Ecology

✓ Living organisms constantly interact with each other and the environment in which
they live.

Important Definitions
✓ Ecology: the study of the interrelationships of living organisms with each other and
their environment.

✓ Environment: the combination of factors that surround and act upon an organism.
These factors can be divided into two groups: biotic factors and abiotic factors.
• Biotic factors: all the other living organisms that are present such as predators,
prey, competitors, parasites and pathogens.
• Abiotic factors: all the non-living chemical and physical factors.

✓ Habitat: the place where a particular organism lives. E.g., the habitat of an
earthworm is in the upper layers of the soil.

✓ Species: a group of organisms of common ancestry that share similar physical

characteristics and are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.

✓ Population: all the members of a particular species living together in a particular

habitat. E.g., all the humans living in Barbados form a population.

✓ Community: all the populations of different species living together in a particular

habitat. E.g., A woodland community consists of all plants, animals and decomposers
that inhabit the wood.

✓ Ecosystem: a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their
abiotic environment. E.g., A forest; a pond

✓ Niche: the position or role of an organism within an ecosystem. E.g., an earthworm’s

niche is to burrow through the soil, improving its aeration, drainage and fertility.
Ecological Study
✓ The aim of an ecological study is to identify the different species of plants and
animals present, to find out where they live, determine their numbers and find out
about the relationships they have with each other and with the abiotic factors.

Collecting Organisms
✓ To identify organisms, they need to be collected.
✓ Organisms must never be collected or destroyed unnecessarily; as few as possible
should be collected and returned to their original positions if possible; and their
habitat should be left as undisturbed as possible.
✓ Pooters, pitfall traps, nets, plankton nets and a Tullgren funnel may be used,
Sampling Techniques
✓ It is not practical to find and count all the members of the species present.
✓ Sampling techniques are used to sample small areas, from which conclusions can be
drawn about the ecosystem as a whole.
✓ Some sampling techniques include:

Observation
• The ecosystem should first be observed and the common species of plants and
animals recorded.
• Any adaptations that enable the organisms to survive in the ecosystem should be
noted, together with any interrelationship between the organisms.

Quadrats
• A quadrat is a square frame whose area is known, e.g., 0.25m2 or 1m2.
• It is placed, at random, several times within the ecosystem.
• The number of individuals of each species of plant and stationary or slow-moving
animal found within the quadrat is counted.
• If it is not possible to distinguish individual plants of species, e.g., grass, the
quadrat can be made into a grid using string, and the percentage of quadrat area
covered can be estimated.
• Quadrats are used to study the distribution and abundance of plants and
stationary or slow-moving animals in uniform ecosystems. E.g. an area of
grassland.

A grid quadrat
Line transects
• A line transect is usually a measuring tape or string that has marks are regular
intervals e.g., 10 cm or 25 cm.
• It is placed in a straight line across the ecosystem and the species of plants and
stationary or slow-moving animals touching the line, (or touching the line at each
mark), are recorded.
• Line transects are useful where there is a transition of organisms across the
ecosystem, e.g., down a rocky seashore.
• They give a quick idea of the species present and how they change across the
ecosystem.

A line transect

Belt transects
• A belt transect is a strip of fixed width, e.g., 0.5m or 1m, made by placing two
parallel line transects across an ecosystem.
• The species found between the lines are recorded.
• Alternatively, a quadrat can be placed alongside one line transect and the number
of individuals of each species found within its boundaries is counted.
• The quadrat is then moved along the line and counting is repeated at regular
intervals.
Estimating Population Sizes
✓ Population sizes can be estimated by using the results from quadrats or by using the
capture-recapture method.

Using results from quadrats

Results from quadrats can be used to obtain:

✓ Species density
o This is the average number of individuals of a given species per m 2.
o If the quadrat is 1m2, it is obtained by dividing the total number of individuals of
the species by the number of quadrats used.

✓ Total population
o This is the total number of individuals of a given species in the area under study.
o It is obtained by multiplying the species density by the total area of the ecosystem
studied.

✓ Species cover
o This is the percentage of ground covered by a given species.
o It is used if the percentage of the quadrat area covered was estimated.
o If the quadrat is 1m2, it is obtained by dividing the total percentage of ground that
the species covered by the number of quadrats used.

✓ Species frequency
o This is the percentage of quadrats in which the given species was found.
Capture-recapture method
✓ Capture-recapture is used to estimate population sizes of moving animals.
✓ A representative sample of animals of a species is collected, the animals are counted
and each one is marked, e.g., with a dot of paint.
✓ The animals are released back into the same area and are given time to mix with the
original population.
✓ A second sample is collected, counted and the number of marked organisms
counted.
✓ The population size is then estimated:

(number of organisms in first sample) x (number of organisms in second sample)

(number of marked organisms recaptured)

Soil
✓ Soil is a very important environmental factor because plants rely on it for many of
their requirements.
✓ Some requirements are:
• Anchorage
▪ Soil provides an anchorage for plant roots.
▪ A thin or loosely structured soil will not be able to support many plants because
their roots will not be able to get a good grip.

• Nutrient minerals
▪ Soil provides nutrients for plants, particularly minerals such as nitrates and
potassium salts.
▪ This is essential for the healthy growth in plants.

• Water
▪ Plants obtain water from the soil from rainfall.
▪ The water is needed for photosynthesis in plants, dissolving minerals so they
can be absorbed by plant roots and to prevent the drying out of soil organisms.

• Air
▪ Plant roots and other soil organisms need air to provide them with oxygen for
respiration.
▪ Oxygen is needed for bacteria and fungi to decompose organic matter to form
humus.
▪ Humus is a dark brown, sticky material which coats soil particles.

✓ The type of soil growing in an area has a large effect on the plants growing in it.
✓ This in turn, will affect the animals which live there.
 Soil (Edaphic) Factors
EDAPHIC FACTORS & THEIR IMPACT ON LIVING ORGANISMS

EDAPHIC FACTOR IMPACT ON LIVING ORGANISMS

Texture ✓ Influences the water content of the soil. The smaller the soil particles, the more
Rock particles form from rocks by water held by capillarity and chemical forces and the higher the water content.
weathering and are classified based on the ✓ Influences the air content of the soil. The larger the soil particles, the larger the
size of the particle.
air spaces and the higher the air content.
Clay: < 0.002 mm ✓ Influences the mineral ion content of the soil the smaller the soil particles, the
Silt: 0.002-0.02 mm harder it is to leach, and the higher the mineral content.
Sand: 0.02-2.0mm ✓ Influences how easy it is for the plant roots to penetrate and animal to burrow
Gravel: > 2.0mm through the soil. The larger the particles, the easier to penetrate and burrow
through.

Water ✓ Needed for photosynthesis in plants

Obtained from rainfall and held in a thin ✓ Dissolves minerals so they can be absorbed by plant roots.
film around soil particles by capillarity and ✓ Prevents the desiccation of soil organisms without waterproof body coverings
chemical forces.
such as earthworms.

Air ✓ Oxygen in the air is needed for aerobic respiration in plant roots and in soil
Present in the spaces between the soil organisms.
particles ✓ Oxygen in necessary for bacteria and fungi to decompose organic matter
aerobically to form humus.
✓ Nitrogen is necessary for the nitrogen fixing bacteria to form inorganic
nitrogenous compounds such as nitrates.

Mineral nutrients
Formed from decomposing organic matter
✓ Essential for healthy growth of plants.
and by dissolving matter from the
surrounding rock.
Present as ions dissolved in soil water.
pH ✓ Mainly affects mineral ion availability in plants.
the optimum pH for most plants is 6.0 to ✓ If the soil is too acidic or alkaline, mineral ions become less available.
7.5
Humus ✓ Improves the air content by binding soil particles together in small clumps
Formed by bacteria and fungi decomposing called soil crumbs. This process is called flocculation.
dead or waste organic matter. ✓ Improves the mineral ion content by adding minerals, and absorbing and
Humus is a dark brown, sticky material
retaining minerals.
which coats soil particles.
Mainly found in topsoil. ✓ Improves the water content by absorbing and retaining water.
Climatic Factors
✓ The climatic factors affecting terrestrial organisms include light, temperature, humidity,
water availability, wind and atmospheric gases.

Light
✓ Light intensity and its duration affect living organisms.
✓ Light is essential for plants to photosynthesise, and the rate of photosynthesis depends
on the light intensity.
✓ Light also synchronises the activities of plants and animals with the seasons. E.g.,
flowering in plants, and migration, hibernation and reproduction in animals.

Temperature
✓ Most organisms can only survive within a certain narrow temperature range.
✓ At low temperatures, ice crystals may form in the cells and damage them.
✓ At high temperatures, enzymes are denatured.
✓ Temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis and germination in plants, and the
activity of animals. E.g., many animals become dormant in low temperatures.

Humidity
✓ Humidity affects the transpiration in plants, and the evaporation of water from some
animals.
✓ In conditions of high humidity, the rate of transpiration decreases.

Water availability
✓ Terrestrial habitats receive water by precipitation from the atmosphere as rain, snow,
sleet and hail.
✓ Water is essential for life as most chemical reactions in cells and most life processes
need water in order to occur.
✓ It is also essential for photosynthesis in plants.
Wind
✓ This is necessary for pollination and seed dispersal in many plants and may also
influence migration of birds.
✓ It can affect the rate of transpiration in plants, the rate of evaporation of water from
animals, and the growth of vegetation, e.g., branches on the windward side of trees in
exposed places.

Atmospheric gases
✓ The air is a mixture of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour
and pollutants.
✓ Oxygen is essential for aerobic respiration in almost all living organisms.
✓ Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis in plants.
✓ Pollutant gases have a negative effect on living organisms.
Aquatic Factors
✓ Aquatic factors affect organisms living in aquatic habitats such as ponds, lakes, rivers,
oceans and coral reefs.
✓ Aquatic organisms are affected by light, temperature, water availability and pollutants
in the same way as terrestrial organisms.
✓ They are also affected by other factors such as salinity, wave movement, wave action
and oxygen content.

Salinity
✓ This refers to the concentration of salt in the water.
✓ Most aquatic organisms are adapted to survive in a specific salinity and can only
tolerate small changes.
✓ Some are adapted to live in fresh water, some in salt (sea) water and others in brackish
water.

Water movement and Wave action

✓ Organisms living in rivers and streams are affected by the constant movement of water.
✓ Those living along ocean shorelines are exposed to wave action and to changing water
levels as the tide changes.
✓ Those living in oceans are affected by currents.

Dissolved oxygen
✓ Aquatic organisms use dissolved oxygen in the water for respiration.
✓ Oxygen levels in still or polluted water are often low.
✓ Habitats exposed to moving water usually have sufficient oxygen.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Energy Flow
✓ During photosynthesis, primary producers absorb sunlight energy and convert it to
chemical energy, which is stored in organic food molecules.
✓ Some of this energy is then released by the producers during respiration and some is
passed on through food chains in the organic molecules.
✓ At each trophic level in a food chain, energy and biomass (amount of biological matter)
are lost.
✓ Some organic matter is lost in faeces and some is lost in organic excretory products, e.g.,
urea.
✓ Some is used in respiration during which the stored energy is released and used, or lost
as heat.
✓ The remaining energy containing organic matter is used in growth and repair, and is
then passed on to the next trophic level when organisms are consumed.
✓ Organisms that are not consumed will eventually die.
✓ The organic matter in faeces, excretory products and dead organisms is decomposed by
decomposers and they release the energy during respiration.
✓ Energy flows from producers to consumers and decomposers in one direction through
ecosystems and is not recycled.
✓ In general, only 10% of the energy from one level is transferred to the next level.
Ecological Pyramids
✓ As there is less energy and biomass at each trophic level in a food chain, fewer
organisms can be supported at each level.
✓ Energy, biomass and number of organisms at successive levels can be represented by
ecological pyramids.
✓ Due to the loss of energy and biomass at each level, food chains rarely exceed four or
five trophic levels.
✓ The term ‘trophic level’ indicates the number of organisms between the feeder and the
sun.
o Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of numbers (Tropical Rainforest)
o Pyramid of biomass
o Pyramid of energy
Interrelationships between living organisms
✓ Many kinds of relationships exist between living organisms.
✓ These relationships may be beneficial, harmful, close or loose.

Feeding Relationships
✓ The sequence by which energy, in the form of food passes from plant to animal and
then to other animals is called a food chain.
✓ In nature, organisms often have more than one food source and, as a result, a
diagram called a food web better represents their feeding relationships.

Food Chains
✓ Organisms within any ecosystem are linked to form food chains based on how they
obtain organic food.
✓ Energy from the sun enters living organisms through photosynthesis occurring in
green plants, also known as primary producers.
✓ The role of a producer is to harness the sun’s energy and convert it to chemical
energy.
✓ This energy is incorporated into organic food molecules produced by the plants and
is passed on to consumers through food chains.
✓ A food chain is a flow chart which displays the feeding relationships existing
between living organisms.
✓ A food chain always starts with the plant (producer).

✓ A producer is an organism (i.e., green plant) that makes food from inorganic
substances.
✓ Consumers are organisms that feed on other organisms to meet their energy needs.
o A primary consumer eats the primary producer.
o A secondary consumer which eats the primary consumer.
o A tertiary consumer eats the secondary consumer.
o A quaternary consumer which eats the tertiary consumer.

Consumers can also be classified according to what they consume.

✓ Herbivores feed on plant material only. E.g. cows, grasshoppers, snails, slug
✓ Carnivore consumes meat and flesh only. E.g. lizards, spiders, toads
✓ Omnivores consumes both plant and animal material. E.g. humans, hummingbirds
Food Webs
✓ Any ecosystem usually has more than one primary producer and most consumers
have more than one source of food.
✓ Food chains are interrelated to form food webs.
Predator/Prey Relationships
✓ A predator is an organism that kills and feeds on another organism e.g., a lion.
✓ The prey is the organism the predator eats, e.g., a zebra.
✓ Predators are often the prey of other organisms and prey are often predators
themselves.
✓ An apex predator is at the top of a food chain and has no predators, e.g., killer
whales, tiger sharks, hawks and owls.

Detritivores & Decomposers

✓ Detritivores and decomposers are organisms that are present in ecosystems.
✓ They are essential to the recycling of chemical elements within all ecosystems.

Detritivores
✓ These are animals which feed on pieces of decomposing organic matter and break
them down to smaller fragments.
✓ E.g., earthworm, woodlice, millipedes and sea cucumbers.

Decomposers
✓ These are microorganisms which feed saprophytically on dead and waste organic
matter causing it to decompose.
✓ They secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown complex organic compounds into
simple organic compounds which they absorb.
✓ During this process, they release carbon dioxide and inorganic mineral nutrients in
the form ions, e.g., nitrates and sulphates, into the environments.
✓ These can then be reabsorbed and re-used by plants.
✓ E.g., Bacteria and fungi.
Symbiotic Relationships
✓ Symbiosis is a relationship in which two organisms of different species live together.
Symbiosis includes parasitism, mutualism and commensalism.

Parasitism
✓ This is where one partner, usually the smaller, benefits from the association and the
other suffers.
✓ For example, the tapeworm which affects humans and cattle is a parasite.
✓ The tapeworm gets nourishment and shelter from its host, and gives nothing in return.
✓ Humans with tapeworms have to eat more than usual or they will lose weight and could
die.

Commensalism
✓ This is where one partner benefits and the other partner usually does not gain from the
relationship.
✓ An example of commensalism involves two species of fish the “Remora and shark”.
✓ The remora is a small fish which has a suction cup on the top of its head, it uses this to
attach itself to the body of a shark.
✓ It is carried by the shark and eats leftover scraps when the shark feeds.
✓ Although the remora may remove parasitic crustaceans from the shark’s skin, the shark
can live in the absence of its passenger.
✓ The remora benefits greatly from the association as it gets food and protection.
Mutualism

✓ This is where both organisms gain from the association. In extreme cases neither can
live without the other (obligate).
✓ For example, termites feed on wood but like most organisms cannot digest the cellulose
in wood.
✓ Small unicellular animals, Trichonympha, are found in the intestines of termites.
✓ These are animals able to break down the cellulose into sugars.
✓ The termite is able to digest many of these sugars and is thus, able to live on a diet of
wood.
✓ The Trichonympha obtain food and protection by living in their hosts’ intestines and do
not live anywhere else.
Other Relationships
A variety of other interrelationships exist between living organisms.

✓ Camouflage: Some organisms resemble others so they are concealed e.g. stick
insects resemble woody stems.

✓ Pollination: Many plants depend on insects, small birds or bats to transfer their
pollen from one flower to another for reproduction.

✓ Support: Some organisms use others for support e.g. birds build nests in trees;
vines use the support of other plants to grow closer to the sunlight.

✓ Protection: Some organisms use others for protection, e.g. grasshoppers live in long
grass.

✓ Competition: Members of the same species and of different species may compete
with each other. Animals compete for food, space, a mate and shelter. Plants
compete for light, water and minerals.
Recycling
✓ Materials are constantly recycled and reused in nature.
✓ The different chemical elements that make up the bodies of all living things, such as
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur and calcium, are continually
cycled through these living organisms and the physical environment.
✓ Decomposers are essential to the recycling of most of these elements.

Carbon Cycle
✓ Carbon atoms are cycled by being converted into different compounds containing
carbon, e.g., carbon dioxide and all organic compounds.
✓ This cycling ensures that:
o Plants have a continuous supply of carbon dioxide to manufacture organic food
by photosynthesis.
o Animals and decomposers have a continuous supply of organic food.
Nitrogen Cycle
✓ Nitrogen atoms are cycled by being converted into different compounds containing
nitrogen such as nitrates and proteins.
✓ The cycling of nitrogen ensures that:
o Plants have a continuous supply of nitrates to manufacture proteins.
o Animals and decomposers have a continuous supply of proteins.

Water Cycle