples of employment and leadership practices from around the world in
several chapters.
xx  Preface

• Updated discussion of legal issues to include the ways sexual orientation and
transgender status are protected in some countries.
• Workplace mental health as a current concern in the U.S. and other countries.

The chapters include outlines, summaries, and annotated reading lists. Definitions
for key terms are presented in boxes separated from the main text throughout each
chapter. Review questions challenge students to analyze material from the chapter;
these questions are also suitable for class discussion and written assignments. The
Newsbreak feature, which has been a valuable part of the book for many editions, has
been updated. These brief sections offer informal discussions of real-world job issues,
such as what NOT to do when applying for jobs, quiet quitting, remote and hybrid
work, who are frontline employees, hair bias, interacting with a chatbot during hiring,
having frenemies at work, misinformation, workplace loneliness, and the Stanley cup
craze of 2023 and 2024.
A chapter-by-chapter instructor’s manual updated with more resources that can
be found online, a test bank, and slides accompany the text and are available through
www.routledge.com/9781032592091.
We would like to thank the many students and colleagues who wrote to us about
the book and who offered valuable suggestions for the new edition. In addition, sev-
eral reviewers provided perceptive feedback on the manuscript, and we are apprecia-
tive of their efforts.
Carrie A. Bulger
Duane P. Schultz
Sydney Ellen Schultz
SECTION I

Foundations of I-O Psychology

Our goal in the first four chapters of this book is to provide you with the foundation—
the basic building block—of the work that I-O psychologists do. We start in Chapter 1
by describing the field as a whole including its history and current issues of concern.
In Chapter 2 we discuss the ways I-O psychologists study the workplace. Chapter 3
describes the work of ensuring that workplaces are inclusive and welcoming of all
employees. Chapter 4 focuses on how and why I-O psychologists need to begin by
studying jobs and job performance.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003453543-1
1 Introduction to Industrial-
Organizational Psychology

CHAPTER OUTLINE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY RELATED TO WORK AND WORKING PEOPLE

THE MEANING OF WORK: WOULD YOU WORK IF YOU DIDN’T HAVE TO?

THE WORK OF I-O PSYCHOLOGISTS

I-O Psychology in Everyday Life

What I-O Psychology Means to Employers

AN OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF I-O PSYCHOLOGY

Pioneers in Personnel Selection

World War I and the Testing Movement

The Hawthorne Studies and Motivational Issues

World War II

Later Developments in I-O Psychology

CURRENT CONCERNS IN I-O PSYCHOLOGY

Technology and the Virtual Workplace

Artificial Intelligence in the Workplace

Gig Work

Worker Mental Health and Well-being

21st-century Employable Skills

Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the Workplace

DOI: 10.4324/9781003453543-2
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   3

Age Diversity in the Workplace

CAREERS IN I-O PSYCHOLOGY

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS FOR I-O PSYCHOLOGISTS

Fraudulent Practitioners

Credentials and Certification

Communicating with Management

Worker Resistance to New Ideas

Research or Application?

AREAS OF I-O PSYCHOLOGY DISCUSSED IN THIS BOOK

Foundations of Work in Organizations (Chapters 2, 3, and 4)

Finding and Developing Talent (Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8)

Working Together (Chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12 )

I-O Psychology and Related Disciplines (Chapters 13 ,14, and 15)

SUMMARY

Review and Reflect

Additional Sources

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you will be able to

1. Define the main goals of the science and practice of I-O psychology.
2. Describe some of the influences and influencers in the history of the field.
3. Articulate some of the current challenges related to work and working for I-O
psychologists.
4. Identify ways to pursue a career related to I-O psychology.

Studying Psychology Related to Work and

Working People
We are thrilled that you are here! From our experience teaching this course for over 20
years, some of you are here because you know a little bit about industrial-organizational
psychology, maybe from your introductory psychology class, and you are thinking
4 Psychology and Work Today

about this field as a possible career choice. Some of you are here because this is a
course that your university allows to fulfill a requirement for your major or minor.
And some of you are here because the class meets at the right time for your schedule
or some other super practical reason for being here reading this book. No matter the
reason you enrolled in this course, we think you’ll find that it will give you a new per-
spective on the field of psychology overall. And hopefully you’ll pick up some infor-
mation that will help you in your future career, no matter what that might be. Let’s dig
in to why there is an area of psychology that focuses on work.

The Meaning of Work: Would You Work If You Didn’t

Have To?
Suppose you won $10 million in a lottery. Would you still keep your job? It may sur-
prise you to know that many people do keep working, even when they don’t need the
money. We’re not talking about movie stars or athletes or superstar musicians. No,
we’re talking about people in traditional jobs who continue to work hard even though
they have more than enough money to live comfortably for the rest of their days. Why
do they keep working? Because they love what they do.
Think about the CEOs of large corporations, many of whom receive multimillion-
dollar salaries. Yet they keep working. Or consider wealthy Wall Street traders who
rarely take vacations and who regularly put in long hours, driven by the same intensity
they had before they became so successful. Many surveys have been taken of the rest of
us, the people working at less glamorous jobs such as a teacher, software engineer, occu-
pational therapist, or auto mechanic. Results consistently show that approximately three
fourths of the people questioned would continue to work even if they suddenly became
financially secure and no longer needed the salary from their job.

PHOTO 1.1 Work contributes to our identity and, usually, to our overall well-being.
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   5

Some people get so much more from their jobs than just a paycheck. Those who
are fortunate enough to have found the type of work that suits their abilities experi-
ence a high degree of personal satisfaction, fulfilment, and the pride of accomplish-
ment. These feelings provide their own reward, distinct from income. Thus, work is
related not only to economic well-being but also to emotional security, self-esteem,
and contentment. Your job can give you a sense of identity and status, defining for you
and for others who and what you are. Your work can give you the chance to learn new
skills and master new challenges. It can bring positive social experiences, satisfying
your need to belong to a group and providing the security that comes from being an
accepted and valued member of a team. A job can furnish the opportunity to form
friendships and to meet people of diverse backgrounds.
On the other hand, some jobs can be tedious, monotonous, and even hazardous
to your health. Some work environments pose physical dangers; others produce stress,
anxiety, and dissatisfaction. If you are bored with your job, thwarted in your plans for
advancement, or angry with your boss, you may bring your discontent home at the
end of the workday and take out these negative feelings on your family and friends.
Long-term research has linked work-related stressors with physical and emotional
health. Studies conducted in workplaces show that positive events and interactions at
work are associated with reduced stress and enhanced health (Bono et al., 2013). Other
research indicates that work is central to psychological health, feelings of satisfaction
and accomplishment, and emotional well-being (Brustein, 2008). The single most reli-
able predictor of a long life is satisfaction with one’s job. People who are satisfied with
their work tend to live longer than people who are dissatisfied with their work.

I-O psychology The application of the methods, facts, and principles of the
science of psychology to people at work.

Finding the kind of work that is compatible with your skills, personality, and interests
is among the most significant endeavors you will ever undertake. For that reason, this
course in industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology may be the most personally
relevant course of your college career. You will find that I-O psychology will have
an impact on your future from the day you apply for your first job until the day
you announce your retirement. The findings and practices of I-O psychologists, in
conjunction with your own skills and motivation, will determine the positions for
which you are hired, the way you are expected to perform your job duties, your rank
and compensation, your ultimate level of responsibility, and the personal happiness
you derive from your work.

The Work of I-O Psychologists

I-O psychologists working in the area of human resources—or talent acquisition—
help initially with the difficult task of choosing a job. Your first formal contacts with
the work of I-O psychologists outside the classroom are likely to be with recruit-
ment websites, application forms, interviews, psychological tests, and other employee
selection measures. I-O psychologists have devised these selection measures to help
employers determine whether you are the right person for their job and whether that
job is the most suitable one for you.
6    Psychology and Work Today

After you have satisfied yourself and the organization that the position is appro-
priate, your advancement will depend on your performance in training programs and
on the job. Your employer will use assessment criteria developed by I-O psychologists.
Because of your college training, you will eventually qualify for management posi-
tions. These jobs require you to be aware of and sensitive to the diverse motivational factors
and personal concerns that affect the people who work for you. To learn how to lead and to
motivate your subordinates to put forth their best efforts, you will need to understand the
findings of I-O psychologists on these factors. Even if you have no direct subordinates—if,
for example, you are an engineer, information technology specialist, accountant, or if you
are self-employed—you will benefit from knowledge of human relations skills. Knowing
how to get along with others can mean the difference between failure and success.
Ideally, you will feel some commitment to your employer and will want to see
the organization prosper so that it continues to provide opportunities for your own
development and advancement. The company’s output must be produced efficiently
and at a high level of quality. The physical plant, equipment, and working conditions
should foster a productive working climate. I-O psychologists help design manufac-
turing and office environments to maximize productivity. In addition, a company’s
output must be effectively packaged, advertised, and marketed. Psychologists play a
role in all these activities.

NEWSBREAK: HOW TO LOVE WHAT YOU DO

The late founder and longtime CEO of Apple, Steve Jobs, once told a class of graduating
college students that they needed to find what they loved for their careers. Indeed, you’ve
no doubt heard the old adage that if you do what you love, you’ll never “work” a day in
your life. The search for meaning in our occupations is not really a new thing, but what
might be new is the best way to think about finding work that is meaningful: you might
need to make it meaningful.
I-O Psychologist Adam Grant is one of many researchers and writers who note that
anyone in any organization or occupation has the capacity to love their work and find
meaning in what they do. Some people find that they really want or need to work in an
occupation that is a “calling” for them, like a surgeon or educator. For those people, the
particular place they do the work is pretty unimportant; what matters is doing the work
that allows them to fulfill their personal goals and mission.
It’s also been found that people often take initiative to make meaning, either in their
work or in their lives outside of work. So, while not everyone works in a job that feels like a
“calling,” anyone can be mindful of the ways the work they do contributes to the well-being
of others in the organization or to the customers they serve. There are also things that leaders
can do to help people make meaning in their work, like making sure employees know the
impact of their work and giving them the flexibility and freedom to do well in their jobs.
In other words, I-O psychologists know that any job can be a meaningful job if it is
designed right and the person in it is a good fit for the job.
Sources: Steve Jobs, commencement address, Stanford University, June 14, 2005; Grant, A. (2015).
Three lies about meaningful work. HuffPost (May 6, 2015); Davis, P. (2023). 6 Leadership practices
that foster meaningful work. Forbes. www.forbes.com/sites/pauladavis/2023/09/20/6-leadership-
practices-that-foster-meaningful-work/

Thus, at all levels of modern organizational life, psychologists provide essential

services to both employees and employers. We offer a note of caution, however. As
vital as I-O psychology is, as influential as it will be throughout your working career,
it is primarily a tool. And any tool is only as valuable as the skill of the person using it.
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   7

If the methods and findings of I-O psychology are used improperly by management
or are misunderstood by employees, they can do more harm than good. Therefore, it
is important for you to know something about I-O psychology, if only for self-defense.

I-O Psychology in Everyday Life

There is more to I-O psychology than its application to the workday world. I-O psy-
chologists are also using their expertise to help improve other areas that affect people’s
lives. Many agencies around the world rely on unpaid volunteers in many different
ways. These agencies have some of the same needs as other work organizations but
probably lack the resources that a large work organization might have to hire expert
help. A group of I-O and other psychologists in the United States have created a sys-
tem aimed at helping volunteer organizations, such as the Humane Society, to evalu-
ate their programs (see https://vpa.uncc.edu/). I-O psychologists are also involved in
other kinds of humanitarian efforts, including helping businesses and workers recover
after natural disasters such as Hurricane Katrina (Vandaveer & Rizzutto, 2014) and
examining issues faced by disaster workers (Wright & Foster, 2018).
I-O psychologists assist engineers in the design and layout of displays and con-
trols, such as those on the instrument panel of your car or in various consumer appli-
ances. Psychologists ensure that the controls are comfortable to operate and that the
visual displays are easy to interpret. The shape and color of familiar highway signs
resulted from I-O psychology research. Psychologists have been involved in the design
of aircraft cockpits, cell phones, microwave ovens, and computer monitors and key-
boards to make them more user-friendly and efficient.

What I-O Psychology Means to Employers

Why are the services of I-O psychologists used by so many different types of organiza-
tions? Because they work. They promote efficiency, improve well-being, and increase
organizational success. Consider the problem of employee absenteeism. Workers
who fail to show up cost the company a great deal of money. Techniques devised and
applied by I-O psychologists to reduce absenteeism can result in substantial savings.
A bank in Canada with 30,000 employees estimated that it saved Canadian $7 million
in one year by heeding a consulting psychologist’s advice to install a computerized
absentee-reporting system. The psychologist’s fee and the cost of the system were con-
siderably less than the amount saved.
Another costly problem in organizations is turnover. When employees quit, the
company loses the investment made in recruiting, selecting, and training them. Then
it must hire and train replacements. An I-O psychologist studied the situation in a
company and suggested ways to deal with the high incidence of quitting. Implement-
ing their recommendations led to a 10% reduction in turnover and a cost saving of
$100,000 within the first year. Research has found that focusing on these practices
related to hiring and developing employees has a positive impact on organizational
financial performance. One study showed that, when organizations provided human
resources practices that included how those practices support the goals of the organi-
zation, there was a positive impact on the bottom line (O’Donohue & Torugsa, 2016).
Enhancing job satisfaction is a major concern in business today. Corporate lead-
ers call on I-O psychologists to improve the attitudes of workers toward their jobs and
their organizations. Enhanced satisfaction with work can reduce grievances and other
labor disputes and decrease absenteeism, turnover, work slowdowns, faulty products,
and accidents.
8    Psychology and Work Today

Appropriate employee selection methods, such as psychological tests, designed

and monitored by I-O psychologists help ensure that the most qualified applicants
are hired. For example, researchers compared federal government employees who
were hired on the basis of their cognitive ability (intelligence) test scores with
employees hired on the basis of level of education and work experience. The tests
were found to be far superior for selecting better and more productive workers, and
the cost savings were substantial.
These examples indicate the importance of the work of I-O psychologists to all
types of employing organizations. I-O psychology contributes to organizational effi-
ciency and improves the bottom line on the company’s financial report.

NEWSBREAK: FIRST JOBS: WE ALL HAVE TO START SOMEWHERE

Nicki Minaj waitressed at Red Lobster, Taylor Swift picked praying mantis pods off of
trees, and Rachel MacAdams worked at McDonald’s. Barack Obama worked at a Baskin
Robbins, Harry Styles worked at a bakery, and Ashton Kutcher swept cereal off of factory
floors at General Mills. Beyonce also swept floors, but at a hair salon. Margot Robbie
worked at Subway. Channing Tatum worked as a stripper (art does imitate life sometimes).
Michael Dell (of Dell Computers) washed dishes at a Chinese restaurant before he
became a billionaire in the computer industry. Indra Nooyi (former CEO of PepsiCo) was
a receptionist. Reed Hastings (Co-founder and Executive CEO of Netflix) sold vacuum
cleaners door to door.
Everyone starts working somewhere. Where are you starting from? Where do you
want to go from there? Whatever your goal, chances are the work of I-O psychologists can
help you reach it.
Sources: 34 Celebrities’ First Jobs Before They Were Famous Retrieved from www.elle.com/uk/
life-and-culture/culture/g32363589/celebrities-first-jobs/; The surprising first jobs of 10 famous
CEOs. Retrieved from www.fastcompany.com/3027074/the-surprising-first-jobs-of-10-famous-ceos;
10 astoundingly weird first jobs of famous people. Retrieved from www.thefiscaltimes.com/Media/
Slideshow/2013/12/05/10-Astoundingly-Weird-First-Jobs-Famous-People?page=10; The 19 worst
first jobs celebrities had before they were famous. Retrieved from www.businessinsider.com/worst-
first-jobs-celebrities-2017-6

An Overview of the Development of I-O Psychology

How did there come to be an area of psychology that examines the workplace? The
history of I-O psychology traces back almost to the very origin of modern psychology
as a discipline. Psychology began in 1879 in Germany when Wilhelm Wundt estab-
lished what is widely considered to be the first psychology research lab. Wundt was
not a psychologist—his academic training was in medicine and he was well versed in
philosophy—but he was interested in applying scientific methods to examining ques-
tions about human nature, human thinking, and human behavior. Many young aca-
demics from the U.S. and elsewhere who were interested in this new area of science
went to Germany to study with Wundt. And many of them returned home to establish
their own psychological research labs and to teach classes on psychology at universities.
Early psychologists, especially in the U.S., became very interested in apply-
ing the scientific findings to many different aspects of human life. This was partly
because psychologists at this time were also intrigued by the work of Charles Darwin,
who proposed a theory of evolution and the idea that individual members of species
passed on to their offspring adaptations that were beneficial. This sparked the idea in
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   9

psychologists of individual differences in humans, along with the notion that we can
measure individual differences and make use of that information.
How did I-O psychology become so necessary to modern organizational life and
to daily life in general? The field was formed and fashioned out of necessity. An urgent,
practical problem needing a novel solution gave the initial impetus to the field, and the
demands of crisis and need have continued to stimulate its growth and influence. At the
same time that early psychologists were developing an understanding of individual dif-
ferences and the idea that psychological findings might apply to issues and concerns in
the real world, industry was growing and corporations were looking for people to fill jobs.

Pioneers in Personnel Selection

Industrial psychology had its formal beginning in the early years of the 20th century.
The honor for sparking the development of the field is usually given to Walter Dill
Scott (1869–1955). A college football player at Northwestern University, Scott grad-
uated from a theological seminary and intended to be a missionary in China. By the
time he was prepared to undertake this calling, however, he learned that there were no
vacancies for missionaries in China. And so he became a psychologist instead.

Hawthorne studies A long-term research program at the Hawthorne, Illinois,

plant of the Western Electric Company. It documented the influence of a variety
of managerial and organizational factors on employee behavior.

Scott was the first to apply psychology to advertising, employee selection, and mana­
gement issues. At the turn of the 20th century, he spoke out on the potential uses of
psychology in advertising. Encouraged by the response of business leaders, Scott wrote
several articles and published a book titled The Theory and Practice of Advertising
(Scott, 1903), which is generally considered to be the first book about using psychology
to help solve problems in the business world. In 1919, Scott formed the first consulting
company in industrial psychology, which provided services to more than 40 major
American corporations, primarily in the area of personnel selection.
In 1913, Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916), a German psychologist teaching at
Harvard University, wrote The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency. Münsterberg was an
early advocate of the use of psychological tests to measure a prospective employee’s
skills and to match that person with the requirements of a particular job. He con-
ducted considerable research in real-world work situations and workplaces, with the
goal of improving on-the-job efficiency. His writing, research, and consulting activi-
ties helped spread the influence of industrial psychology, and he became a celebrity—
America’s most famous psychologist. Münsterberg befriended kings, presidents, and
movie stars, and he was one of only two psychologists ever accused of being a spy (the
accusation was untrue).

World War I and the Testing Movement

The work of Scott and Münsterberg provided a beginning for the field, but it was an
urgent request by the U.S. Army during World War I (1917–1918) that marked the
emergence of industrial psychology as an important and useful discipline. Faced with
the task of screening and classifying millions of men recruited for military service, the
10    Psychology and Work Today

army commissioned psychologists to devise a test for identifying people of low intelli-
gence so that they could be eliminated from consideration for training programs. Two
tests resulted from their efforts: the Army Alpha, designed for recruits who could read
and write, and the Army Beta, which used mazes, pictures, and symbols for recruits
who could not read. The Army Beta was also suitable for immigrants who were not
fluent in the English language. Additional tests were prepared for selecting candidates
for officer and pilot training and for other military classifications that required special
abilities. A personality test, the Personal Data Sheet, which could be administered to
large groups of people at one time, was developed to detect neurotic tendencies among
army recruits.
After the war, businesses, manufacturers, school systems, and other organiza-
tions that needed to screen and classify large numbers of people demanded more and
better testing techniques. The tests devised for the army were adapted for civilian use,
and new ones were designed for a variety of situations. Enthusiasm for psychological
testing spread throughout the United States. Soon millions of schoolchildren and job
applicants routinely faced batteries of psychological tests. Thus, the initial contribu-
tions of industrial psychologists focused on issues of personnel selection—evaluating
individuals and placing them in the appropriate grades, jobs, or training programs.

The Hawthorne Studies and Motivational Issues

The scope of the field broadened considerably with one of the most significant exam-
ples of psychological research ever undertaken on the job. The investigation lasted
from 1929 to 1932 and was conducted by psychologist Elton Mayo, head of Har-
vard University’s Department of Industrial Research. Called the Hawthorne studies
because they were conducted at the Hawthorne, Illinois, plant of the Western Elec-
tric Company, this long-term research program took industrial psychology beyond
employee selection and placement to the more complex problems of motivation, inter-
personal relations, and organizational dynamics (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939;
see also Hsueh, 2002).
The research began as a straightforward investigation of the effects of the physi-
cal work environment on employee efficiency. The researchers asked questions such as
these: What is the effect on productivity if we increase the lighting in the workroom?
Do temperature and humidity levels affect production? What will happen if manage-
ment provides rest periods for the workers?
The results of the Hawthorne studies surprised both the investigators and the
plant managers. The researchers found that social and psychological factors in the
work environment were of potentially greater importance than physical factors. For
example, changing the level of illumination in a workroom from very bright to dim
did not diminish worker efficiency. More subtle factors were operating to induce these
workers to maintain their original production level, even under nearly dark conditions.
With another group of workers, lighting was increased and production lev-
els rose. The researchers made other changes—rest periods, free lunches, a shorter
workday—and with the introduction of each change, production increased. However,
when all the benefits were suddenly eliminated, production continued to increase.
The researchers concluded that physical aspects of the work environment were not
as important to employees as management had assumed and that social and psy-
chological factors were more important. For example, researchers conducted 20,000
interviews of workers and found that it was not the substance of the interviews but
the very fact of being interviewed (i.e., being given attention, scrutinized, surveyed,
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   11

watched, listened to) that defused their griping and made them more docile and “bet-
ter adjusted” (Lemov, 2005, p. 65). In other words, just the fact of being questioned or
observed on the job as part of a research program persuaded many workers that man-
agement cared about them, that their boss was truly interested in them as individuals
and not merely as interchangeable cogs in the great industrial machine.
The Hawthorne studies opened up new areas for I-O psychologists to explore,
such as the nature of leadership, the formation of informal groups among workers,
employee attitudes, communication patterns, and other managerial and organiza-
tional variables now recognized as influences on efficiency, motivation, and job satis-
faction. Although the Hawthorne studies have been criticized for a lack of scientific
rigor, there is no denying their impact on the way psychologists view the nature of
work and on the scope and direction of I-O psychology. For more information on
the Hawthorne studies and their impact on management issues today, check out the
information at www.library.hbs.edu/hc/hawthorne/.

World War II
World War II (1941–1945) brought more than 2,000 psychologists directly into the
war effort. Their major contribution was the testing, classifying, and training of mil-
lions of recruits in various branches of military service. New skills were required to
operate sophisticated aircraft, tanks, and ships, and the military needed to identify
persons capable of learning to perform these tasks.
The increasingly complex weapons of war sparked the development of a new
field: human factors psychology, which is also called engineering psychology. Working
closely with engineers, psychologists supplied information about human abilities and
limitations for operating high-speed aircraft, submarines, and other equipment and
thus influenced their design.
I-O psychology achieved greater stature as a result of these contributions to
the war effort. Government and industry leaders recognized that psychologists were
equipped to solve many practical business problems. The wartime experience also
demonstrated to many psychologists, who before the war had worked in the relative
isolation of their university laboratories, that there were vital and challenging prob-
lems in the real world that they could help solve.

Later Developments in I-O Psychology

The explosive growth of I-O psychology after the end of World War II in 1945 paral-
leled the growth of U.S. business and technical enterprise. The size and complexity of
modern organizations placed additional demands on the skills of I-O psychologists
and provided phenomenal opportunities for the development of the field. New tech-
nologies meant that employees needed enhanced and redesigned training programs.
The advent of computers, for example, generated the need for programmers and tech-
nical support personnel and changed the way many jobs were performed. Psycholo-
gists had to determine the abilities required for these jobs, the kinds of people most
likely to have these abilities, and the best ways to train the new employees.
The demands on human factors psychologists also increased. Innovations such
as supersonic aircraft, missiles, advanced weapons systems, and information technol-
ogy required additional training to achieve maximally effective operation. Human
factors psychologists became involved in the design of industrial robots and high-tech
office equipment and in the redesign of workspaces for automated operations.
12    Psychology and Work Today

Organizational issues have also assumed greater importance (the O side of I-O
psychology). Human relations skills are recognized by managers and executives as
vital to maintaining high job performance of their employees. The nature of lead-
ership, the role of motivation and job satisfaction, the impact of the organizational
structure and climate, and the processes of decision-making are continuously being
analyzed. In recognition of the significance of organizational variables, the Division of
Industrial Psychology of the American Psychological Association (APA) became the
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).

NEWSBREAK: TEENS ARE WORKING AGAIN

Most teenagers in the 1980s and 1990s had a job, at least for the summer, though many
worked during the academic year, too. But in 2001, the percentage of employed teens
in the U.S. began dropping below 50% and declined steadily through the next few years
to a low of around 30% in 2008. The percentage of employed teens remained at or near
30% for many years. One reason for the low rate of teen employment in the first couple
of decades of the 2000s was undoubtedly the Great Recession that began around 2008
because there were fewer jobs available. Other reasons are related to the abundance of
other activities that teens participate in such as summer camps, sports, and activities
aimed at enhancing their college applications. In the spring of 2024, the percentage of
teens employed rose to 38%, which was the highest rate of teen employment in 14 years.
Some experts suggest that the end of the COVID-19 pandemic and reopening of service
industry jobs in retail, restaurant, entertainment, and other sectors of the economy made
more jobs available throughout 2023 and 2024. The rise in minimum wage in the U.S.
may also be making summer jobs more appealing to teens. Having a job provides teens
with important experiences that help to prepare them for future careers in a lot of different
ways. But there is also a downside: with more young people working, there was also an
increase in child labor law violations, mostly due to employers scheduling teens for longer
and later shifts than the law allows. There were some reports of children as young as 13
years old being hired, which violates child labor laws aimed at protecting children’s safety
and education.
Sources: Coleman, T. (2024, February 12). Child labor violations surge as more Gen Z teens work.
The Week. https://theweek.com/business/economy/gen-z-work-child-labor; DeSilver, D. (2022, June
21). After dropping in 2020, teen summer employment may be poised to continue its slow comeback.
Pew Research Center. www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/06/21/after-dropping-in-2020-teen-
summer-employment-may-be-poised-to-continue-its-slow-comeback/; Pandey, E. (2024, May 27).
Gen Z drives a teen-job comeback. Axios. www.axios.com/2024/05/27/gen-z-summer-teen-jobs-
inflation; Ryssdal, K., Leeson, S., & McHenry, S. (2024, January 29). Teens have “kept the economy
going,” and their workforce numbers show it. Marketplace www.marketplace.org/2024/01/29/teen-
workforce-rise/

Current Concerns in I-O Psychology

The ways people work and the ways organizations function have always changed as
technologies and tools change. Consider how work was changed with the introduc-
tion of what we now call “landline” telephone systems in the later years of the 19th
and early years of the 20th centuries—people could communicate much more quickly
and easily using these new devices! Every advance in technology means changes in
the things I-O psychologists help organizations to navigate. In 2020, the world expe-
rienced one of the most significant disruptions to our daily lives that many of us
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology 13

will ever experience—the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic changed many things
about the way we work, often accelerating changes that were already occurring such
as the radical increase in the number of people who work from home (discussed in
Chapter 12).
To try to help its members and work organizations with the continual changes
in work and working, SIOP, the main professional organization for I-O psychologists,
surveys its members about the top organizational trends and needs for the upcom-
ing year. Since 2015, many of these top trends have been related to technological
changes, to employee and organizational well-being, and to fair treatment of employ-
ees. In 2023, the list also included inclusiveness in organizations, helping manage the
post-pandemic changes in work, and workplace mental health.

Technology and the Virtual Workplace

It has become commonplace for organizations to have large numbers of employees
who work off-site. Employees work remotely from a home office or from another loca-
tion, email or text-message from a train, phone from an airplane while traveling on
business, or video call from a hotel room. This dramatic shift in where and how people
work is an effect of the increased access to smart, mobile technologies. All of these
ways of working virtually were happening before the COVID-19 pandemic, but they
are happening much more regularly and much more frequently now.
One downside of electronically connected virtual workplaces is that employees
are often expected to work—or to be available—beyond the normal working hours
of the organization. The perception of needing to be “always on” can make it diffi-
cult for people to unwind and detach from work in order to have time with their
friends or family. Some research has shown that there are negative effects of this lack

PHOTO 1.2 Virtual meetings have become common since the COVID-19 pandemic.
14    Psychology and Work Today

of detachment, including increased stress, disrupted sleep, and increases in work–

family conflict (Sonnentag et al., 2008). Other studies have shown that there are posi-
tive effects of actively detaching—or recovering—from work during non-work hours
(Sonnentag et al., 2012). We discuss recovery from work in more detail in Chapter 13.
People can engage in remote work full time as their normal style of working,
or they can work remotely once in a while. One challenge for I-O psychologists is
to help organizations figure out what remote workers need in terms of support and
resources as well as supervision. It’s also important to examine whether there are
some workers who are better suited to working remotely or if remote work skills can
be trained. Leaders of remote workers may also need some help from I-O psycholo-
gists. Another challenge for I-O psychologists is to figure out how working remotely
impacts well-being (O’Neill et al., 2023).

Artificial intelligence A collection of software technologies that are designed to

imitate or mimic at least one human ability.

Artificial Intelligence in the Workplace

Artificial intelligence (AI) has been entering workplaces for many years, though
the relatively recent introduction of generative artificial intelligence programs, like
ChatGPT or Microsoft Copilot, have been widely discussed in the media, which may
give the impression that AI is brand new. Artificial intelligence has been defined as
a collection of technologies that are designed to mimic at least one human ability,
including processing language (Natural Language Processing), learning from context
to create plans and models (knowledge representation), using data to find answers
(reasoning), adapting to changes (learning), perceiving the environment (sensing),
or moving objects around (manipulation; Barney, 2019). In the workplace, this might
look like a chatbot that is the first to handle customer service questions or questions
from potential future employees in a recruiting function, or it might look like a virtual
assistant in a healthcare setting who can remind patients to take their medication, or a
document reviewer to help lawyers analyze a large amount of information from legal
documents. We have heard anecdotes from students who return from internship and
from colleagues who work outside of higher education that folks are using ChatGPT
to help them make their email sound more professional or to have a warmer tone.
Throughout this book we will discuss AI in the context of various I-O psychol-
ogy topic areas. One recent review noted some of the areas that I-O psychologists have
been investigating related to AI in the workplace (Bankins et al., 2024). They found
that research has often focused on the factors that make collaboration between human
workers and AI successful, how human workers think about AI, attitudes people have
toward AI in the workplace, and the impact of AI on the skills needed by human
workers.

Gig Work
Not only are more people performing their work at locations away from the office, but
they are less likely to be full-time employees who can expect to remain with the same
employer for the duration of their career. Whereas previous generations of workers
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   15

presumed a kind of unwritten psychological contract with their employer—“If I do my

job well, my company will keep me on until I’m ready to retire”—today’s workers have
no such certainty of lifelong job security. The notion of long-term loyalty and com-
mitment to one organization faded in the closing decades of the 20th century during a
frenzied period of corporate mergers and acquisitions, downsizing, and plant closures
in which millions of workers and managers lost their jobs.

Gig work Refers to work that is done on a temporary, freelance, or on-demand

basis.

More of today’s employees are likely to be contingent workers, freelancers, inde-

pendent contractors, or to have a “side hustle” such as part-time seasonal labor or mul-
tiple sources of income—all of which have come to be known as gig work. Gig work
may also be performed in on-demand situations, such as delivering for DoorDash or
GrubHub. Technology has played a role in the kinds of jobs available to people who
prefer independent work or who want a side hustle, such as being a driver for Uber or
Lyft. As of 2023, polls suggest that 73.3 million people engage in gig work in the U.S.
compared with 57.3 million before the pandemic.
Some workers, especially younger ones, report that they prefer contingent work
because it provides flexibility, independence, challenges, and the opportunity to con-
tinually upgrade their work experience and job skills. Older workers may pursue
contingent or gig work as they begin to transition out of full-time employment and
toward retirement (Abraham, 2021). Many corporations also prefer this arrangement
because they save on administrative expenses and taxes and do not have to provide
benefits such as insurance or pension plans.
Managing a workforce that combines full-time and contingent workers has chal-
lenges. Because the contingent workers are not in the organization with the full-time
workers on a regular basis, it may be difficult to form collaborative, supportive cow-
orker relationships. Leaders may also find it challenging to form a quality relationship
with contingent workers. Gig workers are sometimes managed by a software platform,
rather than a person (e.g., DoorDash drivers), which is a sources of dissatisfaction for
those workers (Bankins et al., 2024).
I-O psychologists need to continue to examine ways to make sure these types
of employees have healthy work lives and that the organizations that employ them as
using the same kinds of well-researched practices that are used for more traditional
employment arrangements (Cropanzano et al., 2023). This type of work is also some-
times referred to as precarious work, which we will discuss in Chapter 12.

Worker Mental Health and Well-being

I-O psychologists are not therapists and do not have training in how to help peo-
ple with psychological disorders. But I-O psychologists do understand that work
is one of the social determinants of health. Having decent and meaningful work is
one component of life satisfaction and overall mental health. The pandemic shined a
light on this idea for many people because we saw people losing their jobs at a high
rate and suffering the financial and psychological harms of unemployment. We also
saw people having to go to work and risk exposure because their job was considered
frontline, especially those in healthcare and law enforcement. People who worked
16 Psychology and Work Today

PHOTO 1.3 Some people enjoy the flexibility and autonomy provided by working in the gig
economy.

remotely enjoyed some of the flexibility that style of work offers but also suffered
from isolation and loneliness because of the lack of contact with others. In 2022,
the U.S. Surgeon General named workplace mental health and well-being as one of
his top priorities for health initiatives. The Office of the U.S. Surgeon General has
prepared a framework outlining five essential factors of work that are the drivers of
well-being. Each essential is aimed at fulfilling two human needs that have been iden-
tified in research from psychology and public health. Table 1.1 lists the Five Essentials
with the needs they fulfil.
Addressing employee’s mental health was also named as one of the Top Ten
Work Trends in 2023 by SIOP members. We will discuss mental health and well-being
more in Chapter 13.

TABLE 1.1 Five Essentials for Workplace Mental Health and Well-being from the U.S. Surgeon
General

Essential Needs Fulfilled

Protection from Harm Safety and security

Connection and Community Social support and belonging
Work-Life Harmony Autonomy and flexibility
Mattering at Work Dignity and meaning
Opportunity for Growth Accomplishment and learning
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   17

21st-century Employable Skills

A 2023 survey of employers conducted by the Association of American Colleges and
Universities (Finley, 2023) found that 81% of those employers said that oral commu-
nication was a very important skill for recent college graduates, but 49% said stu-
dents are very prepared in terms of oral communication skills. Eighty-one percent
of employers surveyed said that adaptability and flexibility are very important, but
only 51% said students are very prepared in that skill. There were also fairly wide gaps
in ratings of importance as compared to preparedness for critical thinking, complex
problem-solving, written communication, creative and innovative thinking, analyz-
ing and interpreting data, integrating and applying ideas across contexts, working
with people from different backgrounds, and locating information from a variety of
sources. Employers rated students as prepared in one skill: utilizing technology and
digital media platforms. We share these with you so that you can take advantage of the
work you are doing in your college courses to learn or enhance these types of skills to
make yourself more hirable when you begin your job search.
Are there jobs that do not require a college degree? The decline of the manu-
facturing sector throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century reduced job
opportunities for people who do not have a college degree. There are still jobs that do
not require the bachelor’s degree, and some are well-paying jobs, but often these also
require some additional preparation or certification beyond high school, such as a
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technologist or hearing aid specialist or long-haul
truck driver. In the United States, jobs for unskilled workers tend to be in sectors that
are lower paying, such as retail or food service.

NEWSBREAK: DO YOU NEED MORE TECHNOLOGY SKILLS?

While you are still in school, it’s a good idea to find out what kinds of skills you might
need once you head out into your future jobs, especially technology skills. There might be
classes or workshops at your university that will give you the opportunity to learn some of
these things, or you might talk with your career center counselors about where you could
find high-quality, well-regarded training on technology skills that you can put on your
resumé. Depending on your career path and occupational area, there are probably some
specific technology skills you will need but will be trained on once you have a job. But
there are some technology skills that employers agree are probably important for many, if
not most, types of workers. These seem to fall into five (maybe six) categories:

• Data management: Excel, Google Sheets, Power BI, Tableau

• Presentation software: PowerPoint, Google Slides, Canva
• Communication and collaboration tools: Zoom, Teams, Slack, Meet
• Project management and planning: Trello, Smartsheet, ClickUp
• Generative AI: ChatGPT, Copilot

There are some employers who would add a sixth category related to having some coding
skills. For each category, employers note that people who can use advanced features are
more likely to be more employable, more productive, and more promotable.
Source: Captain, Sean. “Workplace Technology (A Special Report)—the Technology Skills Every
Employee should have Today: Many Employers Expect Workers to be Proficient in a Host of Tech Tools.
among them: Data Analysis, Online Collaboration and Project Management.” Wall Street Journal,
2023 Mar 20, 2023/03/20/. ProQuest, https://libraryproxy.quinnipiac.edu/login?url=www.proquest.
com/newspapers/workplace-technology-special-report-skills-every/docview/2788315997/se-2.
18    Psychology and Work Today

Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the Workplace

Another change in the workplace is demographic. A significant shift has occurred in the
ethnic composition of the workforce. While it is still the case that 3/4 of the U.S. work-
force is categorized as White, persons of African, Asian, Hispanic, and Native American
heritage, as well as people who are from more than one racial background, are a growing
part of the U.S. population. Women make up about half of the workforce. Given these
shifts, organizations large and small are becoming increasingly sensitive to the needs
and concerns of a workforce that consists of many cultures and backgrounds.

NEWSBREAK: WILL THERE BE JOBS FOR YOU? THE HOTTEST

CAREERS FOR COLLEGE GRADUATES

Jobs and careers continue to change; some jobs become obsolete as new technology takes
over and some jobs are created as new technology drives new areas of business needs.
So, how can you predict what jobs will be ready for you when you graduate, prepared
to begin your working career? In Chapter 4, we will introduce you to O*NET, the Online
Occupational Information Network (www.onetonline.org). For now, it’s important that you
know that O*NET is a source of information about occupations in the U.S. economy, and
it is connected to the Department of Labor. The good news for you as a future job seeker
is that O*NET and the Department of Labor track hiring trends and survey organizations
regularly. That has allowed them to forecast which occupations have a “Bright Outlook,”
which is noted on the O*NET website by a shining sun icon next to those occupations.
OK, so what does O*NET have to say about the “hot” jobs you might find? According
to the most recent information, these are some of the jobs that are projected to have a
bright outlook and/or rapid growth in openings from now through 2032:

• Nurses of all specialties

• Engineers
• Accountants
• Software developers
• Anesthesiologists
• Physical therapists
• Athletic trainers

O*NET also lists four occupations as New and Emerging:

• Blockchain Engineers
• Digital Forensics Analysts
• Information Security Engineers
• Penetration Testers

This does not mean that there will not be many jobs in other areas, but these seem to be
the fastest growing fields as of this writing. Check out the full list at www.onetonline.org/
find/bright
Source: O*NET Online. Retrieved from www.onetonline.org/find/bright

Up to 1 million immigrants enter the United States every year, most of them looking
to work. Some lack English-language and other literacy skills. They may also be
unfamiliar with American corporate work habits. This situation presents an additional
challenge to business and industry.
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   19

All these changes in the workplace and in the composition of the workforce pose
opportunities for I-O psychologists in selecting and training workers, redesigning
jobs and equipment, refining management practices, raising morale, and dealing with
health and safety issues. These challenges suggest that the 21st century is an exciting
time to consider a career as an I-O psychologist. We discuss issues related to racial and
ethnic diversity in Chapter 3 and in other chapters throughout this book.

Age Diversity in the Workplace

The workforce today has perhaps the widest range of age diversity ever. Consider that
new entrants to the workforce, people around age 22, were born in the very last years
of the 20th century while people reaching the traditional retirement age were born in
the 1950s. More than half of workers surveyed in a recent study on retirement plan-
ning indicated they planned to work past the traditional retirement age of 65 (Col-
linson et al., 2019). As such, it has become common for large organizations to employ
workers from ages 22 (or so) to 70 (or so). This fact has led to a great deal of attention
from the media as well as researchers who wonder whether there are differences in the
ways people work based on their age.
Those who suggest that there are differences in work and working by age are
strong advocates for the idea that the age groups we see in today’s workplace cor-
respond to generational groups with distinctly different cultures, needs, and expec-
tations. These researchers point out that our workforce consists of Baby Boomers
(1946–1964), Generation X (1965–1980), Millennials (1980–1996), and Gen Z (1997–
2012). Keep in mind that these generalizations describe many—but certainly not
all—members of a generation. There are exceptions in each category, and you may
be among them. Proponents of generational differences argue that the fact that these
different cohorts experienced such different cultural, world, and economic events has
impacted the way they work and what they expect from employing organizations.
Books, print articles, and news stories about the different ways organizations should
be managing employees from different generations abound.
Indeed, one’s generational membership can be a part of one’s identity. Grow-
ing up with certain types of technology, world events, or even television shows can
provide a common set of experiences for people in a cohort that likely do influence
attitudes and beliefs (Beier & Kanfer, 2015). Some researchers have strongly argued
that generational membership is a strong predictor of attitudes like job satisfaction, as
well as expectations about work (Twenge et al., 2010). Still other researchers argue that
the differences among individuals within generational cohorts are as significant as the
differences between them, suggesting that we should neither be making assumptions
about employees based on their age or generation nor should we be treating people
differently based on their generational membership (Costanza & Finkelstein, 2015).
So does age matter at work? Sure. Younger workers are at different stages in
their work lives as well as their personal lives than are workers at middle or older
ages, and these different life stages imply different needs and values. Employees who
are just starting out in their careers but who have fewer family obligations might be
more interested in development opportunities aimed at flexibility or at learning the
business, whereas employees who have been working for a while but have school-aged
children might be eager to work with their organization to enact alternative work
arrangements. Workers who are in the latter years of their career might be interested
in exploring options for transitioning from full-time employment to retirement. We
discuss issues related to age diversity in Chapter 3 and in other chapters throughout
this book.
20    Psychology and Work Today

Careers in I-O Psychology

The minimum requirement for working as an I-O psychologist is a master’s degree.
Most master’s degree students work full time or part time while in school. Of all the
graduate degrees granted in I-O psychology each year, two thirds are at the master’s
level. The majority of I-O master’s degree graduates find professional jobs in their
specialty areas at competitive salaries in industry, government, consulting firms,
and research organizations. Their most marketable skills that can be applied to the
job are in the areas of psychological test and survey construction and validation,
human resources selection and placement, performance appraisal, fair employ-
ment practices, and employee training. Course work in motivation, job satisfac-
tion, and organizational development are also useful on the job. Thus, a master’s
degree program in I-O psychology provides valuable preparation for a productive
and rewarding career. However, the higher positions in businesses and universities
typically require a doctoral degree, which requires from three to five years of grad-
uate study.
The number of graduate students in I-O psychology continues to grow, with the
bulk of the increase being among students at the master’s level. These students have a
sound practical reason for their choice. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics expects an
increase in job opportunities for psychologists in business and research, in nonprofit
organizations, and in computer firms.

NEWSBREAK: BUT WHAT CAN I DO WITH A BACHELOR’S

DEGREE IN . . . ANYTHING?

It has become normal for those of us who teach university undergraduates to hear our
students say they know they “must” go get a graduate degree or that they don’t want to “just”
have the bachelor’s degree. You may indeed be planning to go into a career area that requires
an advanced degree, like medicine, law, or research and teaching full time at a college or
university. Some fields, like nursing, require a specific master’s level degree to get better jobs
in the field. Some require a license or special certificate either instead of or in addition to the
graduate degree. This is true in psychology for people who want to be therapists—they need
at least a master’s degree to do that, as well as a license to practice therapy.
But what if you don’t know what field you definitely want to pursue? Or what if you need
a break from higher education for a bit? The best idea would likely be to wait and actively
explore your goals and options. Work with career counselors and spend some time looking
at information about jobs and degrees. Think about why you are contemplating graduate
school. Would your job or life be very different, maybe better paying or more flexible, if you
had the graduate degree? Would getting that master’s help you reach your career goals? Is it
better to go get a graduate degree after you have worked for a while? This is often true.
What would you do in the meantime if you didn’t go to graduate school right away?
A well-rounded, college-educated person has a lot of skills that employers desire. Focus
on developing skills that would make you an attractive candidate, such as communication
skills, data analysis, comfort with quantitative information, or different kinds of software,
among many others.
Sources: The skillful psychology student. Retrieved from www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psn/2019/02/
skillful-student#; Four questions you should consider before pursuing a master’s degree. Retrieved
from www.forbes.com/sites/adunolaadeshola/2018/07/12/4-questions-you-should-seriously-consider-
before-pursuing-a-masters-degree/#53c8befa1935; Will a Master’s degree help advance your career?
Retrieved from: www.forbes.com/sites/shodewan/2023/09/10/will-a-masters-degree-help-advance-
your-career/
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   21

The training requirements for a career in I-O psychology are difficult, but the rewards
can be great. I-O psychologists have higher salaries than most other psychologists.
In 2021 the median annual income for I-O psychologists with doctoral degrees in
the United States was 137,000$; at the master’s level the median annual income in
2021 was 100,000$. Other rewards for I-O psychologists are notable: stimulating work,
challenging responsibilities, and intellectual growth.
I-O psychologists work in business, industry, government agencies, service
organizations, consulting firms, and universities. Many of the psychologists who teach
courses in I-O psychology also undertake research and consulting activities. Employ-
ment opportunities, as reflected in examples of job titles, responsibilities, and types of
organizations, are shown in Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.2 Places of Employment and Job Responsibilities of Selected I-O Psychologists

Human Resources Consulting Firm

Conduct test development and validation, interview training, assessment center design,
performance appraisal system design, career development programs, and attitude surveys
Market Research, Consulting, and Promotional Services Firm, Marketing Research Project Director
Apply social science research skills to proposal development, analysis, writing, and presentations
International Airline, Assessment Center Specialist for Overseas Development
Coordinate and supervise assessment center for evaluation of employees being considered
for promotion: develop assessment materials, make recommendations to improve
effectiveness, select and train staff to become qualified assessors
Management Consulting Firm, Senior-level Manager
Oversee projects involving the systems approach to training, training technologies, and
management and career development training
Human Resource Research and Consulting Associates, I-O Project Manager
Work with interdisciplinary staff (psychologists, sociologists, computer science specialists,
and educators) on information systems, test development, survey design, and equal
employment issues, including providing expert witness testimony in selected court cases
Employee Decisions Consulting Firm, Director of Human Resources
Provide services in counseling, coaching executive candidates for job interviews,
assessment and test interpretation, and career development
Pharmaceutical Firm, Manager of Psychological Services
Design psychological strategies for employee testing and job analysis, assess legal
considerations in hiring, research and recommend changes in corporate compensation
procedures, develop and monitor performance appraisal practices
Public Utility (Gas and Electric Company), Executive Consultant in Organization Planning and Development
Work with unions, line operations, human resource departments, and senior management
groups to redesign human resource systems and implement major organizational changes
Electronics Corporation, Team Leadership and Communication Trainer
Implement self-directed production work teams: train workers in manufacturing team
concepts, problem-solving techniques, leadership development, communications, and
cooperative decision-making; monitor and evaluate programs and document results
Telecommunications Company, Human Resource Research Intern
Serve as a predoctoral intern (for a person admitted to doctoral candidacy at an accredited
university) to conduct research on human resource programs while working with licensed
I-O psychologists and human resource professionals
State College, Assistant Professor of Psychology
Teach courses in organizational behavior, group processes, and tests and measurements;
direct undergraduate research projects
22    Psychology and Work Today

Women play an increasingly important role in psychology today. In 1970, only

20% of the doctoral candidates who received PhDs in psychology were women. Data
from the APA’s Center for Workforce Studies (2018) shows that 74% of the people in
doctoral programs are women. Sixty-seven percent of the students in I-O psychol-
ogy doctoral programs are women. About 19% of students in I-O doctoral programs
are Black, Indigenous, or other people of color (BIPOC). The field of I-O psychology
is working to grow the diversity of the I-O psychology workforce through an initi-
ative started in 2021 (www.siop.org/The-DIP). It begins with outreach to increase
knowledge of the field and includes increasing access to the research opportunities
that develop the skills and qualifications required for graduate work (Pappas, 2023).
I-O psychologists are affiliated primarily with Division 14 of the American Psy-
chological Association, which is the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psy-
chology, or SIOP. Depending upon their areas of expertise and practice, some I-O
psychologists are also affiliated with APA’s Division of Military Psychology, Division of
Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychologists, the Human Factors/Ergonom-
ics Society, the Society for Consumer Psychology, the Society for Occupational Health
Psychology, and the Association for Consulting Psychologists. Many academic and
research-oriented I-O psychologists are also affiliated with the Association for Psycho-
logical Science as well as with the Academy of Management. Many practitioners are
affiliated with the Society for Human Resource Management.

Practical Problems for I-O Psychologists

No field of study is free of internal and external problems. I-O psychologists face sev-
eral difficulties, all aggravated by the very factor that has made the field so successful,
namely, the demand for its services.

Fraudulent Practitioners
More than any other science, psychology has been victimized by quackery, that is, by
the illicit and fraudulent practice of psychology by people who have little or no pro-
fessional training. This problem is particularly apparent in clinical psychology, where
untrained people set themselves up as “counselors” and “therapists” and often do great
harm to emotionally disturbed persons who are seeking help. Quackery also affects
I-O psychology. Mary Tenopyr, a past president of SIOP, wrote:

A major complication in the lives of psychologists in business is the ill-

trained or unscrupulous person who offers psychological-type services to
companies. . . . Some of the most difficult situations I have had to cope with
in my career have resulted from the actions of pseudopsychologists who have
captured the ears of high-level managers.
(Tenopyr, 1992, p. 175)

An uninformed business organization can be just as gullible as an individual.

Unethical testing or consulting firms have sold their so-called services to industry
and made quick money—and a quicker getaway—before the company realized
it had been duped. Not only is such unethical behavior dangerous and unfair to
business (consider, for example, all the competent people who were not hired
because they performed poorly on the quack’s phony test), but it is also harmful to
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   23

psychology as a science and profession. If a company is damaged by the charlatan’s

actions, the field as a whole receives the blame. Executives of an organization
defrauded in the past will be reluctant to consider legitimate psychological services
in the future.

Credentials and Certification

The problem of the phony practitioner has been reduced in clinical psychology because
many states license or certify psychologists in the same way they license physicians. It
is illegal for people to represent themselves to the public as psychologists or to use any
of the tools of psychology unless they have met the licensing or certification require-
ments, which usually are a graduate degree and satisfactory performance on an exam
covering knowledge of all areas of psychology.
Such procedures were established specifically to protect the public from char-
latans in the areas of clinical and counseling psychology. The question of licensing
I-O psychologists is controversial within the profession. Many I-O psychologists who
practice in states that offer licensing have chosen to apply for it. Although many SIOP
members are licensed, SIOP takes the position that they need not be.
A business must exercise care when seeking the services of a psychologist. It is
not enough to flip through the pages of the telephone directory or enter the words
I-O psychology on a search engine. The educational and professional qualifications of
anyone called a psychologist must be examined carefully.

Communicating with Management

All sciences develop a specialized technical jargon that its members use to communi-
cate with one another. Sometimes this vocabulary is not understood by those outside
the discipline. Because I-O psychologists must work closely with people who are not
psychologists, that is, with managers and employees, they must make the effort to
communicate clearly their ideas, activities, and research results. Recommendations
of I-O psychologists will be of no value to an organization if they cannot be compre-
hended; their reports will be filed in the nearest wastebasket. The I-O psychologists
must be able to present their contributions in a way that can be understood by those
who are using their services.

Worker Resistance to New Ideas

This problem might be called, “I’ve always done it this way, and I’m not going to
change now!” Psychologists who work in business and industry often meet this atti-
tude—a resistance to change, an unwillingness to try something new or consider novel
ideas. When an I-O psychologist recommends altering the usual way of performing
a job, workers sometimes view the suggestion as a threat. Employees who are told to
modify their work habits to conform to the potentially more efficient system proposed
by the psychologist may actively resist because they believe that the company is try-
ing to get them to work harder for the same pay. Insecure workers may also feel that
management is criticizing their past job performance. Resistance to change is a serious
problem at all levels, from the worker on the assembly line or the phone bank to the
CEO at corporate headquarters.
If the findings of I-O psychologists are to have any impact, they must have the
support of the managers and employees who will be affected by them. Psychologists
24    Psychology and Work Today

need the cooperation of those employees whose jobs will be changed. They must show
considerable human relations skills, patience, and persuasiveness in addition to their
technical expertise.

Research or Application?
The question of research versus application continues to concern I-O psychologists
in their work with organizations. Some managers, as well as I-O psychologists who
are practitioners in organizations, complain that too little of the research published
in I-O psychology journals is oriented toward the practical, real-world problems with
which they deal every day (Kurtessis et al., 2017). This may explain why most human
resources managers do not read the published literature in I-O psychology; they find
it too technical, difficult to understand, and impractical or irrelevant to their needs
(Rynes et al., 2007; Shapiro et al., 2007). Psychologists who work for organizations
can help alleviate this problem. Through clear and direct writing, they can interpret
research findings in a way that human resources managers find useful and applicable
to their everyday problems on the job.
In addition, there are differences between academic I-O psychologists and psy-
chologists who work in applied settings. Although they may receive the same training,
once they leave graduate school, their employment experiences, values, and priorities
diverge. Researchers are popularly seen as interested only in theories and methods,
not in anything relevant. In contrast, practitioners are viewed as problem-solvers who
ignore research findings. Although much academic research may appear to have no
immediate application, psychologists who work directly for organizations know that
the two functions, research and application, are interdependent. Without research,
there would be no reliable information to apply to critical problems on the job. This
point is often overlooked by managers who demand immediate solutions to specific
problems and who cannot understand the hesitation of the psychologist who tells
them that the answer can come only from research.
The conflict between research and application arises because organizations often
need prompt answers. Production schedules and contract deadlines do not always
wait for the design and execution of a research study. Managers facing time con-
straints may have unrealistic expectations and become impatient when the company
psychologist—their so-called expert on human behavior—cannot provide a quick fix.
We are not suggesting that whenever I-O psychologists are asked a question,
they run to the laboratory to begin a month-long experiment. The history of psychol-
ogy already provides a wealth of empirical data about human behavior in a variety of
situations, and well-trained psychologists know how to apply these findings to specific
problems in the workplace. The value of such data, however, depends on the similarity
between the situations in which they were obtained and the present situation. For
example, studies about how college sophomores learn complex material are not as
relevant to the learning abilities of employees in a chemical company as is research
conducted on the learning abilities of employees in a steel company. The steel com-
pany research, performed in an actual work setting, will probably provide more useful
results. But a learning study conducted in another chemical company will be even
more applicable. And a study conducted on the very workers whose learning habits
are in question will be the most useful of all.
Properly devised research can be of immense value to an organization’s pro-
ductive efficiency. Sometimes, however, circumstances do not allow sufficient time
or resources for research to be undertaken. The needs of the workplace often call for
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   25

compromise, patience, and understanding by both managers and psychologists. The

fundamental issue is not research versus application but research plus application. The
two functions are compatible and complementary.

Areas of I-O Psychology Discussed in This Book

In this chapter we noted in general how I-O psychology affects many aspects of the
relationship between you and your work. In the following chapters we describe the
specific interests of I-O psychologists.

Foundations of Work in Organizations (Chapters 2, 3, and 4)

Some of the foundational aspects of doing work in organizations involve choosing the
most appropriate ways to collect evidence for the work that needs doing, evaluating
and understanding the ways diversity and inclusion are impacting the workplace, and
developing an understanding of jobs and what it takes to perform them. I-O psy-
chologists study human behavior in the workplace through many different means of
gathering evidence. In Chapter 2 we will describe different types of evidence collected
and some of the challenges and benefits of each.
In Chapter 3 we discuss the ways the workforce continues to become more
diverse and how to understand both the benefits and challenges of diversity. Helping
organizations increase equity and inclusiveness is a critical aspect of I-O psychology
in the 21st century. In Chapter 4, we describe the techniques involves in job analysis
and why having a thorough understanding of job performance is necessary.

Finding and Developing Talent (Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8)

Some executives and personnel managers say they can judge job applicants by a hand-
shake, eye contact, or style of dress. However, selecting and evaluating employees are
complex processes that continue long after initial recruitment and hiring. Through-
out your career, questions of promotion and salary increases will arise. Many of the
selection devices such as interviews and psychological tests that were used when you
were first hired are relevant to subsequent career decisions. Thus, it is important to
understand the selection process. It is to your advantage that your potential employers
choose the most valid techniques available. Improper matching of the person and the
job can lead to inefficiency and dissatisfaction for you and your employer
Periodic evaluation of the quality of your job performance will continue through-
out your working career. Promotions, pay increases, transfers, and dismissals will be
based on these appraisals. These decisions should be made as fairly and objectively
as possible and not be subject to the personal likes and dislikes of your supervisor.
I-O psychologists have devised appraisal methods for many types of jobs. Your future
satisfaction and security depend on these appraisals, so it is important that your com-
pany have a fair and appropriate system for evaluating job performance and that you
understand how that system works.
Virtually every new employee receives some sort of job training. Inexperienced
workers must be taught the specific operations they are expected to perform, and they
may also need training in good work habits. Experienced workers who change jobs
must be taught the policies and procedures of their new employer. Workers whose jobs
are altered by changing technology require retraining. As the machinery of production
26    Psychology and Work Today

and the dynamics of organizational life become more complex, the demands made on
employees to learn and on employers to teach increase in scope and significance.

Working Together (Chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12)

Vital to the efficiency of any organization are the motivations of its employees, the sat-
isfaction employees receive from their work, and the extent of employee commitment
to the company. High levels of motivation and positive attitudes toward work can be
related to well-being, better performance, and other employee and organizational out-
comes. Poor motivation and negative attitudes can be linked with undesirable effects,
such as absenteeism, turnover, low productivity, frequent accidents, and labor griev-
ances. I-O psychologists work to identify and modify conditions that can impair the
quality of working life before they have serious psychological and economic conse-
quences for employees and employers.
One of industry’s greatest challenges is selecting, training, and developing effec-
tive leaders. The problem is of concern to you for two reasons. First, as an employee
you will work under a supervisor or manager, and your efficiency and satisfaction will
be affected by his or her leadership style. Second, because most business leaders come
from the ranks of college-educated persons, you will most likely serve at some level of
management in the course of your career. Psychologists are concerned with the abilities
of leaders in various situations and the effects of different leadership styles on subordi-
nates. To continue growing, an organization must place its most competent people in
positions of leadership, and they must exercise their skills in the most effective manner.
Teams have become a fundamental aspect of working in many different occupa-
tions. I-O psychologists examine the factors that contribute to team effectiveness and
help develop ways of assessing, structuring, and creating teams. You will more than
likely work as part of a team in your future career.
The ways that organizations are organized can have impacts on the effectiveness
of the people who work in those organizations. I-O psychologists are concerned with
the culture that develops in organizations and how to ensure that it is healthy. The way
organizations are designed in terms of the work flows and reporting lines can be a
factor in employee performance and well-being. Advances in technology through the
various industrial revolutions have changed organizations repeatedly, including most
recently with advances in artificial intelligence.

I-O Psychology and Related Disciplines

(Chapters 13, 14, and 15)
Job-induced stress related to exposure to stressors and working conditions has wide-
spread effects on physical and mental health and well-being. Stress can interfere with
job performance and lead to serious illness and burnout. Many organizations attempt
to deal with the effects of stress through counseling programs and by redesigning jobs
to be less stressful. Occupational health psychology is an interdisciplinary area of
research and practice that many I-O psychologists have expertise in.
The design of the tools and equipment needed to perform a job is directly related
to the physical work environment, to reduction of exposure to hazards, and to job
safety. As the machinery of the manufacturing, transportation, and service industries
becomes more complex, so do the demands placed on the human operators of the
equipment. The job of the human factors psychologist is to ensure the best work-
ing relationship between person and machine by taking account of the strengths and
weaknesses of both.
 Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology   27

The work of consumer psychologists is important to you if you are employed

by a company that manufactures and sells consumer products and services and if you
want to be a smart and informed buyer. Psychologists are involved in defining the
markets for consumer goods, determining the effectiveness of advertising campaigns,
and analyzing the motivations and needs of the buying public.

Summary
Work provides a sense of personal identity, defines social status, contributes to self-
esteem, and satisfies the need for belonging to a group. Industrial-organizational
(I-O) psychology is defined as the application of the methods, facts, and princi-
ples of the science of behavior and mental processes to people at work. As a science,
psychology relies on observation and experimentation and deals with overt human
behavior—behavior that can be observed objectively.
Industrial psychology began in the early 20th century and grew under the impe-
tus of the two world wars. A major change in industrial psychology came with the
recognition of the influence of social and psychological factors on worker behavior, as
demonstrated by the Hawthorne studies of the 1920s and 1930s. Human factors psy-
chology emerged out of the development of the sophisticated weaponry of World War
II. Organizational psychology developed in the 1960s in response to concern about
the organizational climate in which work takes place.
Continuing challenges for I-O psychologists relate to the changing nature of
work and of the workforce, continued technological advances, and the needs and
desires of workers.
To work professionally as an I-O psychologist you need a master’s degree, but
you may find a position of greater responsibility with a doctoral degree. I-O psycholo-
gists in organizations face several problems brought about, in part, by the demand for
their services. These practical problems include fraudulent practice of I-O psychology
by persons who are not professionally trained, the difficulty of translating technical
jargon so that ideas can be communicated to management, the unwillingness of man-
agers and workers to try new ways of doing things, and the necessity of balancing
research and timely solutions to problems.
Areas of I-O psychology discussed in the following chapters include diversity in
the workplace, employee selection and psychological testing, performance appraisal,
training and development, leadership, team effectiveness, motivation and job satisfac-
tion, organizational structures, employee stress and health, human factors psychology,
and consumer psychology.

Review and Reflect

1. Describe some ways in which the kind of work you do affects your life off the job.
2. How will the findings of I-O psychologists influence the way in which you
perform your job?
3. How does I-O psychology influence everyday life, even away from work?
4. Give examples of ways in which I-O psychology can save money for your
employer.
5. How did World War I influence the development of I-O psychology?
6. In what ways did the following individuals contribute to the development of I-O
psychology: a. Walter Dill Scott, b. Hugo Münsterberg, c. Elton Mayo?
28    Psychology and Work Today

7. Explain how the results of the Hawthorne studies opened new areas for I-O
psychologists to explore.
8. Describe the impact of World War II on the development of I-O psychology.
9. What are some challenges with remote work?
10. What are some of the benefits and challenges of gig work?
11. How are the advances in artificial intelligence impacting work in I-O psychology?
12. What challenges does the changing ethnic composition of the U.S. workforce
offer for I-O psychologists?
13. Describe some of the characteristics of your generation. Do you think this is a
fair description of yourself?
14. What kinds of jobs could you obtain with a bachelor’s degree in psychology?
Suppose you earned a PhD in I-O psychology; for what kinds of jobs would you
be qualified?
15. What unique problems do I-O psychologists face in today’s workplace? Which of
these problems do you think is the most serious?
16. Describe some of the reasons there is often a gap between research and application
in I-O psychology.

Additional Sources

American Psychological Association. Pursuing a Career in Industrial/Organizational

Psychology. Retrieved from www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/
organizational/education-training.
Barling, J. (2022). Brave new workplace. Oxford University Press.
Dr. Barling’s book is such a great read. He covers a wide range of topics related
to how work and working is changing and offers suggestions for how I-O
psychologists and leaders should approach the new workplace.
Bowe, J., Bowe, M., & Streeter, S. (Eds.). (2000). Gig: Americans talk about their jobs
at the turn of the millennium. New York: Crown.
Contains 126 oral history interviews from a wide cross section of the U.S.
workforce ranging from an air force general to a movie director, a lawn
maintenance worker, and a waitress. Interesting themes include job satisfaction
or dissatisfaction, personal identification with one’s work, negative features of
glamorous jobs, and appealing features of repetitive jobs.
Department 12. Retrieved from https://department12.com/. A website, newsletter,
and a podcast all about I–O psychology. Created by an I–O psychologist.
Harvard Business School. The Human Relations Movement. Retrieved from www.
library.hbs.edu/hc/hawthorne/.
Koppes, L. L. (Ed.). (2007). Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational
psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reviews the history of selected topics in I–O psychology including personnel
selection, job analysis, motivation, and leadership; a valuable resource for
understanding the growth of the field.
Rogelberg, S. G. (Ed.). (2017). The Sage encyclopedia of industrial and organizational
psychology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
A comprehensive, well-organized overview of a variety of topics of interest to
I–O researchers and practitioners.
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from www.siop.org.
Introduction to Industrial-Organizational Psychology
American Psychological Association . Pursuing a Career in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Retrieved
from www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/organizational/education-training.
Barling, J. (2022). Brave new workplace. Oxford University Press. Dr. Barling’s book is such a great read. He
covers a wide range of topics related to how work and working is changing and offers suggestions for how I-O
psychologists and leaders should approach the new workplace.
Bowe, J. , Bowe, M. , & Streeter, S. (Eds.). (2000). Gig: Americans talk about their jobs at the turn of the
millennium. New York: Crown.
Department 12. Retrieved from https://department12.com/. A website, newsletter, and a podcast all about I–O
psychology. Created by an I–O psychologist.
Harvard Business School . The Human Relations Movement. Retrieved from
www.library.hbs.edu/hc/hawthorne/.
Koppes, L. L. (Ed.). (2007). Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Rogelberg, S. G. (Ed.). (2017). The Sage encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from www.siop.org.

Studying Work and Working People

http://notawfulandboring.blogspot.com/. A blog updated weekly by a social psychologist and teacher of
research methods and statistics.
Landers, R. N. & Behrend, T. S. (2024). Research methods for industrial and organizational psychology:
Science and practice. New York: Routledge.
Morling, B. (2021). Research methods in psychology: Evaluating a world of information (4th ed.). New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Ogden, J. (2018). Thinking critically about research. Abingdon: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Science Vs. Retrieved from https://gimletmedia.com/shows/science-vs. A podcast about many different topics,
some related to I–O psychology and management, but mostly this podcast is a great way to think about how
scientists weigh evidence and make evidence-based recommendations.
Zickar, M. J. , & Keith, M. G. (2023). Innovations in sampling: Improving the appropriateness and quality of
samples in organizational research. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior,
10, 315–337.

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in the Workplace

Bruyère, S. M. , & Colella, A. (Eds.). (2022). Neurodiversity in the workplace: Interests, issues, and
opportunities. Taylor & Francis.
Hays-Thomas, R. (2023). Managing workplace diversity, equity, and inclusion: A psychological perspective
(2nd ed.). New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Hebl, M. , & King, E. (2024). Working together: Practicing the science of diversity, equity, & inclusion. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Understanding Jobs and Job Performance

Bennett, R. J. , Galperin, B. L. , Wang, L. , & Shukla, J. (2024). Norm-violating behavior in organizations: A
comprehensive conceptual review and model of constructive and destructive norm-violating behavior. Annual
Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 11, 481–507.
Blustein, D. L. , & Flores, L. Y. (Eds.). (2023). Rethinking work: Essays on building a better workplace. Taylor &
Francis.
Morgeson, F. P. , Brannick, M. T. , & Levine, E. L. (2020). Job and work analysis: Methods, research, and
applications for human resource management (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.
WorkLife with Adam Grant. Retrieved from www.adamgrant.net/worklife.
Testing Job Applicants
Emre, M. (2018). The personality brokers. New York: Doubleday. A book about the development of the Myers-
Briggs Personality Inventory, which was NOT created nor is it endorsed as a useful tool by I–O psychologists.
Kantrowitz, T. , Reynolds, D. H. , & Scott, J. (Eds.). (2023). Talent assessment: Embracing innovation and
mitigating risk in the digital age. Oxford University Press.
Ryan, A. M. , & Ployhart, R. E. (2017). A century of selection. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 693–717. A
review article that details how employee selection research and practice evolved during 100 years of I–O
psychology.
Woods, S. A. , Ahmed, S. , Nikolaou, I. , Costa, A. C. , & Anderson, N. R. (2020). Personnel selection in the
digital age: A review of validity and applicant reactions, and future research challenges. European Journal of
Work and Organizational Psychology, 29(1), 64–77.

Finding Applicants and Making Hiring Decisions

Bauer, T. N. , McCarthy, J. , Anderson, N. , Truxillo, D. M. , & Salgado, J. F. (2020). What we know about the
candidate experience: Research summary and best practices for applicant reactions. SIOP White Paper Series.
Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology.
Gutierrez, S. , & Landers, R. N. (2024). How to survive the AI revolution in HR: Culture change and immediate
action. SIOP White Paper Series. Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology.
Slaughter, J. E. , & Allen, D. G. (Eds.). (2024). Essentials of employee recruitment: Individual and
organizational perspectives (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003356752.
Vodanovich, S. J. , & Rupp, D. E. (2022). Employment discrimination: A concise review of the legal landscape.
Oxford University Press.

Measuring Employee Performance on the Job

Aguinis, H. (2019). Performance management for dummies. New York: For Dummies an Imprint of Wiley. A
book aimed at managers and anyone who wants to learn more about performance management. This would be
a great quick read for anyone wanting to know more. Aguinis is an O psychologist and professor of
management who is an expert on talent management.
Aguinis, H. (2023). Performance management (5th ed.). Chicago: Chicago Business Press. The newest edition
of a well-written, evidence-based textbook on what we know about performance management from both
research and practice.
HBR Ideacast Podcast. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2018/01/podcast-ideacast. Podcast produced by
Harvard Business Review, a well-respected journal focused on publishing the latest research and practice in
management science. Many episodes related to O psychology, including performance appraisal.
Varma, A. , Pereira, V. , & Patel, P. (2024). Artificial intelligence and performance management. Organizational
Dynamics, 53(1), 101037.

Training and Development

Beier, M. E. (2022). Life-span learning and development and its implications for workplace training. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 31(1), 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214211003891.
Boser, U. (2017). Learn better: Mastering the skills for succes in life, business, and school, or how to become
an expert in just about anything. Rodale Books.
Brown, P. C. , Roediger, H. L., III , & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. A book that clearly outlines what psychologists know about learning.
Ellingson, J. E. , & Noe, R. A. (2017). Autonomous learning in the workplace. Abingdon: Routledge. An edited
book focusing on what research and practice has shown to be important for individual, self-directed learning in
the workplace.
Kirkpatrick, J. D. , & Kirkpatrick, W. (2016). Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation. Association for Talent
Development. Outlines and updates the commonly used four levels of training criteria.
Kraiger, K. , & Ford, J. K. (2021). The science of workplace instruction: Learning and development applied to
work. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8(1), 45–72.
Learning and Development Stories Podcast. Retrieved from http://landdstories.libsyn.com/. Interviews learning
and development leaders from various organizations to find out what has worked for their companies.
Employee Motivation, Engagement, and Attitudes
Barling, J. (2023). Brave new workplace: Designing productive, healthy, and safe organizations. Oxford
University Press.
Bridgman, T. , Cummings, S. , & Ballard, J. (2019). Who built Maslow’s pyramid? A history of the creation of
management studies’ most famous symbol and its implications for management education. Academy of
Management Learning & Education, 18, 81–98.
Byrne, Z. S. (2022). Understanding employee engagement: Theory, research, and practice. Routledge.
McCord, P. (2018). Powerful: Building a culture of freedom and responsibility. Silicon Guild.
Murphy, M. C. (2024). Cultures of growth: How the new science of mindset can transform individuals, teams
and organisations. Simon and Schuster.
Sessa, V. I. , & Bowling, N. A. (Eds.). (2020). Essentials of job attitudes and other workplace psychological
constructs. Routledge.
Spector, P. E. (2022). Job satisfaction: From assessment to intervention. Routledge.

Leadership in Organizations
Barling, J. (2022). Brave new workplace. Oxford University Press.
Day, D. V. (2024). Developing leaders and leadership: Principles, practices, and processes. Springer Nature.
Everly Jr., G. S. , & Athey, A. B. (2023). Leading beyond crisis: The five pillars of transformative resilient
leadership. American Psychological Association. Approachable book that offers recommendations for leaders
on leading through and after times of crisis. Evidence-based.
Northouse, P. G. (2021). Leadership (9th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc. Another thorough text
about leadership research.
Wiseman, L. (2017). Multipliers: How the best leaders make everyone smarter. Harper Business.

Teams and Team Effectiveness

McDaniel, S. H. , Salas, E. , & Kazak, A. E. (2018). The science of teamwork. Special Issue of American
Psychologist, 73(4).
O'Neill, T. , McNeese, N. , Barron, A. , & Schelble, B. (2022). Human–autonomy teaming: A review and
analysis of the empirical literature. Human Factors, 64(5), 904–938.
Selenko, E. , Bankins, S. , Shoss, M. , Warburton, J. , & Restubog, S. L. D. (2022). Artificial intelligence and the
future of work: A functional-identity perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(3), 272–279.
https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221091823.
Tannenbaum, S. , & Salas, E. (2021). Teams that work: The seven drivers of team effectiveness. Oxford
University Press.
Zajac, S. , Woods, A. , Tannenbaum, S. , Salas, E. , & Holladay, C. L. (2021). Overcoming challenges to
teamwork in healthcare: A team effectiveness framework and evidence-based guidance. Frontiers in
Communication, 6, 606445.

Organizations in the 21st Century

Allan, B. A. , Autin, K. L. , & Wilkins-Yel, K. G. (2021). Precarious work in the 21st century: A psychological
perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 126, 103491.
Baran, B. E. , & Bible, S. C. (2019). Agility and agile: An introduction for people, teams, and organizations.
SIOP White Paper. Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology.
Candido, C. , Durakovic, I. , & Marzban, S. (2024). Routledge handbook of high-performance workplaces.
Routledge.
How I Built This Podcast. Retrieved from www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this. A podcast that tells
stories of how companies and organizations were built via interviews with people who built them.
Ton, Z. (2023). The case for good jobs: How great companies bring dignity, pay, and meaning to everyone’s
work. Harvard Business Review Press.
Occupational Health Psychology
The American Institute of Stress . Retrieved from www.stress.org.
American Psychological Association . (2024). Work in American Survey. Retrieved from
www.apa.org/pubs/reports/work-in-america/2024.
Barling, J. (2022). Brave new workplace. Oxford University Press.
Cunningham, C. J. , & Black, K. J. (2021). Essentials of occupational health psychology. Routledge.
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health . Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/niosh.
Tetrick, L. E. , Quick, J. C. E. , Ford, M. T. , & Fisher, G. G. (2024). Handbook of occupational health
psychology (pp. xiii–x709). American Psychological Association.

Human Factors Psychology

Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Retrieved from www.hfes.org/.
International Ergonomics and Human Factors Association. Retrieved from https://iea.cc/.
Mrugalska, B. , & Karwowski, W. (Eds.). (2023). Anthropometry: Human body measurements and how to use
them. Taylor & Francis.
Norman, D. (2013). The design of everyday things. New York: Basic Books.
Salvendy, G. , & Karwowski, W. (Eds.). (2021). Handbook of human factors and ergonomics. John Wiley &
Sons.
Stone, N. J. , Chapparo, A. , Keebler, J. R. , Chapparo, B. S. , & McConnell, D. S. (2024). Introduction to
human factors: Applying psychology to design (2nd ed.). CRC Press.

Consumer Psychology
“The Brainy Business” Podcast with Melina Palmer. Retrieved from https://thebrainybusiness.com/podcast/.
Kahle, L. R. , Lowrey, T. M. , & Huber, J. (2022). APA handbook of consumer psychology (pp. xxvi–x778).
American Psychological Association.
Lamberton, C. , Rucker, D. D. , & Spiller, S. A. (Eds.). (2023). The Cambridge handbook of consumer
psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Neuromarketing Resources. Retrieved from www.newneuromarketing.com/.
Palmer, M. (2024). The truth about pricing: How to apply behavioral economics so customers buy. Mango
Media Inc.
Pappas, S. (2021, June 1). The goods on consumer behavior. Monitor on Psychology, 52(4). Retrieved from
www.apa.org/monitor/2021/06/feature-consumer-behavior.
Twitchell, J. B. (2001). 20 ads that shook the world: The century’s most groundbreaking advertising and how it
changed us all. New York: Crown.

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