International Journal of Applied Power Engineering (IJAPE)

Vol. 14, No. 2, June 2025, pp. 359~372

ISSN: 2252-8792, DOI: 10.11591/ijape.v14.i2.pp359-372  359

Review on optimal planning and operation of charging stations

for electric vehicles

M. S. Arjun1, N. Mohan1, K. R. Satish2, Arunkumar Patil3, D. P. Somashekar4

1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JSS Science and Technology University, Mysore, India
2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, India
4
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Presidency University, Bangalore, India

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Several factors need to be taken into account while planning the locations of
electric vehicle charging stations. The thoughtful design and arrangement of
Received Apr 12, 2023 charging stations, as a crucial component of the infrastructure supporting
Revised Aug 11, 2024 electric vehicles, is essential for the advancement of these kinds of vehicles.
Accepted Nov 28, 2024 However, a number of intricate aspects, including policy economics,
charging demand, user comfort when charging, and traffic circumstances,
influence the design and arrangement of charging stations. With the goal to
Keywords: uncover competing interests and opportunities for collaboration in the
operation and development of charging infrastructure, this study intends to
Charging infrastructure assist researchers and technology developers in investigating cutting-edge
Charging station techniques from the viewpoint of each constituent. Additionally, only a
Distribution network strong electric vehicle charging station (EVCS) infrastructure may provide
Electric vehicle some of the answers to the most basic EV concerns, like EV cost and range.
Location planning The literature claims that several sorts of techniques, objective functions,
Optimal placement and constraints for issue formulation have been used by the scholars. In
Optimization algorithm addition, sensitivity analysis, vehicle to grid strategy, integration of
distributed generation, charging kinds, objective functions, restrictions, EV
load modelling, uncertainty, and optimization methodologies are examined
for the most recent research publications. Discussions occur as well
regarding the effects of the EV load on the distribution network, the
environment, and the economy.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
M. S. Arjun
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JSS Science and Technology University
Mysore, Karnataka, India
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
The market penetration of electric cars (EVs) as an environmentally friendly option has increased
due to growing global concerns about environmental degradation and global warming. The increasing
demand for in EV usage necessitates the development of ecological charging infrastructure. Because the
driving range of EVs is restricted and depends on a number of factors [1], [2]. In terms of mobility and
transportation, internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) may soon be replaced by EVs [3]. In the
distribution network, the erratic installation of EV charging stations presents a number of technical and
financial challenges. Large voltage fluctuations, poor power quality, and harmonic injection are among the
several technical problems [4], [5]. The number of EVs has increased since the turn of the twenty-first
century, but there are still a lot of barriers preventing EV use on a broad scale. Some of the main obstacles to

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360  ISSN: 2252-8792

the widespread use of EVs are advancements in battery technology, a lack of charging stations, a lack of
suitable infrastructure for charging, incorrect station sating, and inconsistent charging inside the
stations [6], [7]. In this review, the following factors to be considered as opportunities, problems, and
challenges related to electric vehicles, charging effects, EV charging technology connects an EVs system to
the grid, optimal planning of charging infrastructure, optimal placement of charging station, performance
optimization using heuristic algorithm, evaluation of EV charging infrastructure based on renewable energy,
evaluation of EV impacts, complications with EV integration regarding power quality, current grid
integration solution for EVs.
The literature survey on the optimal planning and operation of EV charging stations and their
impacts on the grid highlights several key findings. Effective site selection, diverse charging technologies,
accurate demand forecasting, and user-centric design are critical for optimal infrastructure deployment. Grid
impacts include challenges in stability and reliability due to new demand patterns, necessitating advanced
load management and infrastructure upgrades. Integration of renewable energy sources with charging stations
offers environmental benefits, while economic and policy considerations play a significant role in financial
viability. Overall, strategic planning and innovative technologies are essential to enhance grid resilience and
support EV adoption.

2. OPPORTUNITIES, PROBLEMS, AND CHALLENGES RELATED TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES

AND ITS CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE
The demand for EVs is currently rising, which has resulted in a number of issues that people are
actively working to resolve in order to lessen. Apart from the difficulties related to electric vehicles, there are
also new prospects that are crucial for the advancement of any country. Figure 1 presents the opportunities
and problems related to electric vehicles [8].
The goal of the EV charging challenge is to raise awareness of the various challenges that have
impeded the popularity of EVs, such as infrastructure, cost, and driving range [9]. Several obstacles have
been identified in the literature [10].
- Not all EV models support every kind of charging, and not every EV charging station offers every kind of
charge. Users thus have difficulty locating infrastructure or stations that are appropriate for charging.
- There is currently no recognized standard for charging infrastructure device makers. It differs depending
on the nation. When everyone adheres to the same standard, charging device costs decrease.
- At the moment, charging stations are primarily found in cities and are not found on highways.
- A lot of land is needed for a charging station with renewable integration, which is not possible in a city.
However, this configuration is ideal for a highway location, where a lot of vacant land may be readily
available.
- The charging station's layout is unique. Consumers encounter the issue because IC engine vehicles have
the same refueling stations; nevertheless, if a standard platform for charging is developed, EV adoption
will rise.

Figure 1. Opportunities and problems related to electric vehicles

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3. CHARGING EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Significant issues and concerns regarding the stability and functionality of electrical grids are
brought about by the growing use of electric vehicles (EVs). Due to the significant infrastructure needed for
charging, EVs have a significant impact on power quality, voltage stability, and grid operations as a whole.
Important problems that might put stress on power networks include voltage deviations, harmonic distortions
in both voltage and current, and the possibility of overloading current distribution systems. Furthermore,
these changing demands may result in increased consumption and stress on distribution grid components like
transformers and circuit breakers. A number of factors, including as an increase of EV adoption, charging
trends, and grid resilience, are crucial in determining the magnitude of these effects. The charging effects
involving electric vehicles are shown in Figure 2.
- Stability of voltage: The capacity of the system to sustain the steady state voltage of all system buses
following a disturbance from a specific initial operating point is known as voltage stability [11].
- Deviation in voltage: When EV load increases relative to the primary distribution system, voltage
fluctuation mostly happens on the secondary distribution system. The discrepancy between nominal and
actual voltage is known as voltage deviation. VD = Vn–Va. Nominal voltage is Vn and actual voltage is
equal to Va [12], [13].
- Improve the maximum load: The grid is under increased stress during periods of most significant load,
which reduces the reserve margin [14]. Examine the effects of charging in various scenarios, such as
unregulated home charging and charging during off-peak hours on the distribution network [15].
- Issue with power quality: The nonlinear nature of the EV charging load is caused by a power quality issue
within the system. Certain power quality issues, such as voltage sag, exist.
- Harmonic distortion of the voltage and current: Signal whose frequency is the reference signal's integral
multiple in a power system, harmonic distortion arises from nonlinear loads or devices [16].
- Impact on the components of distribution: Upon reviewing numerous research articles, it has been shown
that unregulated charging at a high penetration level has a very negative effect on the distribution system
elements [17].
- Various elements influencing grid study results: Varying levels of penetration; appropriate load
scheduling; appropriate system planning; diverse system configurations; equipment ratings; and the
choice of power and distribution transformers.
- System failures: As more EV charging stations are added to the grid, load demand will rise. The system's
loss rises in tandem with an increase in the load and current flows via the feeder [18].

Figure 2. Charging effects involving electric vehicles

4. EV CHARGING TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION TO THE GRID

As indicated in Table 1, EV charging technology connects an electric vehicle (EV) system to the
grid, which can be divided into three tiers for AC and DC power. A number of workgroups, including the
International Electromechanical Commission (IEC), the Society for Automotive Engineers (SAE), and
CHAdeMO standards, have demonstrated their efficacy in developing EV charging standards [19]-[21].
Charger installation, charging level, energy source, and cable kinds are all factors that can be used to classify
EV chargers [22]. EV battery charger architectures, grouped according to their unique features [23]. The
different types of charging categories are also impacting on the operation of charging infrastructure.
In order ensure effective and dependable energy transfer to electric vehicles, EV charging
technology is a sophisticated system that combines several components. It entails choosing the best
installation configuration, controlling the flow of electricity from the grid or renewable energy sources, and
coordinating with the necessary charging level to satisfy vehicle requirements. The installation process
considers a number of factors, including the energy source, whether it be solar power or traditional grid
electricity, the charging level, which specifies the charging speed (level 1, level 2, or DC fast charging), and
the connector type, which establishes compatibility with various vehicle models. In order to maximize power
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362  ISSN: 2252-8792

transfer based on the particular needs of the infrastructure and vehicle, the procedure also incorporates
multiple charger steps:
i) In accordance with power flow: Depending on which way the power is flowing, the EV charger can be
unidirectional or bidirectional. EVs are charged using unidirectional charges, and they are discharged
using bidirectional chargers. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications, in which the electricity stored in the EV
battery is used to feed power back into the grid, can be implemented with bidirectional chargers [24].
ii) Considering the installation of the charger: The on-board charger is located within the electric vehicle.
When an electric vehicle (EV) is being charged off-board, the charger is placed in a certain spot to make
connecting and power transfer easier. While the off-board charging method is renowned for its rapid
charging capabilities, the on-board charging approach is usually characterized by a slower charging
rate [25].
iii) Depending on the energy source: (a) AC chargers: The most costly and time-consuming kind of on-board
charger is usually the AC charger. They have a limited power output; thus, they can only be used to charge
cars with a specific capacity. (b) DC chargers are substantially less expensive and usually offer faster
charging periods than AC chargers. They are usually more powerful, so they can charge cars with larger
batteries. However, they are not flexible, and they might not be compatible with every type of vehicle.
iv) According to the charging level: EV chargers can be divided into three groups according to the amount of
power they offer. Level 1, level 2, and level 3 are the names given to these categories. When charging an
electric vehicle (EV) overnight, it is usually done in a garage using a level 1 charger, which charges at a
slower rate than a regular household outlet. Level 2 charging is usually considered the standard method
for both private and public facilities, requiring a 240-volt outlet. Three-phase systems are typically
developed for public and commercial uses, such as petrol stations that use DC quick charging and level 3.
A wide range of locations, including petrol stations, parking garages, shopping centers, hotels, rest areas,
movie theatres, and restaurants, provide public level 2 and level 3 chargers. As the standard procedure for
both public and private establishments [26], [27].
v) According to connector type: Electric vehicle charging outlets, plugs, and connectors are essential
components of the infrastructure needed for EV charging. To recharge an electric vehicle's battery, a wide
range of plugs and sockets are available; these differ based on the charging station, the nation, and the
EV's manufacturer [28].
vi) Various charger stages: Single-phase or three-phase power flows with unidirectional or bidirectional
power flows are available for electric vehicle charging devices. In public EV charging stations, three-
phase chargers are used for quicker charging, while single-phase chargers are usually used for indoor or
home charging applications [29].

Table 1. EV charging categories based on SAE standard

Type AC DC
Charging speed Slow Semi-fast Fast Fast charging
Level Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Max V 120 VAC 240 VAC - 200-500 VDC 200-500 VDC 200-600 VDC
Max I 12 A 16 A - 80 A 200 A 400 A
Max P 2 kW 20 kW >20 kW 40 kW 100 kW 240 kW
On/off board On-board On-board - Off-board Off-board Off-board
Grid connectivity 1-phase 1 or 3 phase - 3-phase 3-phase 3-phase
Charging time 17 h 1.2 h - 1.2 h 20 min < 20 min
Connectors J 1772 J 1772 to be ascertained J 1772 combo J 1772 combo J 1772 combo

5. OPTIMAL PLANNING OF CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE

Planning for charging infrastructure is difficult because of the country's disorganized road system,
unpredictable traffic patterns, and clogged electrical grid. It was split into distinct sub-plans for the purpose
of administering the entire plan [30]. The government places, the airport, the private locations, and the
government firms comprised the sub-plans. A small number of organizations are chosen for the initial phase
of the strategy in order to install EV stations on their property. These companies are: NITI Aayog, the Indian
government (such as the North and South Block, Nirman Bhawan, and Udyog Bhawan), government-
affiliated companies (GAIL, NTPC, Rural Electrification Corporation, Indian Oil, India Post), the DLF Mall
of India (optional, requires discussion with the property owner), the National Highway Authority of India,
and the Airports Authority of India should all be mentioned [31]. Because electric cars produce zero or
extremely low exhaust emissions and produce significantly less noise, they contribute significantly to better
traffic conditions and a healthier living environment [32], [33]. For the purpose of facilitating the adoption of
electrically powered vehicles and promoting the use of affordable, clean electrical energy from the grid and

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renewable energy resources, the creation of an electric vehicle charging station and its ideal location are
crucial [34], [35].
As illustrated in Figure 3, EV technologies can be divided into two primary components: electric
propulsion systems and EV charging systems [36]. When driving, the electric propulsion system of an EV
system provides the energy needed for the EV motor. The formula E = V*Q can be used to calculate the
energy stored in an EV battery by multiplying the battery's voltage by its capacity [37], [38].
Optimal placement of charging station: Algorithm using cost, voltage level, maximum and
minimum levels of active and reactive power, power balance equation, and the limit of charging station as
objective functions for charging infrastructure planning. Every grid's cumulative score was computed.
Additionally, each grid was given a rank determined by the total score. Furthermore, the grids with high
rankings are likely to be the best places to locate EV stations [39].
A good charging station placement model should include the following qualities: The parameters of
the distribution and transport networks must be considered by the model. The model needs to be able to
account for the financial aspects of setting up charging stations. The model needs to account for the
convenience of EV drivers. The distribution network's security must be taken into account by the model. Less
computing power should be required for the model to generate the output planning outcomes [40].
Figure 4 presents a methodical perspective of the charging station installation. The choice of the test
network where charging stations are to be installed is the first stage in solving the charging station placement
challenge. Next, the parameters needed to calculate the best locations and quantity of charging stations are
established. As a result, constraints and goal functions are established, and optimization is then
carried out [41].

Figure 3. Charging infrastructure plan [36]

Figure 4. The steps involved in placing a charging station

6. HEURISTIC ALGORITHM BASED CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE OPTIMISATION

TECHNIQUES
The many heuristic algorithm targets established by capping the total expenses incurred when the
charging station is required by the client. An optimization algorithm is an iterative process that compares
several solutions until the best one is identified. The ideal location for a charging station can be determined
using several kinds of optimization strategies as shown in Figure 5. The following algorithms, which are
covered in this article [42].

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Figure 5. Different heuristic algorithms for optimization

Genetic algorithm: This program determines the best location for charging stations and establishes
an efficient infrastructure for charging by drawing inspiration from Darwin's theory of evolution and the
process of natural selection [43]. This method is employed, and the algorithm incorporates artificial
intelligence and machine learning ideas. The advancement of DBN has made it possible to employ a genetic
algorithm for automatic fault diagnostics in the electric charging station [44]. It is able to identify the best
result within a certain search space. Genetic algorithms are primarily utilized in urban areas with higher
traffic densities to reduce transportation expenses [45]. This method treats the charging station's power
handling capabilities and traffic density as limitations. Predicting the population density, per capita car
ownership, and the proportion of electric vehicles can yield the total number of electric vehicles, assuming
that the square of a small area is known, in accordance with the theory of preservation of the regional
transport flow of electric vehicles in the areas [46].
The cost incurred by clients on the path to the charging station is included in the total expenses
taken into account in this work (C1), the cost of the electricity used en route to the destination charging
station (C2) and the price of creating the desired power, which is the population's control (C3). These can be
explained using (1)-(3).

𝐶1 = 𝐴 × 𝑛 𝛴 𝑖 = 1[(𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏𝑖)2]1/2 (1)

𝐶2 = 𝐺 × 𝑃 × 𝑛 𝛴 𝑖 = 1[(𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏𝑖)2]1/2 (2)

𝐶3 = 𝑅 × 𝑃 × 𝑛 𝛴 𝑖 = 1[(𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏𝑖)2]1/2 (3)

The sum of the costs makes up the total expenses (C), as in (4).

𝐶 = [𝐴 + (𝐺 + 𝑅)𝑃]𝑛 𝛴 𝑖 = 1[(𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏𝑖)2]1/2 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 (4)

Whereby A is the user's average cost per kilometer, G is the cost of producing one kWh of
electricity, P is an electric vehicle's power consumption per kilometer, and R is the cost of pollution control
for kWh production. The coordinates of the charging stations are x and y, while the settlements are ai and bi.
The algorithm's objective is to reduce the overall cost of charging. Given that A, G, R, and P are constants,
minimizing the overall cost is equivalent to minimizing the total distance between communities and charging
stations. The longitudes and latitudes of towns and charging stations are used to identify them, and the
Haversine formula is used to determine the distances between them.

𝜑2−𝜑1 𝜆2−𝜆1
𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2 2
𝑐 = 2𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛2(√𝑎, √1 − 𝑎)
𝐷 = 𝑅·𝑐

Where R is the radius of the earth, φ is latitude, and λ is longitude. D is the total distance between settlements
and the nearest charging station [47].

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Analytical method: This approach involves formulating the problem while maintaining a range of
market and technical parameters as variables. It then uses a variety of mathematical techniques, including
differential equations, linear differential equations, Gauss Seidel iterations, and Gauss elimination methods,
among others, to determine where the charging station should be placed [48], [49]. With this stochastic
strategy, data optimization is required on a regular basis. This methodology provides an algorithmic and
methodical way to locate the charging station in the most advantageous location while optimizing the
transportation and distribution restrictions and optimizing earnings [50], [51].
Ant colony optimization technique (ACO): This method is highly prevalent for placing the charging
station in the best possible location. By using this method, the electric charging station will be able to better
schedule its loads based on the actual demand for charging. Using heuristic data and an algorithm that
calculates the least amount of time and money needed to charge an EV while evaluating various limitations;
this technique is employed as a smart charging strategy for electric vehicle routing [52]-[54].
Linear programming: An optimization method for a system of linear constraints and a linear
objective function is called linear programming. The quantity that has to be optimized is defined by an
objective function, and the aim of linear programming is to determine the values of the variables that
maximize or minimize the objective function. Using this method, the overall expenditures can be reduced by
accounting for the costs of land, transportation, and other expenses. This method can also be used to
maximize energy efficiency, which is a crucial factor in choosing the best place for a charging station [55].
Adaptive systems and fuzzy logic: The charging station's renewable energy source is integrated with
it, and the electric vehicle's power flow from several sources is managed by an effective fuzzy logic system.
Fuzzy logic can be applied in order to accomplish the vehicle to grid capability. Due to its adaptive nature,
fuzzy logic offers a wide range of membership function alternatives that can be modified to meet supply and
demand needs [56]. Energy conversion from wind energy systems can make use of artificial neuro-fuzzy
logic and progressive fuzzy logic [57]-[60]. Additional different techniques: i) optimization of particle swarms,
ii) algorithms that evolve, and iii) the bi-level programming technique and MATLAB programming [61], [62].

7. EVALUATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY BASED EV CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE

Renewable energy-based EV charging infrastructure is a rapidly emerging technology that is
revolutionizing the way our transportation networks are powered. By charging EVs using sustainable energy
sources like solar, wind, and hydro power, we can reduce our dependency on fossil fuels and battle climate
change. The application of this technology has the potential to improve public health, reduce air pollution,
and open up new business opportunities. It is vital to evaluate the current systems and technologies in use
before carrying out a study of EV charging infrastructure that makes use of renewable energy sources. Many
considerations, including possible improvements in public health, lower carbon emissions, increased
economic activity, and lower fuel usage, are taken into account by this method. Improved public safety,
enhanced energy security, and more job possibilities should all be considered in the assessment. The
difficulties associated with putting in place EV charging infrastructure that is dependent on renewable energy
sources should also be taken into account by the inquiry [63]-[65]:
i) Advantages for the environment: Clean electricity is produced by hydropower, wind, and solar energy. By
using renewable energy for EV charging, the transportation sector can reduce its carbon footprint and
contribute to the fight against climate change.
ii) Energy self-sufficiency and durability: Imports of fossil fuels are decreased by the abundance and home
production of renewable energy sources. Energy independence and resistance to disruptions in the fossil
fuel supply chain can be increased by incorporating renewable energy into EV charging infrastructure.
iii) Savings on expenses: The cost of renewable energy is getting close to that of energy sources derived from
fossil fuels. Time-of-use pricing and net metering can help consumers save money when charging EVs
with renewable energy.
iv) Demand control and stability of the grid: Infrastructure for EV charging powered by renewable energy
contributes to demand stabilization and reduction. Power supply and demand are optimized by planned or
subsidized EV charging during periods of peak renewable energy generation.

8. EVALUATION OF EV IMPACTS ON GRID

The implications of electric vehicles (EVs) on society, the environment, and the economy have been
the subject of extensive research in recent years. Nonetheless, the integration of EVs with the grid is one of
the most recent trends in the current scenario impact evaluations. This evaluation should take into account the
effects that e-vehicles have on the environment, the economy, and the electric grid, both directly and
indirectly [66]. Among the environmental advantages are less reliance on foreign oil, improved energy
security, decreased noise and air pollution, and decreased greenhouse gas emissions. Some of the societal

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effects include better public health, more accessible public transportation, and increased economic
opportunities. Some of the economic effects include reduced fuel prices, more money invested in EV
infrastructure, an improved trade balance, and faster economic growth [67]-[69]:
i) Economic repercussions: Due to their superior efficiency over traditional gasoline-powered vehicles and
their ecologically friendly features, electric vehicles (EVs) have seen an enormous increase in popularity.
Due to recent developments in battery technology, the expansion of the infrastructure for charging EVs,
and the rising global demand from consumers, EVs have become increasingly popular globally [70]. Due
to their constant power needs to satisfy daily recharge demands; EVs significantly strain the electrical
system. Fuel and capacity costs for the production of electricity will rise as a result of the anticipated
increase in demand for power. Furthermore, at times of peak demand, maintaining the grid becomes more
difficult. One benefit is that EVs may be charged using renewable energy, which has benefits for the
environment and the economy. Owners of electric vehicles (EVs) enjoy numerous benefits, which are
mainly related to the exceptional effectiveness of electric motors and their very inexpensive power
source. Because of this, these cars have lower running costs, making them a more cost-effective choice
for buyers [71].
ii) Effects on the environment: In this situation, EVs and electrical grids must establish a relationship.
Furthermore, by utilizing dependable and clean energy sources, the adoption of EVs within a vehicle-to-
grid (V2G) ecosystem improves a society's resilience and sustainability. With less reliance on fossil fuels,
the development of EV technology could significantly contribute to the creation of a more sustainable
global environment [72], [73]. There are numerous environmental advantages of combining electric
vehicles (EVs) with renewable energy sources (RESs). The implementation of a sustainable energy
revolution is contingent upon the utilization of V2G technology.
- Favorable effects: Because they don't require engine oil, EVs are better for the environment. EV brake
pads are designed differently to prevent "corrosion, crumbling and failing early" and the associated
high maintenance costs. EV makers have historically prioritized the use of recyclable and
biodegradable components. EV chargers powered by renewable energy emit fewer emissions than
petrol stations. Unlike petrol stations, charging stations can maintain "fuel" close by.
- Adverse effects: Water scarcity, pollution, and habitat degradation are caused by the production of EV
batteries; Extraction of battery metals such as cobalt, nickel, and lithium requires a lot of energy.
Usually, these minerals are extracted in areas with poor environmental regulations; EV batteries were
not designed with recycling in mind, however recycling-facilitating technology is advancing quickly;
Premature tire wear is caused by the weight and torque of EVs. Pollution increases when tires are
purchased more frequently.
iii) EV Integration's effect on the grid: The introduction of EVs into the electric system can result in grid
instability because of variations in electricity supply and demand brought on by EV changes. The
challenges of integrating EVs, include grid congestion, power quality problems, higher energy losses, and
the requirement for more efficient charging methods. It then goes over possible fixes, including as smart
charging, energy storage, and load control, to enhance grid stability and lower the cost of EV integration.
Lastly, the difficulties that need to be addressed on a technological, financial, and regulatory level in
order to facilitate the affordable and reliable integration of electric vehicles into the grid are discussed
[74]-[78].
- Grid stability affected by EV integration: EVs behave differently from traditional loads when charging
from the grid due to their non-linear load behavior. The power system may be under stress as a result
of this. The unpredictability of EV charging sites, times, and durations makes the estimate of this new
load's behavior much more challenging. If a large number of EVs are charging at once, there may be
questions about the power system's stability [79]-[81]. When compared to traditional loads, EV
charging presents unique load characteristics. The region, amount of penetration, and duration of EV
charging may all impact how stable the grid's voltage is after EV integration [82]. The unresolved
issues surrounding the EV connection site, penetration level, and connection and disconnection times
increase the load demand. Consequently, there may be a risk to the frequency stability of the grid [83].
An EV load has quite different features from regular loads. More so than regular system loads, the
characteristics of negative exponential EV loads have an impact on the oscillatory stability of the
power system [84]. EVs have the potential to significantly raise grid demand, particularly during peak
charging times. The quantity of EVs, how they are charged, and the infrastructure for charging them
all influence peak load rise. Peak electricity demand is predicted to rise when EVs are widely
used [85]. Electrical infrastructure depends on transformers, and EV charging can accelerate the
ageing of these components. Increased demand for EV charging may result in higher costs for
transformer replacement or maintenance. A case study that looked at how EV charging influenced
transformer ageing was conducted in a city where EV use is common [86].

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The quality of power produced by the power system may be impacted by the incorporation of EVs.
Many studies have been conducted on the consequences of EV integration, with a focus on power quality
attributes in particular. Voltage profile, voltage imbalance, power losses, and harmonics are some of these
features. The amount of EVs overall, system characteristics, charging characteristics, and other aspects all
affect how power quality affects EV grid integration [87], [88]. Voltage swings are mostly dependent on the
degree of integration and charging pace of EVs. Both the rate of charging and the number of individuals
charged have an increasing effect. Voltage imbalance is more affected by the growing usage of single-phase
charging for EVs. The grid voltage stability could be caused by it. More power is lost in single-phase and
unregulated EV charging systems. Distribution transformer overloading and power losses are caused by
increased EV penetration. The effect of electric vehicle penetration on harmonics is dependent on the
penetration level and increases as the penetration level and charging rate increase. Furthermore, harmonics
rise as a result of uncontrolled EV charging. There is a noticeable shift in frequency mismatch as a result of
the integration and penetration of several EVs. The numerous EVs charging in an unorganized manner cause
the grid to become imbalanced in frequency [89], [90].

9. CURRENT GRID INTEGRATION SOLUTION FOR EV’s

There are multiple benefits to grid stability from the incorporation of EVs. For the grid's frequency
and voltage support, the EVs must be carefully inserted into and used inside the system. The grid's stability in
terms of voltage and frequency is negatively impacted by improper use of EVs [91].
A combination of smart charging, smart grid infrastructure, and advanced EV-charging management
systems enable optimal charging schedules, real-time monitoring, and energy distribution; vehicle-to-grid
(V2G) technology allows EVs to return excess energy to the grid, enhancing grid resilience; and the
integration of renewable energy sources and state-of-the-art power electronics further supports sustainable
and cost-effective energy use throughout the system. As the number of electric vehicles (EVs) increases, it is
essential to integrate EVs into the grid in order to ensure efficient energy management and stability.
- Smart charging: This invention maximizes EV charging procedures to prevent overloading the power
system. It makes it possible to plan EV charging at off-peak times or in accordance with the availability
of renewable energy.
- Smart grid: Using information and communication technology, smart grids are designed to automatically
detect, monitor, and control the flow of energy between power providers and end users. EVs can be
charged and discharged in a smart grid in a coordinated manner that permits the integration of renewable
energy sources like solar and wind power into the system [92].
- EV-charging management systems: By optimizing the quantity of energy that electric vehicles (EVs) take
from the grid, these systems can lessen the strain on distribution networks and distribution transformers.
Furthermore, contributing to the decrease in EV charging costs are these systems, which provide usage-
based or dynamic pricing.
- Vehicle-to-grid (V2G): V2G technology allows EVs to supply electricity to the grid. By providing
additional energy during peak hours, this benefits the grid's frequency regulation service [93].
- EV/grid interoperability standards: These guidelines can help to guarantee the safe and efficient
integration of EVs into the grid. These standards may result in grid compatibility for the hardware and
software used for EV charging.
- Renewable energy sources: Renewable energy sources like solar and wind power can be used to charge
electric vehicles. As a result, there is less reliance on fossil fuels and less greenhouse gas pollution.
- Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE): By lowering the amount of power needed for EV charging, it
helps reduce grid overload [94].
- Power electronics: EV-to-grid energy transfer is facilitated, regulated, and enhanced via power electronic
converters. Improvements in energy flow management and appropriate EV grid integration are made
possible by converter advancements [95].

10. CONCLUSION
The overview of literature offers a thorough examination of the most current advancements and
difficulties pertaining to EVs and the infrastructure supporting their charging. An overview of the primary
issues influencing the uptake of electric vehicles the accessibility of charging infrastructure and the
availability of energy resources is provided. Depending on the charging technology and region, we go over
different kinds of charging infrastructure. The ideal locations for charging stations are also reviewed in this
paper, along with objective functions and optimization methods. A thorough analysis of these infrastructures
is provided, along with a look ahead at them. As a result of the widespread use of electric vehicles (EVs), a
number of EV structures, EV charging infrastructures, EVs powered by renewable energy sources, and grid-
Review on optimal planning and operation of charging stations for electric vehicles (M. S. Arjun)
368  ISSN: 2252-8792

integrated EV systems have emerged. For multi-source EV systems, it is vital to apply a unique control
approach and power management technique in order to efficiently manage the charging process.
The following is a list of some forthcoming initiatives in this field: i) Artificial intelligence can be
utilized to improve the capabilities of charging stations once the notion behind them develops. Systems that
charge automatically can make use of this. These systems are also capable of optimizing themselves to fit
various scenarios, including operating at peak efficiency; and ii) India is experiencing a boom in renewable
energy. As electric vehicle technology advances, it is essential to integrate solar photovoltaics and other
renewable energy sources to meet a substantial portion of the EV's charging requirement and add additional
power supply.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, SJCE, JSS Science and Technology University, for providing us with the necessary resources
and environment for conducting this study. Special thanks to our team for their dedicated contributions and
collaborative efforts throughout this literature survey.

FUNDING INFORMATION
The authors wish to acknowledge that no external funding was received for the research,
preparation, or publication of this review. This work was conducted independently, driven solely by the
authors' passion for advancing the understanding of optimal planning and operation of electric vehicle
charging stations.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS STATEMENT

This journal uses the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) to recognize individual author
contributions, reduce authorship disputes, and facilitate collaboration. All authors contributed to the overall
conceptualization and design of the review article. They worked collaboratively to define the scope and
objectives of the study. The methodology was developed jointly by the authors, with each contributing their
expertise in different aspects of charging station planning, operation, and optimization for electric vehicles
(EVs). The validation of the findings, including models and analyses, was carried out by all authors; all
authors managed the project, ensuring effective collaboration and timely completion of the review article.

Name of Author C M So Va Fo I R D O E Vi Su P Fu
M. S. Arjun ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
N. Mohan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
K. R. Satish ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Arunkumar Patil ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
D. P. Somashekar ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

C : Conceptualization I : Investigation Vi : Visualization

M : Methodology R : Resources Su : Supervision
So : Software D : Data Curation P : Project administration
Va : Validation O : Writing - Original Draft Fu : Funding acquisition
Fo : Formal analysis E : Writing - Review & Editing

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

DATA AVAILABILITY
This review paper does not involve the use of original datasets. All data and information discussed
are derived from publicly available sources and existing literature. No new data were created or analyzed in
the preparation of this manuscript.

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Review on optimal planning and operation of charging stations for electric vehicles (M. S. Arjun)
372  ISSN: 2252-8792

BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

M. S. Arjun received the B.E., Master of Technology, and is pursuing Ph.D.

degree in the field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He is currently working as an
assistant professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JSS Science and
Technology University (SJCE), Mysuru, Karnataka, India. His area of interest is electric
vehicles, power electronics, and renewable energy sources. He can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Dr. N. Mohan received the B.E., Master of Technology, and Ph.D. degrees in the
field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He is currently working as an associate
professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JSS Science and Technology
University (SJCE), Mysuru, Karnataka, India. His area of interest is in power system networks
and electric vehicles. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Dr. K. R. Sathish received the B.E., Master of Technology, and Ph.D. degrees in
the field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He is currently working as an assistant
professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, ATME College of
Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India. His area of interest is in power systems and power
electronics. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Dr. Arunkumar Patil received the B.E., Master of Technology, and Ph.D.
degrees in the field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He is currently working as an
assistant professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Central University of Karnataka,
Kalaburagi, Gulbarga, Karnataka, India. His area of interest is on power systems, renewable
energy, WAMS, AI, and data science. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Dr. D. P. Somashekar received the B.E., Master of Technology, and Ph.D.

degree in the field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He is currently working as
assistant professor-senior scale, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Presidency University, Bangalore, India. His area of interest is in power systems,
specialization in modeling of distribution systems, loss minimization, and renewables
integration. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Int J Appl Power Eng, Vol. 14, No. 2, June 2025: 359-372