LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

It creates a special kind of light that is different from ordinary light,

like the light from a bulb or the sun. In regular light, atoms emit photons randomly, but in a laser, the emitted light waves move in a coordinated
and organized way. This happens through a process called stimulated emission.

In a laser, light interacts with atoms in three ways:

1.
Absorption:
When an atom in a low-energy state absorbs a photon with the right amount of energy, it jumps to a higher energy state.

2.
Spontaneous Emission:
An atom in a high-energy state can release energy on its own, falling back to a lower energy state and emitting a photon. This process
happens randomly, and the emitted photons are not coordinated.

3.
Stimulated Emission:
When a photon hits an excited atom, it causes the atom to release another photon. The new photon travels in the same direction and with the
same phase (timing) as the first photon. This creates a powerful, focused, and coherent beam of light — the core principle behind laser
operation.

The energy of the emitted photon is determined by the difference between the two atomic states, calculated with the equation:

E2−E1=hν12E_2 - E_1 = h \nu_{12}E2−E1=hν12

Where:

E2E_2E2 = Energy of the excited state

E1E_1E1 = Energy of the ground state
hhh = Planck’s constant
ν12\nu_{12}ν12 = Frequency of the photon

Stimulated emission is the key process that makes lasers so useful for technology, medicine, and science!

Questions and Answers:

1. What does the acronym LASER stand for?

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

2. How is laser light different from regular light?

Laser light is coherent and monochromatic, meaning the light waves are organized, in sync, and have a single color or wavelength. Regular
light is random and spreads out in many directions.

3. What are the three ways light interacts with atoms?

The three interactions are:

Absorption
Spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission
4. What happens during absorption?

In absorption, an atom in a low-energy state absorbs a photon and jumps to a higher energy state.

5. What is spontaneous emission? How is it different from stimulated emission?

Spontaneous emission happens when an excited atom releases energy on its own, randomly emitting a photon. In stimulated emission, an
incoming photon triggers the atom to release another photon that travels in the same direction and phase as the original photon.

6. Why is stimulated emission important for creating laser light?

Stimulated emission produces coherent light, where all photons move in sync. This makes laser beams highly focused, powerful, and useful
for many applications.

7. What does it mean when photons are "coherent" in a laser?

Coherent photons have the same wavelength and are in phase with each other, meaning they move together like synchronized waves.

8. What equation is used to calculate the energy difference between atomic states?

The equation is:

E2−E1=hν12E_2 - E_1 = h \nu_{12}E2−E1=hν12

Where E2E_2E2 and E1E_1E1 are the energy levels, hhh is Planck’s constant, and ν12\nu_{12}ν12 is the photon’s frequency.

9. How does the phase of emitted photons affect laser light?

 When photons are in the same phase, they strengthen each other, creating a highly focused and intense beam of light.

10. Why are lasers useful in technology and science?

Lasers are useful because they produce a focused, high-energy, and precise beam of light. They’re used in medicine (surgery, vision
correction), communications (fiber optics), industry (cutting, welding), research (spectroscopy, atomic studies), and even in everyday
devices (barcode scanners, CD players)

Differences Between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission

Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
1. Polychromatic radiation: Emits light of many different 1. Monochromatic radiation: Emits light of a single wavelength.
wavelengths.
2. Low intensity: The light produced is weaker. 2. High intensity: The light produced is much stronger.
3. Low directionality: The light spreads out in many 3. High directionality: The light is focused and spreads very little.
directions.
4. Incoherent light: The light waves are not in sync (out of 4. Coherent light: The light waves are in sync (same phase and wavelength).
phase).
5. No external trigger: The atom returns to a lower energy 5. Triggered by a photon: An incoming photon causes the excited atom to
state on its own, without outside influence. release another photon with the same energy and phase.

Quick Question:

What are two key features of light produced by stimulated emission that make lasers unique?
Answer:

1. Coherence: The light waves are in phase and synchronized.

2. Directionality: The light travels in a narrow, focused beam with minimal spread.
3.
Characteristics of Laser Light
1. Coherence:
Laser light is coherent, meaning the light waves are in step with each other. This happens because of stimulated emission, where
emitted photons have a fixed phase relationship. Coherence can be:

Temporal coherence: The phase remains constant over time.

Spatial coherence: The phase remains constant across different points in space.

2. Monochromaticity:
Laser light is nearly monochromatic, meaning it has a very narrow range of wavelengths (or colors). Regular light sources have a wide
range of wavelengths, but laser light has an extremely small frequency spread, making it close to a single pure color.

The degree of monochromaticity is given by:

ξ=dλλ=dνν\xi = \frac{d\lambda}{\lambda} = \frac{d\nu}{\nu}ξ=λdλ=νdν

3. Directionality:
Laser beams are highly directional, meaning they travel in a straight, narrow path without spreading out. Even over long distances, the
beam diverges very little. The small divergence angle of a laser is around 0.01 milliradian, while a searchlight has a divergence of about
0.5 radian.

The divergence angle is calculated as:

Δθ=r1−r2D2−D1\Delta \theta = \frac{r_1 - r_2}{D_2 - D_1}Δθ=D2−D1r1−r2

4. High Intensity:
Laser light has very high intensity because a large amount of energy is concentrated in a very small area. The energy is concentrated
both in space and within a narrow spectrum of wavelengths. For example:

Gas lasers have power as low as 10 ¹³W, while solid-state pulsed lasers can reach up to 10 W.
The number of photons emitted per second per unit area can range from 10²² to 10³⁴ photons/m²·s, which is far more than what a
normal hot body emits.

Questions and Answers:

1. What is coherence in laser light?

Coherence means the light waves are in step with each other, with a fixed phase relationship. It can be temporal (constant over time)
or spatial (constant across space).

2. Why is laser light considered monochromatic?

Laser light is monochromatic because it has a very narrow range of wavelengths, almost a single pure color, unlike regular light which
contains many different wavelengths.

3. What makes laser light highly directional?

Laser light is highly directional because it travels in a straight, narrow beam with very little spreading (low divergence). This is due to
the way the light is emitted through stimulated emission.
4. What is the typical divergence of a laser beam compared to a searchlight?

A laser beam has a divergence of about 0.01 milliradian, while a searchlight has a divergence of around 0.5 radian — meaning lasers
spread much less!

5. Why is laser light so intense?

Laser light is intense because it concentrates a lot of energy in a small area and within a narrow range of wavelengths. For example,
solid-state lasers can produce powers up to 10 W!

6. How does stimulated emission contribute to the properties of laser light?

Stimulated emission makes laser light coherent and intense. It causes emitted photons to be in phase and move in the same direction,
amplifying the light without random phase shifts.

7. What’s the equation for the number of photons emitted by a laser per unit area per second?

The equation is:

Nl=Phν πr2N_l= \frac{P}{h\nu \cdot \pi r^2}Nl=hν πr2P

Where:

PPP = Power of the laser

hhh = Planck’s constant
ν\nuν = Frequency of light
rrr = Radius of the laser beam

Einstein’s Coefficients
Einstein introduced three important coefficients to describe how atoms interact with light. These coefficients help explain the
processes of absorption and emission of light by atoms.

Imagine there are two energy levels in an atom:

E : Lower energy level (with N atoms per unit volume)

E : Higher energy level (with N atoms per unit volume)

The energy difference between these levels is:

E2−E1=hνE_2 - E_1 = h \nuE2−E1=hν

Where:

hhh is Planck’s constant

ν\nuν is the frequency of the photon

If there are n photons per unit volume, the energy density of these photons is:

ρ(ν)=nhν\rho(\nu) = n h \nuρ(ν)=nhν

When photons interact with atoms, two types of transitions happen:

1. Absorption (Upward Transition):

An atom in the lower energy state absorbs a photon and jumps to a higher energy state. The rate of absorption depends on:

The number of atoms in the lower energy state (N )

 The energy density of the light field (ρ(ν))

The rate of stimulated absorption is given by:

Absorption rate=B12N1ρ(ν)\text{Absorption rate} = B_{12} N_1 \rho(\nu)Absorption rate=B12N1ρ(ν)

Where B is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption — a constant that tells us how likely an atom is to absorb a photon.

At equilibrium (when the system is balanced), the rates of absorption and emission must be equal!

I can walk you through the emission processes (spontaneous and stimulated) next if you'd like — or we can dive deeper into the
equations!

Quick Questions and Answers:

1. What are Einstein’s coefficients used for?

They describe how atoms absorb and emit photons when transitioning between energy levels.

2. What is the equation for the energy density of photons?

The energy density is:

ρ(ν)=nhν\rho(\nu) = n h \nuρ(ν)=nhν
3. What does the coefficient B represent?

B is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption. It measures how likely an atom is to absorb a photon and jump to a higher
energy level.

4. What factors affect the absorption rate of photons?

The absorption rate depends on:

Number of atoms in the lower energy state (N )
Energy density of the radiation (ρ(ν))
Einstein coefficient B

5. What happens at equilibrium in an atom-photon interaction?

At equilibrium, the rate of absorption equals the rate of emission so the number of atoms in each energy level stays constant.

Downward Transitions & Einstein Coefficients

Once atoms are excited to a higher energy state, they don’t stay there forever. They eventually return to a lower energy state,
releasing photons in the process. This downward transition can happen in two ways:

1. Spontaneous Emission:
Atoms in the excited state return to a lower energy state on their own after a short time (called the lifetime of the excited state).
They emit a photon without any external influence. The rate of spontaneous emission depends only on the number of atoms in
the excited state:

Spontaneous emission rate=A21N2\text{Spontaneous emission rate} = A_{21} N_2Spontaneous emission rate=A21N2

Where A is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission — a constant that measures the probability of spontaneous photon
emission.

2. Stimulated Emission:
Before atoms de-excite on their own, they might interact with photons in the system. A photon can stimulate an excited atom to
emit another photon. The emitted photon is in phase with the incoming photon (same direction, frequency, and phase). This
increases the photon density and leads to light amplification.

The rate of stimulated emission depends on:

The number of atoms in the excited state (N )

The energy density of the photons (ρ(ν))

Stimulated emission rate=B21N2ρ(ν)\text{Stimulated emission rate} = B_{21} N_2 \rho(\nu)Stimulated emission rate=B21N2ρ(ν)

Where B is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.

Equilibrium Condition:

In thermal equilibrium, the upward and downward transition rates must be balanced:

N1ρ(ν)B12=N2ρ(ν)B21+N2A21N_1 \rho(\nu) B_{12} = N_2 \rho(\nu) B_{21} + N_2 A_{21}N1ρ(ν)B12=N2ρ(ν)B21+N2A21

This equation connects the processes of absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission!
Population Inversion & Laser Action
Normally, more atoms are in the lower energy state (N )than in the excited state (N .) This makes absorption stronger than
stimulated emission.

To create a laser, we need the opposite condition:

N2>N1N_2 > N_1N2>N1

This condition is called population inversion. When more atoms are in the excited state, stimulated emission dominates, photon
density increases, and light gets amplified. This leads to Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)!

Quick Questions & Answers:

1. What is spontaneous emission?

Spontaneous emission happens when an atom in an excited state returns to a lower energy state on its own, emitting a photon.

2. What is stimulated emission?

Stimulated emission happens when a photon interacts with an excited atom, causing it to emit another photon that is in phase
with the original photon.
3. What is the Einstein coefficient A ?

A is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission, which measures the probability of spontaneous photon emission.

4. What are the Einstein coefficients B and B ?

B Probability
: of stimulated absorption (atom absorbs a photon).
B Probability
: of stimulated emission (atom emits a photon after interacting with another photon).

5. What is population inversion, and why is it important for lasers?

Population inversion occurs when more atoms are in the excited state (N )than in the lower state (N .) It’s essential for lasers
because it makes stimulated emission stronger than absorption, amplifying the light!

6. How can we achieve population inversion?

By pumping energy into the system (like with electrical discharge or another light source) to move more atoms into the excited
state than the lower state.

7. Why does spontaneous emission dominate in thermal equilibrium?

In thermal equilibrium, spontaneous emission is much more likely than stimulated emission, especially at lower photon
densities. To boost stimulated emission, we need to increase the energy density of photons and create population inversion.

population Inversion & Conditions

In most systems, the ground state (E )has more atoms than the excited state (E .) But for laser action, we need more atoms in
the excited state (N > N .) This condition is called population inversion.
Conditions for Population Inversion:
1. Energy Levels: The system should have at least 2 energy levels (E > E )with a gap equal to the photon energy (hν).
2. Continuous Energy Supply: A constant energy supply is needed to keep atoms excited.

Methods to Achieve Population Inversion:

Optical Pumping: Using intense light to excite atoms.
Electrical Discharge: Passing electricity through a gas to energize atoms.
Inelastic Collisions: Atoms colliding to transfer energy.
Chemical Reactions: Certain reactions excite atoms.
Direct Conversion: Applying external energy directly.

Helium-Neon (He-Ne) Gas Laser

The He-Ne laser is a 4-level, continuous-wave gas laser. It uses a mixture of helium and neon gases (10:1 ratio) at a pressure
of about 1 mm of Hg.

Tube Length: 10–100 cm

Tube Diameter: 2–8 mm
Power Output: 1–50 mW for 5–10 W input

Key Components:
1. Gas Mixture (He + Ne): Helium helps excite neon atoms.
2. Electrodes: Accelerate electrons through the gas.
3. Mirrors: Create an optical cavity. One mirror is fully reflective, and the other is partially reflective (1% of light escapes as the
laser beam).

Working of the He-Ne Laser

1.
Excitation of Helium:
Passing an electric discharge accelerates electrons through the gas. These electrons collide with helium atoms, exciting
them to metastable states (F ,F .) These states have a long lifetime, so helium atoms stay excited for a while.

2.
Energy Transfer to Neon:
When excited helium atoms (F ,F )collide with neon atoms in the ground state (E ,)they transfer energy. This excites neon
atoms to higher energy levels (E and E ). Helium atoms de-excite back to the ground state.

3.
Population Inversion:
Continuous energy transfer populates the higher energy levels (E ,E )of neon, creating a population inversion between:

E E 3.39 µm (infrared)
E E 632.8 nm (red light)
E E 1.15 µm

4. Photon Emission & Amplification:

 Spontaneous Emission: Some neon atoms drop to lower states, emitting photons.
Stimulated Emission: These photons stimulate other excited neon atoms to emit coherent, monochromatic light.

5.
Optical Resonance & Laser Output:
The emitted photons bounce between the mirrors, amplifying through stimulated emission. A small fraction escapes through
the partially reflective mirror as a coherent laser beam (632.8 nm, red light).

6.
De-excitation & Reset:
Neon atoms eventually fall to the ground state (E )by colliding with the tube walls, resetting for the next cycle.

Quick Questions & Answers:

1. What is population inversion?

When the number of atoms in a higher energy state (N )exceeds those in the lower state (N .)

2. Why is helium used in the He-Ne laser?

Helium atoms help excite neon atoms to higher energy levels through collisions, making population inversion easier.

3. What is the role of the mirrors?

 The mirrors create an optical cavity for photons to bounce back and forth, amplifying light through stimulated emission.

4. Why is one mirror partially reflective?

So a small fraction (1%) of the amplified light escapes as the laser beam.

5. Why are metastable states important?

Metastable states let atoms stay excited longer, increasing the chance of stimulated emission.

6. What is the typical output wavelength of a He-Ne laser?

632.8 nm (red light)

Ruby Laser: Overview

Type: Solid-state, pulsed, 3-level laser
Active Medium: Ruby crystal (Al O + Cr³ )
Length: 2–20 cm, Diameter: 0.1–2 cm
Wavelength: 694.3 nm (red light)
Pumping Source: Helical Xenon flash lamp
Cooling System: Needed to dissipate excess heat

Construction of Ruby Laser

Ruby Rod: Made of Aluminum Oxide (Al O doped
) with Chromium ions (Cr³ )at 0.05% concentration, giving it a pink
color.
 Reflective Ends:

One end fully silvered (100% reflective)

One end partially silvered (10–25% light transmission)
This forms the resonant cavity where light bounces back and forth.

Flash Lamp: Helical xenon or krypton flash lamp wrapped around the rod — provides optical pumping.
Cooling System: Required to prevent overheating due to flash lamp energy losses.

Energy Levels in Ruby Laser

E :Ground state
E :Excited state (broad energy band)
E :Metastable state (lifetime ~ 10 ³s)

Working of Ruby Laser

1. Pumping Process:

The flash lamp emits light (~5600 Å), exciting Cr³ ions from the ground state (E )to the excited state (E .)
The ions stay in E for a very short time (~10 s) and non-radiatively decay to the metastable state (E ,)releasing
energy as heat.

2. Population Inversion:
 Since E is metastable (lifetime 10 ³s, 10 times longer than E ), Cr³ ions accumulate in E , while the ground state E
depletes — this creates population inversion.

3. Stimulated Emission:

When a Cr³ ion drops from E E , it emits a photon (6943 Å, red light).
This photon reflects between the silvered mirrors, repeatedly stimulating other excited ions to emit in-phase photons —
amplifying the light!

4. Laser Output:

As the photon beam intensifies, part of it escapes through the partially silvered mirror as a pulsed laser beam of 694.3
nm (red light).

Key Characteristics:
Wavelength: 694.3 nm (red light)
Mode of Operation: Pulsed (due to flash lamp)
Power Requirement: High pumping power
Cooling Requirement: Essential to dissipate heat loss

Drawbacks of Ruby Laser:

1. High Pumping Power Needed:

Flash lamps require thousands of joules of energy, with significant heat loss.

2. Pulsed Operation:

Cannot produce a continuous beam — only works in short, intense pulses.

Let’s break this down into a clear summary of Semiconductor Lasers (Diode Lasers)!

2.7 Semiconductor Laser (Diode Laser)

What is it?
A laser made from semiconductors, where light is emitted due to the recombination of electrons and holes at a p-n
junction.

Key Material: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) — a direct band gap semiconductor that efficiently emits photons.

Wavelength of Emitted Light:

λ=1.24Eg μm\lambda = \frac{1.24}{E_g} \, \mu m

 Where:

E_g = Energy gap (in eV)

λ = Wavelength of emitted light
1.24 = A constant derived from Planck's constant and the speed of light

For GaAs, E_g ≈ 1.44 eV, so the wavelength ≈ 860 nm (infrared).

Types of Semiconductor Lasers:

1. Homojunction Laser: p-type and n-type regions are made from the same material.
2. Heterojunction Laser: p-type and n-type regions are made from different materials (e.g., GaAs/GaAlAs).

Construction of GaAs Semiconductor Diode Laser:

Active Medium: GaAs p-n junction diode
Polished Ends: The sides through which light comes out are polished and parallel to act as reflective surfaces.
No External Mirrors Needed: Due to high refractive index of GaAs, reflections occur at the material-air interface.
Working Principle:
1. Forward Biasing the Diode:

p-region (positive bias) injects holes into the n-region.

n-region (negative bias) injects electrons into the p-region.

2. Recombination & Photon Emission:

Electrons & holes recombine at the junction, releasing photons.

The emitted photon can trigger stimulated emission, causing more recombination and further light amplification.

3. Population Inversion:

Minority carriers (electrons in p-region, holes in n-region) build up, creating population inversion near the junction.
Stimulated emission increases as photons bounce between the polished faces, amplifying the light.

Drawbacks of Homojunction Lasers:

1. High Threshold Current Density: ~400 A/mm²
2. Poor Electromagnetic Confinement: Reduces efficiency.
3. High Beam Divergence & Poor Coherence: Low-quality laser output.
4. Pulsed Output Only: No continuous emission.
Advantages of Heterojunction Lasers (GaAs/GaAlAs):
1. Lower Threshold Current Density: ~5–10 A/mm²
2. Continuous Laser Output: Better for practical applications.
3. Effective Carrier Confinement: Boosts efficiency and reduces losses.
4. Higher Output Power: Stronger, more stable laser beams.
5. Narrow Beam & High Coherence: Better for fiber optics & communication.
6. Longer Lifetime: More durable and reliable devices.
7. Greater Stability: Less affected by environmental factors.

Applications of Semiconductor Lasers:

Optical fiber communication
CD/DVD players
Barcode scanners
Laser printers
Medical devices (e.g., laser surgery)
Laser pointers

2.8 Applications of Lasers

Lasers are incredibly versatile and used across multiple industries. Let’s break them down!
1. Communication Applications:
Optical Fiber Communication: Lasers transmit audio, video, and data signals over long distances with minimal loss or
distortion.
Space Communication: The narrow beam of lasers allows communication between Earth and satellites or even Earth
and the Moon.
Underwater Networks: Since laser radiation isn’t absorbed by water, it’s used for undersea communication systems.

2. Industrial Applications:
Material Processing: Laser cutting, welding, drilling, and engraving create precise, high-quality results.
Micro-welding & Selective Heat Treatment: Lasers weld dissimilar metals and can selectively harden specific
machine parts.
Electronics Manufacturing: Lasers trim components in ICs, improving circuit accuracy and performance.

3. Medical Applications:
Laser Surgery: Enables precise, minimally invasive surgeries (e.g., brain surgery, tumor removal).
Cosmetic Treatments: For tattoo removal, scar treatment, wrinkle reduction, and more.
Dermatology Lasers:
Use different wavelengths for various treatments:
Ruby (694 nm) Pigment removal
Alexandrite (755 nm) Hair removal
Nd:YAG (1064 nm) Vascular treatments
 Er:YAG (2940 nm) Skin resurfacing

Eye Surgeries: LASIK, cataract removal, retinal repair, etc.

Dental Procedures: For tooth whitening, cavity removal, and gum treatments.
Cancer Treatment: Non-contact laser therapy for brain and spinal cord tumors.
Soft Tissue Surgery: CO and Er:YAG lasers are widely used for general surgery and gynecology.

4. Military Applications:
Laser Weapons (Death Rays): High-energy beams can destroy drones, missiles, or even aircraft.
Laser Guns: Can vaporize targets at close range with intense, focused beams.
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Similar to RADAR, but uses laser light to measure distance, size, and shape of
distant objects (useful for target tracking).

5. Computer & Data Storage:

CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs: Lasers read and write vast amounts of data.
Laser Printers: Use lasers to etch high-resolution text and images onto paper.

6. Thermonuclear Fusion:
 Laser-Driven Fusion: High-intensity laser pulses create extremely high temperatures and pressures (~10¹ °C) —
enough to initiate nuclear fusion reactions (e.g., deuterium-tritium fusion).

7. Scientific Research & Space Exploration:

Spectroscopy Techniques:

Raman Spectroscopy: To analyze molecular structures.

Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS): For material analysis.

Non-Linear Optics: To explore complex light-matter interactions.

Holography & Interferometry: For precision measurements and 3D imaging.
Space Missions: Lasers help in planetary mapping and atmospheric studies (e.g., Cassini-Huygens mission).
Astronomy (Laser Guide Stars): Create artificial stars to calibrate telescopes for sharper observations.