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The use of sports psychology consultants in elite sports teams

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 Revista de Psicología del Deporte
ISSN: 1132-239X
[email protected], [email protected]
Universitat de les Illes Balears
España

Reverter-Masía, Joaquín; Legaz-Arrese, Alejandro; Munguía-Izquierdo, Diego; Roig-Pull, Marc;

Gimeno-Marco, Fernando; Barbany, Joan Ramón
The use of sports psychology consultants in elite sports teams
Revista de Psicología del Deporte, vol. 17, núm. 1, 2008, pp. 143-153
Universitat de les Illes Balears
Palma de Mallorca, España

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PRÁCTICA PROFESIONAL
COORDINADOR: FERNANDO GIMENO
Revista de Psicología del Deporte Universitat de les Illes Balears
2008. Vol. 17, núm. 1, pp. 143-153 Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
ISSN: 1132-239X

PRÁCTICA PROFESIONAL

THE USE OF SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

CONSULTANTS IN ELITE SPORTS
TEAMS*
Joaquín Reverter-Masía,1 Alejandro Legaz-Arrese,1 Diego Munguía-Izquierdo,2
Marc Roig-Pull,3 Fernando Gimeno-Marco4 and Joan Ramón Barbany5

THE USE OF SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY CONSULTANTS IN ELITE SPORTS TEAMS

KEYWORDS: Sport psychologist, Sports teams, Multidisciplinary team.
ABSTRACT: This study investigates the use of psychology services in teams of the top division Spanish leagues of
handball, basketball, volleyball, indoor soccer, soccer and field hockey. Personal interviews were conducted to determine
the composition of the multidisciplinary teams. The response rate was 81.8% (77 of 94). Though most teams have
different professionals employed on a full-time basis, only 15.6% of these teams have a sport psychologist. Moreover, only
three teams have a full-time sports psychologist. These results indicate that, compared to other professional services,
managers and/or coaches do not perceive the need for psychological services. We discarded the hypothesis that most of the
teams do not hire psychologists due to financial reasons. Sport psychology associations should reinforce the importance of
the psychologist to enhance sports performance.

Correspondencia: Joaquin Reverter Masia. Facultad de Educación Universidad de Zaragoza. Sant Bosco 7. 50009.
Zaragoza. España. E-mail: [email protected]
* The preparation of this paper was supported, in part, by funding from the Science, Technology and University
Department of Aragon Government. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of
this current opinion.
1
Section of Physical Educations and Sports, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
2
Section of Sports, University of Pablo Olavide, Sevilla, Spain.
3
Section of Rehabilitation Sciences Muscle Biophysics Laboratory. University of British Columbia. Canada.
4
Section of Psychology and Sociology , University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
5
Section of Physiological Sciences II, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
Fecha de recepción: 23 de Abril de 2008. Fecha de aceptación: 23 de Mayo de 2008.

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Reverter-Masía, J. et al. The use of sports psychology consultants in elite...

Introduction

Psychological counseling for sports teams has shown to be effective in improving performance
(Donohue, Lancer, Covassin, Hash, Miller, and Genet, 2004), prevention (Johnson, Ekengren,
and Andersen, 2005) and rehabilitation of sport injuries (Bauman, 2005), and also in maximizing
the effectiveness of coaching skills (Jowett and Meek, 2000).
The main variables involved in the psychological training of athletes have been traditionally re-
lated to motivation (Roberts, 2001), behaviour and personality (Pelletier Fortier, Vallerand,
Tuson, Brière, and Blais, 1995; Li, 1999), concentration (Brière Vallerand, Blais, and Pelletier,
1995; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Brière, and Blais, 1995), perseverance (Pelletier,
Fortier, Vallerand, and Brière, 2001), and a group of others factors related to stress control and
emotional “adjustment,” such as anxiety, self-confidence, mood, auto-control, self-regulation and
interpersonal social skills (Gil, Capafons, and Labrador, 1993; Cruz, 1992; May, 1992; Palmi,
1992). By evaluating athletes’ behaviours, the psychologist can determine the most appropriate
strategies in order to improve athletic performance (Morgan, O’Connor, Sparling, and Pate, 1987;
Nicholls, and Polman, 2005).
At present, there is a growing interest in understanding the potential influence of psychological
interventions in the prevention of sport injuries (Reverter and Plaza, 2002; Podlog and Eklund,
2006). This aspect is of paramount importance, given the high incidence of injuries in elite
athletes (Orchard and Seward, 2002). Both quantitative and qualitative research has demonstrated
that injury can have a profound psychological impact on athletes (Johnston and Carroll, 2000).
Several studies have shown the effectiveness of psychological support in order to reduce the
incidence of injuries in athletes with “high risk” psychological profiles (Johnson, Ekengren, and
Andersen, 2005). Similarly, others have emphasized the importance of psychological intervention
in the management of the immediate emotional response at the point of injury (Carr, 2006;
Martinez, García, and Olmedilla, 2006), in the anxiety response regarding treatment decisions
(Carr, 2006; Martinez, García, and Olmedilla, 2006) and during the rehabilitation period (Podlog
and Eklund, 2006).
Sport psychologists are also responsible for developing strategies to help coaches in the
psychological management of their groups. Psychologists can help coaches determine the most
appropriate strategies to improve motivation and cohesion within the group (Todd and Kent,
2004; Loughead and Hardy, 2005), which may include stimulating the positive influence of the
group leader (Loughead and Hardy, 2005; Sousa, Cruz, Torregrosa, Vilches and Viladrich, 2006);
developing athletes’ independence (Mageau and Vallerand, 2003); setting up rules (Patterson,
Carron, and Loughead, 2005) and enhancing decision-making processes and communication
among athletes during competition (Hagemann, Strauss, and Büsch, 2007). At present, the
optimization of athletic performance is dependent on the use of a multidisciplinary approach. This
broad approach opens a new field in which coaches and psychologists work towards the same goals
through the creation of an optimum work environment, specific competencies–together, thus
solving potential conflicts which may arise within the group (Reid, Stewart, and Thorne, 2004).
There is a vast amount of evidence suggesting that psychological interventions in sport are of
paramount importance in increasing the success of athletes involved in any sport (Nicholls and

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Polman, 2007). In order to enhance the role of the sports psychologist, it is essential to integrate
his work into a multidisciplinary team to optimally develop the potential capacities of the athlete
(Reid, Stewart, and Thorne, 2004).
Recent advances in the field of sports psychology have shown the importance of the
application of psychological techniques in the daily practice of athletic training. Nevertheless, too
little is known about the extent to which psychological services are implemented in professional
clubs and sports institutions. In regard to sports teams, only data from the Australian Football
League (Kremer, Shen, and Tonn, 1999) and the Soccer Premier League (UK) (Pain and
Harwood, 2004) are currently available.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether elite Spanish clubs of team
sports –including handball, basketball, volleyball, indoor soccer, soccer and field hockey– are
currently implementing sports psychology services. In order to investigate potential factors
determining the use of sport psychologists in these different sports, a comparative analysis of the
composition of the multidisciplinary team will be conducted.

Methods

Participants
To accomplish the proposed objectives we decided to interview those responsible for the
physical conditioning and preparation of the male teams that participated during the 2004-2005
season in the top division Spanish leagues of handball, basketball, volleyball, indoor soccer, soccer
and field hockey.
For each sport the teams were divided into “class A”, which includes the teams with greater
performance in their respective leagues (> 50% percentile of the standings), and “class B,” which
includes the remaining teams. The standings were obtained from the official data of the respective
professional leagues.

Performance level of the teams

Given the lack of criteria to determine the performance level of the different teams studied, an
analysis of the performance of these teams in the two main European competitions from 2002 to
2005 seasons was conducted. A maximum of 225 points were assigned in each sport with the
following criteria: (i) 1 and 3 points, for the teams eliminated in quarter-finals and semi-finals,
respectively; 6 and 9 points, for the runner-up and champion teams respectively; (ii) in the most
relevant competition, the number of point allocated were twofold. Spanish teams obtained the
highest percentage of points in indoor soccer (40.0%), handball (36.4%) and basketball (28.4%).
Spanish teams in field hockey, soccer and volleyball obtained 21.8% (third), 14.2% (fourth) and
0.44% (fourteenth), respectively. In a global analysis for all sports, Spanish teams were first with
22.6% of the possible points, followed by Italy (10.4%), France (7.1%) and England (7.1%).

Material
The survey was created by the authors, with the aid of experts in questionnaire-formatting;
pilot testing was done with an informal advisory group of physical conditioning coaches. The

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Reverter-Masía, J. et al. The use of sports psychology consultants in elite...

survey was divided into two areas of inquiry: a) the multidisciplinary team and, b) the strength
and conditioning training. This paper is focused on nine items designed to analyze the
multidisciplinary team. Eight close-ended questions associated with the following professionals:
coach, physical conditioning coach, assistant coach, physician, physical therapist, psychologist,
masseur; and one open-ended question in order to include other professionals. In addition, they
had to indicate if the professionals were hired on a full-time basis. In order to consider that a team
has a professional, this should have the correspondent university degree. This was not applicable
for those professional profiles where the university degree does not apply: coach, assistant coach,
masseur and kit-man.
The survey instrument and the research design were approved by the Committee on
Biomedical Ethics of the Aragon Government, Spain.

Data collection
In order to contact the physical conditioning coaches, a letter describing the project was
mailed to the address of the official headquarters of each team. The objectives of the letter were to
explain the purpose of the survey, the confidentiality of information, and the researchers´
motivation for conducting the survey. After two weeks, we made a telephone call to the official
headquarters of the club in order to speak personally with each figure responsible for the physical
conditioning preparation. For those we initially could not locate, several attempts were made to
contact by telephone, letter and e-mail. All addresses and telephone numbers were obtained from
the official web-pages of the clubs or from the information facilitated by the Spanish Federation of
each sport. Finally, 82 physical conditioning coaches accepted to participate in the study. The
remaining twelve physical conditioning coaches declined to participate, or did not respond to the
e-mail, letter or telephone messages. We agreed with each physical conditioning coach a date to
administer the survey, by means of personal interview. Forty physical conditioning coaches were
interviewed, as we took advantage of the visits of the teams to our city and the concentration of
various teams for short-term competitions. The other physical conditioning coaches were
interviewed during a visit to their respective cities. Finally, five out of 82 physical conditioning
coaches that accepted to participate in the study did not mange to determine a date for the
administration of the questionnaire (Table 1).
All the interviews were conducted by an experienced researcher in the qualitative methods of
sports science research and content analysis.

Reliability
Reliability was measured by the congruence between the test and the retest, which was
performed one week later in 24 of the PCCs (four for each sport).

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed with computer software (Statistical Package for Social
Sciences, Version 14.0). Data are expressed in percentages. Chi-square or Fisher test were applied
in order to determine differences among sports and classes. Reliability was determined by means
of a McNemar test. The α level was set at 0.05.

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Results

Reliability
In the analysis of reliability, the P-value between the test and retest was 0.50 to 1.

Multidisciplinary sports science teams

Table II shows the percentage of teams with some the professionals investigated. More
specifically, Table III highlights exclusively those teams with some of these professionals hired on a
full-time basis.
All teams had a coach. The percentage of teams with a physical therapist, a physician, a
physical conditioning coach and an assistant coach was significant (>80%). However, important
differences were observed among sports: all basketball, indoor soccer, and soccer teams had on
staff a licensed professional in Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, in contrast to the 53.5% of
the rest of the teams (p < 0.001). A smaller proportion of volleyball and field hockey teams had a
physician and an assistant coach (p < 0.001). The percentage of teams with kit-men is greater in
basketball, indoor soccer and soccer (73.5%) compared to handball, volleyball and field hockey
(21.9%) (p < 0.001). Except for soccer teams, masseurs were not usually part of the technical team
(p < 0.001). Similarly, the services of a sport psychologist were uncommon in all the sports except
for soccer (p < 0.01).
Most teams that have a coach, a physical conditioning coach, an assistant coach and a masseur
require their services on a full-time basis. This was common in all sports, except for field hockey
which requires the services of physical therapists (p < 0.001). In contrast, in all sports, some teams
did not require physicians hired full-time. Only three teams have a psychologist hired full-time.
The percentage of class A and B teams with a psychologist is similar (17.5 vs. 13.5%). Greater
differences were observed among soccer teams (50.0 vs. 28.6%).

Table 1. Conditioning coaches response rate.

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Table 2. Percentage of teams with professionals in the multidisciplinary team.

Table 3. Percentage of teams with professionals hired on a full-time basis.

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Discussion

This work is the first study to determine the use of psychology services in the most popular
team sports in Europe. A high reliability was obtained in all researched items, and with the
exception of volleyball, the teams of the National Leagues of Spain obtained high levels of
performance in European competitions. Thus, the analysis potentially represents a reflection of the
use of psychology services in elite team sports.
The results show that the use of psychology services in the national leagues of handball,
basketball, volleyball, indoor soccer, soccer and field hockey is limited (15.6%). In addition, only
three teams (two soccer club and one indoor soccer club) required these professionals on a full-
time basis. To our knowledge, to date, only one study has examined the use of psychology services
in a professional league. Pain and Harwood (2004), in communication with the Football
Association of England, established that during the 2002-2003 season only five clubs of the
Premier League (25%) employed a consultant on a contractual basis. Even though the contractual
status was not specified, their results are similar to those reported in the top division of soccer in
Spain. In Spain, only 40% of soccer teams used psychology services and only 13.3% had a
psychologist full-time.
Surprisingly, there is a paucity of studies investigating the use of psychologists in other areas of
the development of elite athletes. Kremer, Shen, and Tonn (1999) reported that during the 1997
season, 75% of the Australian Football League employed a sports psychologist. Nevertheless, no
psychologist was hired full-time. Voight and Callaghan (2001) determined that 53% of the
university athletic departments of the National Collegiate Athletic Association used some sort of
sport psychology consulting during the 1998-1999 season. However, only 14% of these
departments had a psychologist full-time. Larson, Starkey, and Zaichkowsky (1996) found that
only 24.5% of athletic trainers of the National Athletic Trainer’s Association had a sport
psychologist available to them as a member of the sports medicine team. Hemmings and Povey
(2002) reported that less than 10% of UK physiotherapist surveyed had access to a British
Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences accredited sport psychologist for referral. Carr (2006)
highlighted that the United States Olympic Committee hired their first full-time sport
psychologist in 1985, which now has four full-time licensed psychologists.
Data regarding the inclusion of psychologists in multidisciplinary teams during the
concentrations of the different national teams in international events is also very limited. In his
study, Carr and co-workers outline that the 1998 Olympic Games were the first event in which
psychologists were included in the multidisciplinary boards in charge of the national teams.
According to the results of the present study, the inclusion of psychology services in Europe
(Spain and United Kingdom) is less common compared to other countries such as Australia or the
USA. However, comparisons should be cautiously regarded given differences between sports and
the small number of studies. In any case, it is common that clubs and institutions hire a
psychologist part-time or for any specified, short-term span during the season period as a
counselor. Therefore, even though psychology has been progressively incorporated in sport, our
study confirms that psychologists have difficulties taking part in a multidisciplinary team.
Even though some studies have highlighted the importance of the psychologist’s integration
into the multidisciplinary team (Reid, Stewart, and Thorne, 2004), the current scenario illustrates
that psychologists are recruited only once in a while, even by the most important Spanish teams.

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In spite of some conflicting results, a vast amount of studies has analyzed potential causes for
the low usage of sport psychology services in different sporting institutions. The analysis leads to a
variety of causes to understand why this occurs. For instance, while some clubs argue that they
lack financial capacity (Pain and Harwood, 2004) others suggest that managers and coaches lack
awareness regarding the services that a psychologist can bring to the team (Martin, Wrisberg,
Beitel, and Lounsbury, 1997). Others have suggested that players have a negative perception about
the role of sport psychologists as part of their teams (Pain and Harwood, 2004) while other studies
have reported that physicians usually avoid the collaboration with psychologists in either the
prevention or rehabilitation of injuries (CITA). In addition, it has been argued that one of the
main factors to explain the lack of psychologists in sports is the incapacity to find the specific role
of this professional within the multidisciplinary team (Pain and Harwood, 2004).
The aim of this study was not to analyze potential causes for the reduced level of participation
of psychologists in the Spanish teams playing in the top leagues of collective sports. The difference
found between soccer and the rest of the sports might suggest that the lack of a psychologist could
be primarily due to financial reasons. However, the analysis has shown that most of the teams have
a variety of professionals hired on a full-time basis. This implies that either managers’ or coaches’
perceptions about the role of sport psychologist in the multidisciplinary team conclude that they
are not a priority. Our analysis refutes the hypothesis that most clubs do not include psychologists
because of financial constraints. Even though we do not have the budget of each club, it is well
known that soccer teams spend very significant sums of money to pay other professional services,
and therefore it is very unlikely that the non-inclusion of a psychologist in sports may be due to
financial limitations. According to Larson Starkey and Zaichkowsky (2006), associations of
psychology should aim to instruct coaches, physicians and physical therapists in the importance of
psychology to improve athletes’ performance. The fact that most coaches lacked formal academic
education might explain the absence of psychologists on Spanish teams’ staff.
According to Carr (2006), departments of psychology are also responsible for the appropriate
recognition of psychology as an important part to improve sports performance. The organization
within sport psychology must establish required professional competencies in sports psychology
(Tenenbaum, Lidor, Papaianou, and Samulski, 2003) and control who delivers sport psychology
services and coordinating contacts to the world of professional sports (Sanchez Godin, and
DeZanet, 2005). However, only a few countries have well-established national Sport Psychology
Associations (Sanchez, Godin, and DeZanet, 2005).

Conclusions and implications

This study has shown that sports psychologists are not usually present in the multidisciplinary
teams of Spanish clubs playing in the top leagues of team sports. In order to solve this problem, a
well-established national sport psychology association to initiate coordinated contacts with public
and private sporting institutions is necessary. In addition, the role of psychologists to enhance
athletic performance should be emphasized in training programs for coaches. Replication of this
study is recommended to ascertain cognate situations in other sports. Further prospective
investigations might also determine variations that have occurred within the teams involved in this
analysis. In the present study, 84.4% of teams reported that they were not currently using the

150 Revista de Psicología del Deporte. 2008. Vol. 17, núm. 1, pp. 143-153
Reverter-Masía, J. et al. The use of sports psychology consultants in elite......

services of a sport psychology consultant. In the future, a study interviewing coaches and managers
to determine the causes behind the lack of psychologists in their teams would be important. In
turn, maybe this type of study would increase the number of psychologists in team sports.

LA UTILIZACIÓN DE PSICÓLOGOS DEL DEPORTE COMO CONSULTORES EN EQUIPOS DEPORTIVOS DE

ÉLITE
PALABRAS CLAVE: Psicólogo deportivo, Deportes de equipo, Equipo multidisciplinar.
RESUMEN: Este estudio investiga la utilización de los servicios de psicología en equipos de la primera división española,
ligas de balonmano, baloncesto, voleibol, fútbol sala, fútbol y hockey sobre hierba. Se realizaron entrevistas personales para
determinar la composición de los equipos multidisciplinares. El ratio de respuesta fue del 81,% (77 de 94). Aunque la
mayoría de equipos tienen diferentes profesionales empleados en régimen de dedicación exclusiva, sólo el 15,6% de estos
equipos tienen un psicólogo del deporte. Por otra parte, sólo tres equipos tienen a tiempo completo un psicólogo
deportivo. Estos resultados indican que, en comparación con otros servicios profesionales, gerentes y / o entrenadores no
perciben la necesidad de servicios psicológicos. Hemos descartado la hipótesis de que la mayoría de los equipos no
contratan a psicólogos debido a razones financieras. Las asociaciones de psicología deportiva deberían proporcionar la
importancia del psicólogo para mejorar el rendimiento deportivo.

A UTILIZAÇÃO DE CONSULTORES EM PSICOLOGIA DO DESPORTO EM DESPORTOS COLECTIVOS DE

ELITE
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Psicólogo do desporto, Desportos de equipa, Equipa multidisciplinar.
RESUMO: Este estudo investiga a utilização dos serviços de psicologia em equipas da primeira divisão espanhola, de
andebol, basquetebol, voleibol, futsal e hóquei em campo. Realizaram-se entrevistas pessoais para determinar a composição
das equipas multidisciplinares. O rácio de respostas foi de 81% (77 de 94). Apesar da maioria das equipas terem diferentes
profissionais empregados em regime de tempo integral, apenas 15,6% destas equipas têm um psicólogo do desporto. Por
outro lado, só três equipas têm um psicólogo desportivo a tempo integral. Estes resultados indicam que em comparação
com outros serviços profissionais, dirigentes e/ou treinadores não percebem a necessidade da prestação de serviços na área
da psicologia. Foi descartada a hipótese de que a maioria das equipas não contratam psicólogos devidos a questões
financeiras. As associações de Psicologia do Desporto deveriam impulsionar a importância do psicólogo para melhorar o
rendimento desportivo.

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