Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms are diagnostic indications of an illness, injury, or condition.

Signs (including enlarged liver and spleen) and

symptoms (including headache and vomiting) of acute
HIV infection

Signs are objective and externally observable; symptoms are a person's reported subjective
experiences.[1]

A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature than normal, raised or lowered blood
pressure or an abnormality showing on a medical scan. A symptom is something out of the
ordinary that is experienced by an individual such as feeling feverish, a headache or other pains
in the body,[2][3] which occur as the body's immune system fights off an infection.[4][5][6]

Signs and symptoms

Signs

A medical sign is an objective observable indication of a disease, injury, or medical condition that
may be detected during a physical examination.[7] These signs may be visible, such as a rash or
bruise, or otherwise detectable such as by using a stethoscope or taking blood pressure. Medical
signs, along with symptoms, help in forming a diagnosis. Some examples of signs are nail
clubbing of either the fingernails or toenails[8] or an abnormal gait.[9]
Symptoms

A symptom is something felt or experienced, such as pain or dizziness. Signs and symptoms are
not mutually exclusive, for example a subjective feeling of fever can be noted as sign by using a
thermometer that registers a high reading.[10] The CDC lists various diseases by their signs and
symptoms such as for measles which includes a high fever, conjunctivitis, and cough, followed a
few days later by the measles rash.[11]

Cardinal signs and symptoms

Cardinal signs and symptoms are very specific even to the point of being pathognomonic. A
cardinal sign or cardinal symptom can also refer to the major sign or symptom of a disease.[12]
Abnormal reflexes can indicate problems with the nervous system. Signs and symptoms are also
applied to physiological states outside the context of disease, as for example when referring to
the signs and symptoms of pregnancy, or the symptoms of dehydration. Sometimes a disease
may be present without showing any signs or symptoms when it is known as being
asymptomatic.[13] The disorder may be discovered through tests including scans. An infection
may be asymptomatic but still be transmissible.[13]

Syndrome

Signs and symptoms are often non-specific, but some combinations can be suggestive of certain
diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. A particular set of characteristic signs
and symptoms that may be associated with a disorder is known as a syndrome.

Related terms

Symptomatic

When a disease is evidenced by symptoms it is known as symptomatic. There are many

conditions including subclinical infections that display no symptoms, and these are termed
asymptomatic.

Signs and symptoms may be mild or severe, brief or longer-lasting when they may become
reduced (remission), or then recur (relapse or recrudescence) known as a flare-up. A flare-up may
show more severe symptoms.[14]

The term chief complaint, also "presenting problem", is used to describe the initial concern of an
individual when seeking medical help, and once this is clearly noted a history of the present
illness may be taken. The symptom that ultimately leads to a diagnosis is called a cardinal
symptom. Some symptoms can be misleading as a result of referred pain, where for example a
pain in the right shoulder may be due to an inflamed gallbladder and not to presumed muscle
strain.[15]

Prodrome

Many diseases have an early prodromal stage where a few signs and symptoms may suggest
the presence of a disorder before further specific symptoms may emerge. Measles for example
has a prodromal presentation that includes a hacking cough, fever, and Koplik's spots in the
mouth.[16] Over half of migraine episodes have a prodromal phase.[17] Schizophrenia has a
notable prodromal stage,[18] as has dementia.[19]

Nonspecific symptoms

Some symptoms are specific, that is, they are associated with a single, specific medical
condition.

Nonspecific symptoms, sometimes also called equivocal symptoms,[20] are not specific to a
particular condition. They include unexplained weight loss, headache, pain, fatigue, loss of
appetite, night sweats, and malaise.[21] A group of three particular nonspecific symptoms – fever,
night sweats, and weight loss – over a period of six months are termed B symptoms associated
with lymphoma and indicate a poor prognosis.[22]

Other sub-types of symptoms include:

constitutional or general symptoms, which affect general well-being or the whole body, such as
a fever;[23][24]

concomitant symptoms, which are symptoms that occur at the same time as the primary
symptom;[25]

prodromal symptoms, which are the first symptoms of an bigger set of problems;[26]

delayed symptoms, which happen some time after the trigger;[27] and

objective symptoms, which are symptoms whose existence can be observed and confirmed by
a healthcare provider.[28]

Vital signs

Vital signs are the four signs that can give an immediate measurement of the body's overall
functioning and health status. They are temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood
pressure. The ranges of these measurements vary with age, weight, gender and with general
health.[29]

A digital application has been developed for use in clinical settings that measures three of the
vital signs (not temperature) using just a smartphone, and has been approved by NHS England.
The application is registered as Lifelight First, and Lifelight Home is under development (2020) for
monitoring-use by people at home using just the camera on their smartphone or tablet. This will
additionally measure oxygen saturation and atrial fibrillation. Other devices are then not
needed.[30]

Syndromes

Many conditions are indicated by a group of known signs, or signs and symptoms. These can be
a group of three known as a triad; a group of four ("tetrad"); or a group of five ("pentad").

An example of a triad is Meltzer's triad presenting purpura a rash, arthralgia painful joints, and
myalgia painful and weak muscles. Meltzer's triad indicates the condition cryoglobulinemia.
Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by a triad of motor,
cognitive, and psychiatric signs and symptoms.[31] A large number of these groups that can be
characteristic of a particular disease are known as a syndrome. Noonan syndrome for example,
has a diagnostic set of unique facial and musculoskeletal features.[32] Some syndromes such as
nephrotic syndrome may have a number of underlying causes that are all related to diseases that
affect the kidneys.[33]

Sometimes a child or young adult may have symptoms suggestive of a genetic disorder that
cannot be identified even after genetic testing. In such cases the term SWAN (syndrome without
a name) may be used. Often a diagnosis may be made at some future point when other more
specific symptoms emerge but many cases may remain undiagnosed. The inability to diagnose
may be due to a unique combination of symptoms or an overlap of conditions, or to the
symptoms being atypical of a known disorder, or to the disorder being extremely rare.[34]

It is possible that a person with a particular syndrome might not display every single one of the
signs and/or symptoms that compose/define a syndrome.

Positive and negative

Sensory symptoms can also be described as positive symptoms, or as negative symptoms

depending on whether the symptom is abnormally present such as tingling or itchiness, or
abnormally absent such as loss of smell. The following terms are used for negative symptoms –
hypoesthesia is a partial loss of sensitivity to moderate stimuli, such as pressure, touch, warmth,
cold. Anesthesia is the complete loss of sensitivity to stronger stimuli, such as pinprick.
Hypoalgesia (analgesia) is loss of sensation to painful stimuli.[35]

Symptoms are also grouped in to negative and positive for some mental disorders such as
schizophrenia.[36] Positive symptoms are those that are present in the disorder and are not
normally experienced by most individuals and reflects an excess or distortion of normal
functions;[37] examples are hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre behavior. Negative symptoms
are functions that are normally found but that are diminished or absent, such as apathy and
anhedonia.[37]

Dynamic and static

Dynamic symptoms are capable of change depending on circumstance, whereas static

symptoms are fixed or unchanging regardless of circumstance. For example, the symptoms of
exercise intolerance are dynamic as they are brought on by exercise, but alleviate during rest.
Fixed muscle weakness is a static symptom as the muscle will be weak regardless of exercise or
rest.

A majority of patients with metabolic myopathies have dynamic rather than static findings,
typically experiencing exercise intolerance, muscle pain, and cramps with exercise rather than
fixed weakness.[38] Those with the metabolic myopathy of McArdle's disease (GSD-V) and some
individuals with phosphoglucomutase deficiency (CDG1T/GSD-XIV), initially experience exercise
intolerance during mild-moderate aerobic exercise, but the symptoms alleviate after 6–10
minutes in what is known as "second wind".

Neuropsychiatric

Neuropsychiatric symptoms are present in many degenerative disorders including dementia, and
Parkinson's disease. Symptoms commonly include apathy, anxiety, and depression.[39]
Neurological and psychiatric symptoms are also present in some genetic disorders such as
Wilson's disease.[40] Symptoms of executive dysfunction are often found in many disorders
including schizophrenia, and ADHD.[41][42]

Radiologic

Radiologic signs are abnormal medical findings on imaging scanning. These include the Mickey
Mouse sign and the Golden S sign. When using imaging to find the cause of a complaint, another
unrelated finding may be found known as an incidental finding.[43]
Cardinal

Cardinal signs and symptoms are those that may be diagnostic, and pathognomonic – of a
certainty of diagnosis. Inflammation for example has a recognised group of cardinal signs and
symptoms,[44] as does exacerbations of chronic bronchitis,[45] and Parkinson's disease.

In contrast to a pathognomonic cardinal sign, the absence of a sign or symptom can often rule
out a condition. This is known by the Latin term sine qua non. For example, the absence of known
genetic mutations specific for a hereditary disease would rule out that disease.[46] Another
example is where the vaginal pH is less than 4.5, a diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis would be
excluded.[47]

Reflexes

A reflex is an automatic response in the body to a stimulus.[48] Its absence, reduced (hypoactive),
or exaggerated (hyperactive) response can be a sign of damage to the central nervous system or
peripheral nervous system. In the patellar reflex (knee-jerk) for example, its reduction or absence
is known as Westphal's sign and may indicate damage to lower motor neurons. When the
response is exaggerated damage to the upper motor neurons may be indicated.

Facies

A number of medical conditions are associated with a distinctive facial expression or

appearance known as a facies.[49] An example is elfin facies which has facial features like those
of the elf, and this may be associated with Williams syndrome, or Donohue syndrome. The most
well-known facies is probably the Hippocratic facies that is seen on a person as they near
death.[50]

Anamnestic signs

Anamnestic signs (from anamnēstikós, ἀναμνηστικός, "able to recall to mind") are signs that
indicate a past condition, for example paralysis in an arm may indicate a past stroke.[51]: 81

Asymptomatic

Some diseases including cancers, and infections may be present but show no signs or
symptoms and these are known as asymptomatic.[13] A gallstone may be asymptomatic and only
discovered as an incidental finding.[13] Easily spreadable viral infections such as COVID-19 may
be asymptomatic but may still be transmissible.[52]

History

Symptomatology

A symptom (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident, misfortune, that which befalls",[53] from
συμπίπτω, "I befall", from συν- "together, with" and πίπτω, "I fall") is a departure from normal
function or feeling. Symptomatology (also called semiology) is a branch of medicine dealing with
the signs and symptoms of a disease.[54][55][56] This study also includes the indications of a
disease.[57] It was first described as semiotics by Henry Stubbe in 1670 a term now used for the
study of sign communication.

Prior to the nineteenth century there was little difference in the powers of observation between
physician and patient. Most medical practice was conducted as a co-operative interaction
between the physician and patient; this was gradually replaced by a "monolithic consensus of
opinion imposed from within the community of medical investigators".[58][59] Whilst each noticed
much the same things, the physician had a more informed interpretation of those things: "the
physicians knew what the findings meant and the layman did not".[51]: 82

Development of medical testing

Painting of René Laennec in 1816 using an

early method of auscultation on a man with
tuberculosis

A number of advances introduced mostly in the 19th century, allowed for more objective
assessment by the physician in search of a diagnosis, and less need of input from the
patient.[58][59][60] During the 20th century the introduction of a wide range of imaging techniques
and other testing methods such as genetic testing, clinical chemistry tests, molecular
diagnostics and pathogenomics have made a huge impact on diagnostic capability.[61]

In 1761 the percussion technique for diagnosing respiratory conditions was discovered by
Leopold Auenbrugger.[62] This method of tapping body cavities to note any abnormal sounds
had already been in practice for a long time in cardiology.[62] Percussion of the thorax became
more widely known after 1808 with the translation of Auenbrugger's work from Latin into
French by Jean-Nicolas Corvisart.[63]

In 1819 the introduction of the stethoscope by René Laennec began to replace the centuries-
old technique of immediate auscultation – listening to the heart by placing the ear directly on
the chest, with mediate auscultation using the stethoscope to listen to the sounds of the heart
and respiratory tract. Laennec's publication was translated into English, 1824, by John Forbes.

The 1846 introduction by surgeon John Hutchinson (1811–1861) of the spirometer, an

apparatus for assessing the mechanical properties of the lungs via measurements of forced
exhalation and forced inhalation. (The recorded lung volumes and air flow rates are used to
distinguish between restrictive disease (in which the lung volumes are decreased: e.g., cystic
fibrosis) and obstructive diseases (in which the lung volume is normal but the air flow rate is
impeded; e.g., emphysema).)

The 1851 invention by Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) of the ophthalmoscope, which
allowed physicians to examine the inside of the human eye.

The (c. 1870) immediate widespread clinical use of Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt's (1836–1925)
six-inch (rather than twelve-inch) pocket clinical thermometer, which he had devised in
1867.[64]

The 1882 introduction of bacterial cultures by Robert Koch, initially for tuberculosis, being the
first laboratory test to confirm bacterial infections.

The 1895 clinical use of X-rays which began almost immediately after they had been
discovered that year by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923).

The 1896 introduction of the sphygmomanometer, designed by Scipione Riva-Rocci (1863–

1937), to measure blood pressure.

Diagnosis

The recognition of signs, and noting of symptoms may lead to a diagnosis. Otherwise a physical
examination may be carried out, and a medical history taken. Further diagnostic medical tests
such as blood tests, scans, and biopsies, may be needed. An X-ray for example would soon be
diagnostic of a suspected bone fracture. A noted significance detected during an examination or
from a medical test may be known as a medical finding.[65]
Examples

Ascites (build-up of fluid in the abdomen)

Nail clubbing (deformed nails)

Cough

Death rattle (last moments of life)

Hemoptysis (blood-stained sputum)

Jaundice

Organomegaly an enlarged organ such as the liver (hepatomegaly)

Palmar erythema (reddening of hands)

Hypersalivation excessive (saliva)

Unintentional weight loss

See also

Medicine portal

Biomarker (medicine)

Focal neurologic signs

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