The Ultimate Linux Bootcamp For DevOps, SRE and Cloud Engineers Udemy Course
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pracheth spThe Ultimate Linux Bootcamp For DevOps, SRE and Cloud Engineers Udemy Course
Uploaded by
pracheth spThe Ultimate Linux Bootcamp for
DevOps, SRE and Cloud Engineers
(Hands-On)
DevOps Cloud Computing Site Reliability Engineering
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Yogesh Raheja
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Our Courses & Books
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Team
Yogesh Raheja
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Command-line User & Group File
Linux Architecture Operations Management Permissions
Package Storage Process & Service
Networking
Management Management Management
SSH Scheduling
System Monitoring
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Lectures
Demonstrations
Practice Tests
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Fundamentals Setting up Linux
Command-line
Operations Text Editors
User and Group
Management Service Management
Linux Disk Management Logical Volume
Management (LVM)
Networking
Fundamentals SSH
System Management System Monitoring
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 1
Linux | Introduction to Linux
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to Linux
➢ Evolution of Operating Systems
➢ Linux’s Pivotal Role in Modern Computing
➢ Key Features of Linux
➢ Essential Terminologies
➢ Types of Linux Shells
➢ Linux Distributions
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Linux | History of Operating
Systems
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
History of Operating
Systems
Software
Computing devices
Operating system
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
History of Operating
Systems
✓ Early computing ran one program at a time
✓ Programs were manually loaded using punch cards
Early Computing
✓ Early computing output was slow
(1940s - 1950s)
✓ Development of the first operating systems
✓ Operating systems automated program loading and queue management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
History of Operating
Systems
✓ Spread of Computers
✓ Need for Compatibility
The Need for Compatibility ✓ Custom-Built Computers
(1960s)
✓ Device Drivers
- abstracted complexities of interacting with different hardware
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History of Operating
Systems
✓ Introduction of multitasking
✓ Simultaneous program execution
The Rise of Multitasking
✓ Emergence of the Atlas Supervisor in the 1960s
(1960s)
✓ CPU usage maximization
✓ Automated program switching for continuous computing
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
History of Operating
Systems
✓ Virtual memory in operating systems
✓ Dynamic memory allocation for programs
Memory Management and Time-
✓ Memory protection between programs
Sharing (1960s)
✓ Multi-user support through time-sharing
✓ Emergence of Multics as a timesharing Operating System
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History of Operating
Systems
✓ Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie developed Unix in 1969 at Bell Labs
✓ Unix introduced a streamlined kernel that separated essential functions from user utilities
✓ The kernel manages system resources and facilitates communication between hardware and software
The Birth of Unix (1969)
✓ Unix's modular design allowed it to be adapted for various hardware platforms
✓ Unix's open-source code led to influential versions like AT&T's System V and BSD
✓ This innovation enabled Unix variants like HP-UX, Solaris, and AIX to thrive in industries
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History of Operating
Systems
✓ Linus Torvalds released the first version of Linux in 1991
✓ Linux is a free and open-source operating system
The Rise of Linux (1991) ✓ Inspired by Unix, Linux has a modular design
✓ Global contributions have led to a wide variety of Linux distributions
✓ Linux is used in data centers and Android smartphones
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History of Operating
Systems
✓ Support for diverse devices (desktops, mobile phones, etc.)
✓ Efficient multitasking with protected memory
Modern Operating Systems
✓ Process isolation for enhanced security
(21st Century)
✓ Advanced scheduling techniques for optimal performance
✓ Concurrent application execution without significant performance degradation
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
History of Operating
Systems
Ken Thompson Dennis Ritchie Bill Gates Paul Allen Steve Jobs Linus Torvalds
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
History of Operating
Systems
Early Computing (1940s The Rise of Multitasking Memory Management and Time-
The Need for Compatibility (1960s) The Birth of Unix
- 1950s) Sharing (1960s)
(1960s)
(1969)
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History of Operating
Systems
The Rise of Linux Modern Operating Systems
(1991)
(21st Century)
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Linux | Getting Started
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with Linux
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with Linux
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with Linux
History of Linux
➢ Inception and Vision
Linus Torvalds
Andrew S. Tanenbaum
1985 Tanenbaum preferred Minix's microkernel design over 1990
Torvalds' monolithic kernel approach
Minix Linux
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Getting Started with Linux
History of Linux
➢ The Open-Source Movement
1992
✓ Linus Torvalds re-licensed the kernel ✓ Many Linux distributions combine the kernel with
✓ General Public License (GPL) GNU tools for various needs
✓ A Linux distro combines the Linux kernel with
software and tools
✓ The licensing enabled global developer collaboration
and contributions
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Getting Started with Linux
History of Linux
➢ A New Paradigm for Software Development
Late-1990s
Mid-1990s
✓ Linux distributions offered powerful tools and promoted user ✓ Corporations like IBM invested in Linux development
freedom
✓ Open-source ethos enabled innovation through modification,
sharing, and inclusivity
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Getting Started with Linux
History of Linux
➢ Linux Today and Its Impact • In DevOps landscape
✓ Linux serves as the backbone of the digital ecosystem
✓ Linux manages over 90% of public cloud workloads
✓ Scalability and efficiency
✓ Linux-based instances
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Linux | Features
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Linux
Features 1 2
Open Source Multiuser and Multitasking Capability
3 4
Portability Security
5 6
Command Line Interface Stability and Reliability
7 8
Community Support Development Environment
Unified File System in Linux
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Linux | Terminologies
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Linux Terminologies
The Shell or ✓ Background
Instance
Provides
Offer
Organizes
The of
unique
commandaof
tools
and
"brain" running
for
tools
programs
the andprogram
linecreating
interface
manages
Linux GUIs
packages
files (CLI)
supporting
system, built
in
in Linux on the
Linux
managing
applicationsLinux
hardware kernel
or system
andfunctions
resources
X Window
Kernelline ✓ httpd:
Created
Enables when toyou
ainteraction
Examples:
Allows users execute
typewith aFAT,
Linux
commands command
through or launch
graphical
to control an application
controls
the system
command
Distributions
Process
Services
Filesystem
Common
Acts types:
asHandles
bridge ext3,
web ext4,
between
services
hardwareXFS, Btrfs
and applications
System ✓ ftpd:
Each
Acts
Forms process
Desktop
distro
as
Different
Manages
the hasofaatransfers
anenvironments
customizesunique
intermediary
filesystems
core file like
LinuxProcess
GNOME,
to
between
cater to
Linux-based suitID
the
various (PID)
KDE,
user
use
Operating Xfce,
specific andOS,
needs
and
cases the
System Fluxbox build on
translating top of X to
commands
interface (CLI)
✓ systemd:
The PID
offer
into
Combined helps
withmanage
user-friendly
instructions
Impacts performance,
Supervises
librariesresources
forvisuals
the kernel
data
the and andto
integrity,
system
utilities
from track
and
boot or shutdown
terminate
storage
create
to processes
efficiency
Linux distros
✓ Common shells: bash, zsh
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Linux Terminologies
✓ The "brain" of the Linux system, managing hardware and resources
Kernel ✓ Acts as a bridge between hardware and applications
✓ Forms the core of a Linux-based OS
✓ Combined with libraries and utilities to create Linux distros
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Linux Terminologies
✓ Offer unique tools and packages built on the Linux kernel
✓ Examples: Ubuntu, Fedora, Red Hat
Distributions
✓ Each distro customizes Linux to suit specific needs
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Linux Terminologies
✓ Instance of a running program
✓ Created when you execute a command or launch an application
Process
✓ Each process has a unique Process ID (PID)
✓ The PID helps manage resources and track or terminate processes
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Linux Terminologies
✓ Background programs supporting applications or system functions
✓ httpd: Handles web services
Services
✓ ftpd: Manages file transfers
✓ systemd: Supervises the system from boot to shutdown
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Linux Terminologies
✓ Organizes and manages files in Linux
✓ Common types: ext3, ext4, FAT, XFS, Btrfs
Filesystem
✓ Different filesystems cater to various use cases
✓ Impacts performance, data integrity, and storage efficiency
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Linux Terminologies
✓ Provides tools for creating GUIs
X Window ✓ Enables interaction with Linux through graphical controls
System ✓ Desktop environments like GNOME, KDE, Xfce, and Fluxbox build on top of X to
offer user-friendly visuals
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Linux Terminologies
The Shell or ✓ The command line interface (CLI) in Linux
✓ Allows users to type commands to control the system
Command Line
✓ Acts as an intermediary between the user and the OS, translating commands
Interface (CLI) into instructions for the kernel
✓ Common shells: bash, zsh
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Linux | Types of Shells
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Types of Shells
Shell is a Command-line interface
It's a bridge between User and Operating System
Linux Commands
Shell Kernel
User
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Types of
Shells
01 Bourne Shell (sh)
02 Bourne Again Shell (Bash)
Commonly Used
✓ Combines
One of the
Enhanced
Inspired
Extended earliest
version
byshell
features ofshells
Bourne
C programming
withoffeatures
Bourne Shell
language
from
and CBash
Shells
syntax
and Korn Shells
Shells in Linux 03 C Shell (csh) ✓ Ideal
Designed
Default
Features:
Highlyforonfor
flexiblebasic
many
heavy-duty
aliasing
with scripting
Linux
and and
customizable
scripting
history andcommand-line
distributions
mechanism
prompts
interactive
for tasks
anduse
efficient
powerful auto-
✓ Includes
Simple
commandand
Features:
completion efficient
command
built-in
reuse for running
history,
functions forjob commands
control,
advanced advanced scripting
scripting
✓ Popular among advanced users
04
Korn Shell (ksh)
05
Z Shell (zsh)
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Linux | Types of Distributions
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Linux Distribution
✓ A Linux distribution (distro) is a Linux-based operating system
✓ Combines the Linux kernel with tools, libraries, and utilities
✓ Each distro has its own package management and repository
✓ Some distros offer unique desktop environments
✓ Designed for different users: beginners, administrators, or enterprises
Now hundreds of Linux
distributions ➢ Three foundational families
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Types of Distributions
Slackware: The Old-School Stability
✓ One of the oldest Linux distributions
✓ Focuses on simplicity and stability
✓ Designed for advanced users and administrators
✓ Minimalist, no-frills experience
✓ Not widely adopted but has a dedicated following
✓ Follows the "Keep It Simple, Stupid" (KISS) philosophy
✓ Popular for servers and custom configurations
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Types of Distributions
Debian: The Universal Operating System
✓ Foundation for Popular Distros like Ubuntu
✓ Renowned Stability and Security
✓ Ideal for Servers and Critical Systems
✓ Developer and Administrator Friendly
✓ Robust Dependency Management
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Types of Distributions
Red Hat Linux: The Enterprise Pioneer
✓ Discontinued in 2003, but paved the way for enterprise Linux
✓ Introduced the RPM (Red Hat Package Manager) system
✓ Legacy continues with Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)
✓ Widely adopted in businesses for reliability and professional support
✓ Set the standard for commercial Linux support
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Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ Ubuntu: The Beginner-Friendly
✓ Built on Debian, known for user-friendliness
✓ Ideal for beginners, students, and developers
✓ Offers stability and a vast software repository
✓ Excellent for cloud computing, AI, and machine learning
✓ Strong community support and regular updates
✓ One of the most popular Linux distros globally
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Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ Fedora: The Cutting-Edge Innovator
✓ Sponsored by Red Hat, focuses on cutting-edge technologies
✓ Ideal for developers and sysadmins seeking new features
✓ Popular in tech communities for containerization and virtualization
✓ Strong support for tools like Podman and KVM
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Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ CentOS: The Enterprise Workhorse
✓ Based on RHEL, stable without commercial support
✓ A server staple until its End-of-Life in 2024
✓ Rocky Linux is the successor, offering a community-driven, production-ready alternative
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Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ Arch Linux: The DIY Enthusiast's Choice
✓ Customizable and minimalist for advanced users
✓ Rolling-release for latest software
✓ Ideal for power users who configure from scratch
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Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ Linux Mint: The Elegant Desktop
✓ Built on Ubuntu user-friendly interface
✓ Ideal for casual users and home setups
✓ Features Cinnamon desktop and multimedia support
✓ Stable for daily tasks
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Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ openSUSE: The Swiss Army Knife
✓ Based on SUSE Linux, known for flexibility
✓ Popular among developers and system admins
✓ Two editions: Leap for stability, Tumbleweed for latest software
✓ Suited for both long-term and cutting-edge users
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
➢ Manjaro: The User-Friendly Arch
✓ Based on Arch Linux, offers easier installation
✓ Ideal for gamers, developers, and those seeking a rolling-release model
✓ Access to Arch User Repository (AUR)
✓ Simplified system management tools for tech enthusiasts
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Types of Distributions
Popular distributions
Ubuntu: The Beginner-Friendly
Fedora: The Cutting-Edge Innovator
• Its own flavor and purpose, making Linux
flexible for a wide range of use cases, CentOS: The Enterprise Workhorse
from servers and desktops to specialized
Arch Linux: The DIY Enthusiast's Choice
systems
Linux Mint: The Elegant Desktop
openSUSE: The Swiss Army Knife
Manjaro: The User-Friendly Arch
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Summary
❖ History of Operating Systems: Brief overview and evolution
❖ Introduction to Linux: Unique features and core terminologies
❖ Types of Shells: Exploring the command-line interface
❖ Linux Distributions: Diversity and strengths of popular distros
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 2
Linux | Inside Linux (Architecture, Directory Structure & Booting
Process)
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Inside Linux
➢ Architecture of Linux
➢ Directory Structure
➢ Important Configuration files
➢ Bootup process
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Architecture
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Architecture
Application 1 Application 2 … Application n
Kernel core & subsystems Generic Drivers
Generic Architecture Code
Architecture Specific Code
Bootstrap Memory Threads Timers
IRQs Syscalls Platform Drivers
Platform Drivers machine … machine
Hardware
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Linux Architecture
Applications
Web browsers Media players Databases
Shell CLI
Kernel
Hardware
Hard Drive RAM CPU Motherboard Network Interfaces
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Linux Architecture
Application 1 Application 2 … Application n
Kernel core & subsystems Generic Drivers
Generic Architecture Code
Architecture Specific Code
Bootstrap Memory Threads Timers
Kernel space
IRQs Syscalls Platform Drivers
Platform Drivers machine … machine
Hardware
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Architecture
Applications
Microsoft Word
Shell
Kernel
Hardware
Hard Drive RAM CPU Motherboard Network Interfaces
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Architecture
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt proc root
run sbin srv sys tmp usr var
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Linux | Directory Structure
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Directory Structure
/
bin
▪ Essential user command binaries
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot
▪ Files required for booting the system
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev
▪ Device files
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc
▪ Configuration files for the system
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home
▪ Home directory for regular users
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib
▪ Essential shared libraries and kernel modules
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media
▪ Mount point for removable media
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt
▪ Temporary mount point for mounting filesystems
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt
▪ Add-on software packages
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt proc
▪ Information about running processes and the kernel
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
▪ Home directory for the root user
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run
▪ Directory is used for information about the current state of
the system
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run sbin
▪ System binaries
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run sbin srv
▪ Data for services provided by the system
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run sbin srv sys
▪ Virtual filesystem and mount point for sysfs
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run sbin srv sys tmp
▪ Temporary directory
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run sbin srv sys tmp usr
▪ Directory contains user programs and data
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Linux Directory Structure
/
bin boot dev etc home lib media mnt opt root
proc
run sbin srv sys tmp usr var
▪ Directory contains variable data files
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Important Configuration Files
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Important Configuration
Files
Configuration folders Description
/etc/fstab All mounted filesystems can be found here and new can be
added.
/etc/resolv.conf To add DNS server entry here for resolving your hostname with
it.
/etc/ssh/sshd_config For enabling remote access via SSH port 22
/etc/passwd Contains user account details, such as usernames, user IDs, and
the default shell assigned to each user.
/etc/group Stores group information.
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Important Configuration
Files
Configuration folders Description
/etc/nsswitch.conf The Name Service Switch (NSS) configuration file determines
the sources from which to obtain name-service information in
a range of categories and in what order.
/etc/init.d Contains scripts linked to run-level directories.
/etc/hosts Maps IP addresses to hostnames for local/ private networks.
/etc/hosts.allow Lists host computers that are allowed to use certain TCP/IP
services from the local computer.
/etc/hosts.deny Lists host computers that are not allowed to use certain TCP/IP
services from the local computer (doesn't exist by default).
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Bootup Process
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Bootup Process
➢ Generic Booting Process
POST MBR/GPT GRUB2/GRUB/LI
BIOS/UEFI LO
Power ON Choose a Boot Device
Operating system's initialization Initializes/Detected Devices
• /boot/grub2/ on BIOS or /boot/efi/EFI/ on
UEFI systems
• /etc/default/grub
• /etc/grub.d/
initramfs
Device loads or
systemd
drivers initrd
Device drivers are loaded Kernel Initialization
Run Startup Scripts Run/.target files
systemd is the first Linux process
Users can login now
default.target is initiated
multi-user.target
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Bootup Process
➢ Generic Booting Process
POST MBR/GPT GRUB2/GRUB/LI
BIOS/UEFI LO
Power ON Operating system's initialization Detect Devices Choose a Boot Device
• /boot/grub2/ on BIOS or /boot/efi/EFI/ on
UEFI systems
• /etc/default/grub
• /etc/grub.d/
Runlevel Target
Run level 0 poweroff.target
Run level 1 rescue.target Device
initramfs
systemd Initialization and or
Run level 3 multi-user.target Configuration initrd
Run level 5 graphical.target Kernel Initialization
Run/.target files systemd is the first Linux process Device drivers are loaded
Run level 6 reboot.target initiated
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Bootup Process
➢ Generic Booting Process
POST MBR/GPT GRUB2/GRUB/LI
BIOS/UEFI LO
Power ON Operating system's initialization Detect Devices Choose a Boot Device
• /boot/grub2/ on BIOS or /boot/efi/EFI/ on
UEFI systems
• /etc/default/grub
• /etc/grub.d/
Device initramfs
systemd Initialization and or
Configuration initrd
Kernel Initialization
Run Startup Scripts Run/.target files systemd is the first Linux process Device drivers are loaded
Users can login now initiated
default.target
multi-user.target
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ Linux Architecture: Core components and their interactions
❖ Directory Structure: Organization and purpose of key directories
❖ Boot Process: Steps of how Linux boots up
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 3
Linux | Setting up Linux
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Setting up
Linux
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Setting up Linux in Diverse
Environments
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Setting up Linux in Diverse
Environments
Virtual machines Cloud instances Containers
Ubuntu RHEL 9
Debian RPM
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Setting up Linux in Diverse
Environments
➢ Setting Up Linux on Oracle VirtualBox with an Ubuntu Image file
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Setting up Linux in Diverse
Environments
➢ Setting Up Linux on Oracle VirtualBox with Vagrant
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Setting up Linux in Diverse
Environments
➢ Creating a Virtual Machine on the Cloud
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Setting up Linux in Diverse
Environments
➢ Quick Start with Play with Docker
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Getting started with Linux on VirtualBox
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting started with Linux on
VirtualBox
➢ Introduction to Virtualization
APP APP APP
Guest Guest Guest
OS 1 OS 2 OS 3
Oracle VirtualBox
Hypervisor
Physical Host OS
Hardware
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting started with Linux on
VirtualBox
➢ Introduction to Virtualization
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting started with Linux on
VirtualBox
➢ Features of Oracle Virtual BOX
✓ Snapshot capabilities
✓ Flexible networking options
✓ Support for various guest operating systems
❑ List of Supported Host OS for VirtualBox
https://www.virtualbox.org/manual/ch01.html#hostossupport
❑ List of Supported Guest OS for VirtualBox
https://www.virtualbox.org/manual/ch03.html#guestossupport
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting started with Linux on
VirtualBox
➢ Introduction to Virtualization
APP APP APP
Guest Guest Guest
OS 1 OS 1 OS 1
Hypervisor
Physical Host OS
Hardware
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting started with Linux on
VirtualBox
➢ Introduction to Virtualization
APP APP APP
Guest Guest Guest
OS 1 OS 1 OS 1
Oracle VirtualBox
Physical Host OS
Hardware
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Accessing Linux Machine via Putty
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting started with Linux on
VirtualBox
➢ Accessing a Linux Machine via PuTTY
PuTTY ✓ Free open-source SSH client
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Getting started with Linux on Vagrant
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Getting started with Linux on Cloud
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Getting started with Linux on Container
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ Traditional VM Setup:
Oracle VirtualBox with Ubuntu ISO
Download, installation, and configuration
❖ Automated Setup with Vagrant:
Vagrant and Oracle VirtualBox
❖ Cloud-Based Environment:
Ubuntu instance on AWS
❖ Quick Container Setup:
Play with Docker
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 4
Linux | Introduction to Essential Linux
Commands
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Essential Linux Commands
➢ Importance of Terminal
➢ Work with Directories, Files and File Contents
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Getting Started with
Terminal
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with
Terminal
Graphical user interface (GUI)
Command-line interface (CLI)
✓ Visual and Intuitive Navigation ✓ Powerful Text-Based Approach
✓ Beginner-Friendly ✓ Speed and Precision
✓ Point-and-Click Interface ✓ Greater Control
✓ Preferred by advanced users and
system administrators
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with
Terminal
➢ Basic Elements of a Shell Command
✓ The shell is a program that interprets user commands
✓ Commands are names of programs or scripts installed on the system
✓ Each command may include options and arguments
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with
Terminal
➢ Basic Elements of a Shell Command
Syntax:
Command [Options] [Arguments]
Command Description
ls Lists files and directories in the current directory
ls -l Lists files and directories in a detailed (long) format in
the current directory
ls –l /dev Lists files and directories in the specified directory (/dev)
with detailed information
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Getting Started with
Terminal
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
echo Prints the string(s) to standard echo <string(s)> echo "Hello, Linux!"
output
uname Prints the Systems Information uname [options] uname -a
whoami Prints the username associated with whoami whoami
the current effective user ID
who Prints information about users who who who
are currently logged in
uptime Tells how long the system has been uptime uptime
running
date Prints or sets the system date and date date
time
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Working with Terminal
Utilities
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Working with Terminal Utilities
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
clear Clears the terminal screen clear clear
history Lists previously executed commands history history
man System's manual pager man <command> man clear
whatis Displays one-line manual page whatis <command> whatis clear
descriptions
whereis Locates the binary, source, and whereis <command> whereis clear
manual page files for a command
which Locates the path of binary, source file which <command> which ls
for a command
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Working with Directories
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Working with Directories
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
pwd Prints the full filename of the current pwd pwd
working directory
cd Changes directory cd <directory> cd /tmp
ls List information about the FILEs of ls ls
the current directory by default
mkdir Makes/Creates directory mkdir <directory> mkdir thinknyx
rmdir Removes empty directories rmdir <directory> rmdir thinknyx
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Working with Directories
➢ Understanding Absolute and Relative Paths
Absolute and Relative Paths:
✓ Two ways to locate files and directories
✓ Simplify system navigation
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Working with Directories
➢ Understanding Absolute and Relative Paths
Absolute Paths:
✓ Starts from the root directory (/)
✓ Provides the full path to a file or folder
✓ Exact location, independent of the current directory
✓ Use cd to navigate
usr
bin
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Working with Directories
➢ Understanding Absolute and Relative Paths
Relative Paths:
✓ Starts from the current directory
. Current directory
✓ Doesn’t begin with (/)
.. Parent directory
/home/user/documents Current directory
~ Home directory
/home/user Parent directory
Deeper directory /home/user/documents/work
/home/user
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Working with Directories
➢ Understanding Absolute and Relative Paths
When to Use Which?
▪ Relative Path: Quick navigation between nearby directories
/home/user/documents to /home/user/projects
▪ Absolute Path: Reliable for deeper or fixed locations
/usr/bin
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Working with Directories
Character Type
d Directory
- Regular file
l Symbolic links
b Block devices
c Character devices
p Named pipes(FIFOs)
s Sockets
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Linux | Working with Files
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Working with Files
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
touch Creates an empty file; touch <filename> touch thinknyx.txt
file Determines file type file <filename> file thinknyx.txt
cp Copies files and directories cp <src_filename> cp thinknyx.txt test.txt
<dest_filename>
mv Moves or renames files mv <src_filename> mv test.txt result.txt
<dest_filename>
rm Removes files or directories rm <filename> rm result.txt
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Linux | Working with File Contents
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Working with File Contents
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
cat Concatenates files and prints on the cat <file1> <file2> cat file1.txt file2.txt
standard output
tac Concatenates files and prints the tac <file1> <file2> tac file1.txt file2.txt
contents on the standard output in
reverse order
head Prints the first 10 lines of the file to head <filename> head file1.txt
standard output by default
tail Prints the last 10 lines of the file to tail <filename> tail file1.txt
standard output by default
more Prints file content page-by-page more <filename> more file1.txt
less Prints file content page-by-page in less <filename> less file1.txt
reverse
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Summary
❖ Foundational Shell Commands: echo, who, clear, history
❖ How to Work With: Directories, files, and file contents
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 5
Linux | More Essential Linux Commands
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Essential Linux Commands
➢ Focus on filter, utility, archival, and compression commands
➢ Powerful tools to manage and process data efficiently
➢ Enhance productivity and streamline tasks
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Linux | Filter Commands-Part1
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Filter Commands Part-1
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
grep Searches for patterns in files using grep <pattern> <filename> grep "hello" thinknyx.txt
regular expressions
egrep Similar to grep, but supports egrep <pattern> <filename> egrep "^[A-Z]" thinknyx.txt
extended regular expressions
wc Counts the number of lines, words, wc <filename> wc thinknyx.txt
and characters in a file
pipe Passes output from one command as command1 | command2 grep -i "developer" details.txt |
input to another wc -l
comm Compares two sorted files and comm <file1> <file2> comm file1.txt file2.txt
outputs their differences and
common lines
find Searches for files and directories find [path] [expression] find /etc -name "nsswitch.conf"
based on specified criteria
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Filter Commands Part-1
➢ grep: (global regular expression print)
✓ search for patterns in text files and display the lines that contain those patterns
Syntax:
grep <pattern> <filename>
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Linux | Filter Commands-Part2
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Filter Commands-Part2
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
sort Sorts lines of text from input or a file sort <filename> sort thinknyx.txt
in a specified order
uniq Removes duplicate lines from sorted uniq <filename> uniq thinknyx.txt
input
nl Numbers the lines of a file or input nl <filename> nl thinknyx.txt
cut Prints selected parts of lines from cut [options] <filename> cut -d ',' -f 1,3 file.csv
each file to standard output
tr Translates or replaces characters in tr set1 [set2] cat employees.txt | tr ',' '\t'
input
column Formats input into a well-aligned column [options] <filename> column –t employees.txt
table
pr Converts text files for printing pr [options] <filename> pr -t -2 employees.txt
tee Reads from standard input and tee <filename> pr -t -2 employees.txt | tee
writes to standard output and files formatted_employees.txt
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Linux | Miscellaneous Utility
Commands
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Miscellaneous Utility
Commands
➢ Basic Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
date Used to display or set the system date date
date and time
sleep Pauses execution for a specified time sleep <duration> sleep 5
time Measures the time taken by a time <command> time ls
command to execute
timeout Terminates a running command if it timeout <duration> timeout 3 ls
exceeds a specified time limit <command>
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Linux | Compressing and Archiving
Commands
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Compressing and Archiving
Commands
➢ Compression and Archiving
Compression Archiving
Reduces file size to save space and Combines multiple files into one
speed up transfers without reducing size
Common Compression Tools: zip, gzip Common Archiving Tool: tar , zip
✓ tar and gzip: Creates .tar.gz files for both archiving and compression
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Compressing and Archiving
Commands
➢ zip vs gzip
zip gzip
Common on Windows, supports cross- Standard on Unix, Linux, and macOS
platform sharing systems
Compresses both files and directories Compresses individual files only
into a .zip file
➢ tar and gzip
✓ Creates .tar.gz archives for directories and files
✓ Preserves file permissions, metadata, and directory structures
✓ Linux backups and managing large file sets efficiently
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Compressing and Archiving
Commands
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Summary
❖ Filter Commands: grep, find, sort, uniq
❖ Utility Commands: date, sleep
❖ Archival & Compression Commands: zip, gzip, tar
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Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 6
Linux | Text Editors and Advanced Commands
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Text Editors and Advanced
Commands
➢ Nano and Vi editors
➢ Sed and Awk for advanced text processing
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Linux | Text Editors
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Text Editors
✓ Text editors are crucial for editing files directly in the terminal
✓ Two popular text editors: Nano and Vi
➢ Nano: Beginner-friendly and straightforward
➢ Vi: Advanced features for power users
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Text Editors
➢ Nano Editor
✓ Lightweight and easy-to-use text editor
✓ Ideal for quick edits and commonly used by beginners
✓ Open a file by using: nano filename.txt
Action Shortcut
Save a file CTRL + O
Exit Nano CTRL + X
Search for text CTRL + W
Cut a line CTRL + K
Paste a line CTRL + U
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Text Editors
➢ Vi Editor
✓ Widely used by advanced Linux users for efficient text editing
✓ Vi stands for Visual Editor
✓ Vim (Vi Improved) is the enhanced version of vi, adding more features, flexibility, and functionality
✓ Ideal for editing, navigating, and manipulating large amounts of text
Mode Description
Normal Mode Or Command mode Default mode for navigation and commands
Insert Mode For adding or editing text
Ex-Command Mode or Last line mode For executing operations like saving, quitting & searching
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Text Editors
/pattern Searches forward for the pattern from cursor position
?pattern Searches backward for pattern from cursor position
:%s/pattern/replacement/g Replace all occurrences of 'pattern' with 'replacement' in the file
:%s/pattern/replacement/gc Replace all occurrences of 'pattern' with confirmation before each
change
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Text Editors
➢ Advanced Vim Features
Action Command Action Command
Delete a line dd Copy yy
Delete 3 lines 3dd Paste below cursor p
Delete character at x Paste above cursor P
cursor
Undo changes u Append to end of line Shift + A
Redo changes CTRL + R
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Text Editors
Command Functionality Timestamp Behavior
:wq Saves changes and exits the editor Always updates the timestamp to current time
:x Saves changes and exits, but only updates the Updates timestamp only if changes were made
timestamp if changes were made
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Linux | Advanced
Commands
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Advanced
Commands
➢ Commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
sed Stream editor for filtering and sed [options] 'script' filename sed 's/World/Linux/'
transforming text thinknyx.txt
awk Pattern scanning and processing awk [options] 'pattern awk '/ERROR/ {print}'
language {action}' filename samplelog.txt
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Advanced
Commands
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Advanced
Commands
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ Nano and Vi editors: Text editing
❖ Sed and Awk: Advanced text processing
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 7
Linux | User & Group Management
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User & Group Management
➢ Introduction to users
➢ Managing users and groups
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Linux | Introduction to
Users
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to Users
✓ Users are the backbone of any Linux system
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Introduction to Users
Unique user id (UID)
▪ Linux automatically places them in a
At least one group group with the same name as the
New user
username
➢ Two primary types of users in Linux Primary group
✓ Root User
✓ Regular Users
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Introduction to Users
➢ Key Commands Overview
✓ id : Displays the current user’s UID, GID, and groups
✓ su : Switches the current user to another user, commonly the root user
✓ sudo : Allows a user to run commands with root privileges temporarily
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | User Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User Management
File Description
/etc/passwd Contains user account details like username, UID, and home directory
/etc/shadow Stores hashed passwords and password-related settings, accessible
only by root
/etc/skel Contains default files and directories copied to a new user's home
directory
/etc/sudoers This file is a sensitive file, as it determines who can gain root access
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User Management
UID Range Description
0 Superuser (root) account
1-200 System accounts for specific processes
201-999 Unprivileged system processes
1000+ Regular users
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User Management
Command Description Syntax Usage
adduser Creates a new user sudo adduser <username> sudo adduser alex
passwd Change user passwords updating sudo passwd [options] sudo passwd alex
password aging policies & unlocking [username]
accounts
usermod Modifies an existing user sudo usermod <options> sudo usermod -d
<username> /home/directory alex
deluser Deletes a user sudo deluser <username> sudo deluser alex
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Group Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Group
Management
➢ Core concepts involved in group management
✓ addgroup : Creates a new group
✓ groupmod : Modifies existing groups
✓ /etc/group : Lists all groups on the system
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Demonstration | User & Group Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Group
Management
➢ Core concepts involved in group management
prod_user dev_user
Group : programmer
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Group
Management
➢ Core concepts involved in group management
✓ Create two users : prod_user and dev_user
✓ Create a group : programmer
✓ Add prod_user to the programmer group
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | su VS su - Commands
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
su VS su -
Command When to Use
su <username> Quick access to another user
Retains the current environment
No need for a full user session
su - <username> Loads the user's full environment
Acts like a fresh login
Preferred in production for a clean session
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su VS su -
➢ Quick Rule:
✓ Use su - <username> for a full login shell
✓ Use su <username> for quick user switching
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Summary
❖ User Concepts:
Commands: id, su, sudo, and root for user management
❖ User Management:
Key Files:
/etc/passwd: Stores user details
/etc/shadow: Manages encrypted passwords
/etc/skel: Default home directory templates
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ Commands:
adduser: Create users
usermod: Modify user details
passwd: Change user passwords
deluser: Delete users
❖ Group Management:
Key File:
/etc/group
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Summary
❖ Commands:
addgroup: Create new groups
groupmod: Modify existing groups
❖ Key Focus:
Managing permissions
Ensuring system security
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 8
Linux | File Permissions
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File Permissions
➢ File Ownership covering both Octal Mode and Symbolic Mode
➢ Managing Special Permissions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | File Ownership
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File Ownership
Link count Group
File type
Permissions Owner File size Last modification time File name
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File Ownership
File size Last modification time File name
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
File size
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File Ownership
Permissions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
Group
➢ File permissions
✓ User : Owner of the file
✓ Group : Set of users
✓ Others : Everyone else
User Others
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File Ownership
➢ File permissions Write
✓ User : Owner of the file
✓ Group : Set of users
✓ Others : Everyone else
Read
Execute
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File Ownership
➢ File permission management commands
Command Description Syntax Usage
chmod Changes file mode bits chmod [options] <mode> chmod u+rx thinknyx.txt
<file>
chown Changes file owner and group chown [options] chown alex:developers filename
<owner[:group]> <file>
chgrp Changes group ownership chgrp [options] <group> <file> chgrp developers thinknyx.txt
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
➢ Different ways to use chmod
❑ Symbolic and Octal or Numeric Method
Symbolic Method
Permission groups
u user
g group
o others
a all
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File Ownership
➢ Different ways to use chmod
❑ Symbolic and Octal or Numeric Method
Symbolic Method
Permission types
r read permission
w write permission
x execute permission
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File Ownership
➢ Different ways to use chmod
❑ Symbolic and Octal or Numeric Method
Symbolic Method
Operators
+ add permission
- remove permission
= set permission explicitly, replacing others
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
➢ Different ways to use chmod
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
➢ Different ways to use chmod
❑ Symbolic and Octal or Numeric Method
Octal Method
Permission
4 read permission (r)
2 write permission (w)
1 execute permission (x)
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File Ownership
➢ Different ways to use chmod
❑ Symbolic and Octal or Numeric Method
Octal Method
Octal Representation
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File Ownership
➢ Numeric value
✓ 7 means Full access: Read (4) + Write (2) + Execute (1)
✓ 6 means Read and Write: Read (4) + Write (2)
✓ 5 means Read and Execute: Read (4) + Execute (1)
(u) user (g) group (g) group
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
r w x r w x r w x
7 6 5
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File Ownership
➢ Effects of Permissions on Files and Directories
Permissions File Permissions Directory Permissions
Read (r) Allows the user to viewing the Allows listing the directory's contents
contents of the file
Write (w) Allows the user to modifying the Allows creating or deleting files within
contents of the file the directory
Execute (x) Allows the user to executing the file Allows traversing the directory and
as a program or command accessing files and subdirectories inside
the directory
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
➢ Special Cases of Directory Permissions
✓ Read & Execute: User can list and access file contents in read-only mode but cannot modify files
✓ Read-Only: User can list file names but cannot view permissions or timestamps
✓ Execute-Only: User can cd into the directory but cannot list file names; file access requires exact names
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
➢ Directory Ownership and File Deletion
✓ Write Permissions: Directory owners or users with write access can delete files inside, regardless of file ownership or
permissions
✓ Sticky Bit: Restricts file deletion to file owners, even if others have write access to the directory
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | File Ownership
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
✓ Create Users and Groups
✓ Set Ownership
✓ Configure Permissions
thinknyx
✓ Test Access
Alex Bob Charlie
Owner, Developers Developers Others
group group
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
File Ownership
➢ Effects of Permissions on Files and Directories
✓ Alex -> Full access
✓ Developers Group -> Full access
✓ Others -> No Access
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Manage Special
Permissions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
u+s g+s o+t
Setuid Setgid Sticky
rwx rwx rwx
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
➢ Special Permissions
Special Permission Effect On Files Effect On Directories Use Cases
Setuid (u+s) The file runs with the permissions of No impact Used for programs requiring
the file's owner, rather than the user elevated privileges (e.g.,
executing it passwd)
Setgid (g+s) The file runs with the permissions of New files created in the Ensures group consistency or
the file's group directory inherit the group shares files among group
ownership of the directory members
Sticky Bit (o+t) No impact Users with write access can Prevents users from deleting
only delete or rename files others’ files in shared
they own; they cannot modify directories like /tmp
files owned by others
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
thinknyx
Alex Bob Charlie
Owner, Developers Developers Others
group group
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
✓ ACLs provide fine-grained control over file and directory permissions
✓ Allow management of access for specific users or groups, even within the owning group
✓ Example: You can revoke access to a particular user from the owning group
✓ ACLs support default rules for new files and directories to ensure consistent permissions
✓ ACLs can be set during directory creation for immediate application
✓ Grants user charlie read (r) and write (w) access for new files/subdirectories
✓ ACLs offer flexibility beyond traditional rwx permissions
✓ They are powerful in multi-user environments
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
➢ Default initial permissions
File Type – whether it’s a regular file or a directory
umask – a bitmask that modifies these default permissions
Regular Files 0666 Read and Write for everyone
Directories 0777 Read, Write, and Execute for everyone
special permissions
▪ The umask is an octal bitmask that subtracts permissions from
these defaults when creating files or directories
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
➢ Regular file
Symbolic Numeric octal Numeric binary
Initial file permissions rw-rw-rw- 0666 000 110 110 110
umask -------w- 0002 000 000 000 010
Resulting file rw-rw-r-- 0664 000 110 110 100
permissions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
➢ Directory
Symbolic Numeric octal Numeric binary
Initial file permissions rwxrwxrwx 0777 000 111 111 111
umask -------w- 0002 000 000 000 010
Resulting file rwxrwxr-x 0775 000 111 111 101
permissions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
✓ The regular file is created with 0666 permissions (read and write for all users)
✓ The directory is created with 0777 permissions (read, write, and execute for all users)
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Manage Special
Permissions
✓ Regular files: Only read and write for the owner (0600)
✓ Directories: Only read, write, and execute for the owner (0700)
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ File Ownership: user, group, and others
❖ chmod: Explored octal and symbolic modes
❖ Special Permissions: SUID, SGID, and sticky bit
❖ ACLs & Umask: manage file access and default permissions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 9
Linux | Advanced Topics on Files
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Advanced Topics on Files
➢ Hard links and soft links
➢ User/Shell startup files
➢ Environment variables
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Hard Links and Soft
Links
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Hard Links and Soft Links
➢ inodes
✓ Records file metadata: permissions, ownership, timestamps, and data pointers
✓ Data pointers locate the file's data on disk
✓ Each file/directory has a unique inode number
✓ File names are stored in directory entries, not inodes
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Hard Links and Soft Links
➢ hardlink
hardlink
✓ Comparable to database entries pointing to the
File 1 File 2
same data row
✓ Changes to one entry maintain data
consistency
✓ Directly reference the inode of a file
✓ Enable shared access without duplicating data,
saving disk space
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Hard Links and Soft Links
➢ In hardlink
hardlink
✓ Original file and hard link share the same inode
File 1 File 2
number
✓ Changes to one reflect in the other
✓ Deleting one does not affect other hard links
✓ Cannot span file systems or link to directories
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Hard Links and Soft Links
➢ softlink or symbolic/symlink
hardlink softlink or symbolic/symlink
File 1 File 2 File 1 File 2
✓ Does not store actual data, only its location
✓ Commonly used in website hosting to connect
directories (e.g., /var/www/html)
✓ Enables flexible redirection without additional storage
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Hard Links and Soft Links
➢ In softlink
hardlink softlink or symbolic/symlink
✓ Have a unique inode number
File 1 File 2 File 1 File 2
✓ Can span file systems and reference directories
✓ Become broken if the original file is deleted
✓ Serve as a reference, not a duplicate
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Hard Links and Soft
Links
hardlink softlink or symbolic/symlink
File 1 File 2 File 1 File 2
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | User/Shell Startup Files
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
.bashrc file
/etc/skel directory
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
✓ Define aliases, variables, and functions for ease of use
✓ Automatically executed by the shell during startup
✓ Serve as setup instructions for the shell environment
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
➢ Categories of Settings in Linux
Category Description Location
Global Settings Apply to all users on the system /etc directory (e.g., /etc/profile)
User-Specific Customize or override global settings User's home directory (e.g., ~/.bashrc,
for an individual user ~/.profile)
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
➢ Shell Startup and Logout Behavior
No
✓ Login Shell: Reads /etc/profile and one of .bashrc
.bash_profile, .bash_login, or .profile (in order) Login Shell?
✓ Non-Login Shell: Reads only .bashrc
Yes .bash_profile
✓ User Preference: .bashrc is often customized as it runs
for every new terminal session
.bash_login
✓ Modern Simplification: Many systems omit
.bash_profile and .bash_login, relying on .bashrc
.profile
✓ Logout Shell: Executes .bash_logout for session
cleanup
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
➢ Environment Variables
✓ Set up by User Startup Files to configure the shell
✓ Store system and user-specific information
✓ Defined in .bashrc and .profile for persistence
✓ Are strings accessed by the shell and applications
✓ They store system preferences, user configurations, and
influence program behavior
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
➢ Defining Environment Variables
✓ Environment variables can be defined interactively in a shell session
✓ They are often defined in shell or User Startup Files for persistence across sessions
✓ Global variables are defined in /etc/profile or /etc/environment
✓ User-specific variables are defined in .bashrc, .bash_profile, or .profile
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
command Description
set Displays all shell variables, including environment and shell-specific
ones
env Lists only environment variables
export Makes a variable available to child processes of the shell
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
HOME -> user’s home directory
PATH -> list of directories where the system looks for executable programs
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
SHELL -> default command shell for the user
PS1 -> controls the appearance of your command prompt
customize it to display useful information like the username, hostname, current directory
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User/Shell Startup Files
No
.bashrc
Login Shell?
Yes .bash_profile
.bash_login
.profile
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ Hard and soft links: Differences and uses
❖ Startup files: Configuring the environment during login
❖ Environment variables: Managing system settings and configurations
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 10
Linux | Package Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Package Management
➢ What is a package?
➢ Repositories and Dependencies
➢ Basic Package Management Tasks in Debian & Red hat-based
distributions
➢ Downloading Software Outside Repositories
➢ Creating Local repository in RHEL9
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Introduction to Packages
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to Packages
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to Packages
➢ What is Package
Install Software
Includes:
✓ Binaries
✓ Libraries
✓ Configuration files
✓ Documentation
Install Manage Software Update
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Repositories
Central Location
All packages for your
distribution are stored
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Repositories
Fetch
✓ Online stores for software
✓ Contain precompiled software packages
✓ Ready to be downloaded
Request ✓ Installed with a command
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Repositories
Meets different criteria like:
✓ Main Repositories
✓ Security Updates
✓ Thirt-Party software Repositories
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Managing Packages
Fetch
Request
✓ Text Editors
✓ Web servers
✓ Development tools
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Managing Packages
Everything is a file
✓ Simplifies system management
✓ Allows uniformity in how components are
accessed and manipulated
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Common Methods of software
installation
➢ Binary Copy
✓ Precompiled binaries
✓ Ready-to-run executables
✓ Offer quick installation
✓ Ideal for users who don’t need to modify software
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Common Methods of software
installation
➢ Source Code
✓ Raw programming code
✓ Written before its compiled into an executable file
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Common Methods of software
installation
➢ Self-Compiling Packages
✓ Require manual assurance
✓ All libraries and tools (dependencies) are installed
Tools
make cmake
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Package Manager
✓ Precompiled binary files
✓ Necessary installation scripts
✓ Configuration files
✓ Metadata
Bundled archives Install Upgrading Removing
✓ Provide components needed to install and manage apt yum/dnf
software efficiency
✓ Simplify process by automating resolution and installation
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Package Terminologies
➢ Package Formats
✓ Comes in different format
✓ Depends upon linux distribution
✓ Defines how software is packaged, distributed and installed
.deb .rpm
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Package Terminologies
➢ Package Manager
✓ Helps in automate installations, maintenance and removal of package
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Package Terminologies
➢ Repository
✓ Centralized location containing software packages
✓ Packages are tested and optimized for specific linux distributions
Debian Based Red Hat Based
“/etc/apt/source.list” “/etc/yum.repos.d”
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Package Terminologies
➢ Dependencies
✓ Some packages requires other packages to function correctly
✓ Tools like – apt, yum and dnf automatically handle these requirements
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Package Terminologies
➢ Open Source
✓ Most distributions offer open-source software packages
✓ Integrate seamlessly with system
✓ Source code can be downloaded from project website
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Package Management Tools
➢ apt
apt apt-get
✓ Advance Package Tool
✓ Application
✓ Libraries
✓ “.deb” for Debian based linux
Manage software packages
apt: apt-get:
✓ User-friendly, High-level interface ✓ Lower-level tool
✓ Intuitive commands ✓ Interacts more closely with core linux
✓ Enhanced security features processes
✓ Predictable behavior
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Package Management Tools
➢ yum
✓ Yellowdog Updater Modified
✓ Package manager for “.rpm” packages on Red-Hat based distribution
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Package Management Tools
➢ dnf
✓ Dandified YUM
✓ Modernized replacement for yum
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Package Management Tools
➢ zypper
✓ Command-line package manager for OpenSUSE and SUSE Linux Enterprise
✓ Advanced dependency resolution and repository management
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Linux | apt Package Manager
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apt Package Manager
A deb package file name is structured as:
name_version+release_architecture.deb
Example
vim_8.2.2434-3+deb11u1_amd64.deb
✓ NAME: Describes the contents of the package (e.g., vim)
✓ VERSION: The software’s version number (8.2.2434-3)
✓ RELEASE: The release number set by the packager (deb11u1)
✓ ARCHITECTURE: The CPU architecture the package is compiled for:
- amd_64: 64-bit systems
- aarch64 for ARM processors
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apt Package Manager
✓ dpkg focuses on individual .deb files
✓ apt acts as a user-friendly front end, streamlining tasks
- Searching repositories
- Resolving dependencies
- Handling software updates
➢ Advanced Package Tool (apt)
✓ Search for available software in the repositories
✓ Install or upgrade packages along with their dependencies
✓ Keep your system secure and up-to-date with regular updates and upgrades
✓ Remove packages or free up disk space by clearing the local cache
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apt Package Manager
Command Purpose Example
sudo apt update Refreshes & updates the local package cache with the latest sudo apt update
repository information
sudo apt upgrade Upgrades all installed packages to their latest versions sudo apt upgrade
sudo apt full-upgrade Installs updates, handling changes in dependencies sudo apt full-upgrade
sudo apt search Searches for a specific package in the repository sudo apt search vim
<package-name>
sudo apt install Installs a specified package along with its dependencies sudo apt install vim
<package-name>
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apt Package Manager
Command Purpose Example
dpkg -l List of installed packages with details like name, version, and dpkg -l
architecture
sudo apt remove Removes a specified package but keeps its configuration files sudo apt remove vim
sudo apt purge Installs updates, handling changes in dependencies sudo apt purge vim
sudo apt clean Clears the local repository cache, freeing up disk space sudo apt clean
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Linux | Package Manager for Red Hat
based Distributions
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Introduction
✓ Yum, the Yellowdog Updater Modifier
✓ Powerful package manager for Red Hat based systems like
✓ RHEL
✓ Rocky Linux
✓ Rpm, the Rat Hat Package manager
✓ Yum simplifies package management by resolving dependencies
✓ Rpm works at granular level for managing individual packages
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RPM
✓ Originally developed by Red Hat
✓ Simplifies software distribution by packing programs into standardized formats
✓ Easier software management
✓ Admins tract and remove installed files
✓ Ensures presence of required supporting packages
✓ Local rpm database maintains detailed records for installed packages
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RPM
➢ Understanding the RPM Package Name
Syntax -> name-version-release.architecture.rpm
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RPM
➢ Understanding the RPM Package Name
E.g. vim-minimal-8.2.2637-21.el9.x86_64.rpm
Name: Describes the contents of the package (e.g. vim-minimal
Version: The software’s version number (8.2.2637).
Release: The release number set by the packager (21.el9).
el9 indicates it’s built for Enterprise Linux 9.
ARCHITECTURE: The CPU architecture the package is compiled for:
✓ x86_64: 64-bit systems.
✓ Other examples include aarch64 for ARM processors.
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RPM
➢ Installing RPM Packages
Packages can be installed from
✓ Package with latest version is prioritized
✓ For multiple releases of same version, highest
release number is chosen
Repositories Local Files
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RPM
➢ Limitations RPM
Limitations
Dependency Manual Update
Management
✓ Doesn’t automatically fetch or ✓ Updating packages manually
resolve dependencies can be tedious
✓ To address these issues, yum and dnf were developed
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RPM
➢ Essential Commands
✓ rpm -q <package>: Queries if a specific package is installed
✓ rpm -qa: Lists all installed packages
✓ rpm -ivh <package.rpm>: Installs a package, fails if the package is already installed
✓ rpm -Uvh <package.rpm>: Installs or upgrades a package from a local RPM file
✓ rpm -e <package>: Removes a specific package
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Introduction to Yum
✓ Yellowdog Updater Modified
✓ Package management in Red Hat-based distributions like CentOS and Fedora
✓ Automates tasks like:
Resolving Dependencies Managing repositories Updating packages
User-friendly tool that made Linux package management accessible to everyone
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YUM
➢ Common Commands
✓ yum list - Lists available and installed packages
✓ yum search <keyword> - Searches for packages by keyword
✓ yum install <package> - Installs a package
✓ yum update - Updates all packages
✓ yum repolist - Displays enabled repositories
/etc/yum.conf - Configuration file for Yum settings
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DNF
✓ Modern package manager that replaces YUM
✓ In RHEL9, DNF is used for software management
✓ YUM still exists for compatibility with older versions
✓ RHEL8 and RHEL9 relies on DNF, but maintain compatibility with YUM
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DNF
✓ Evolved to dnf
✓ Successor to Yum, introduced in Fedora 22 and adopted in RHEL 8+.
✓ Enhanced performance and better memory management.
✓ Improved dependency resolution and faster metadata processing.
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DNF
➢ Common Commands
✓ dnf install <package>: Installs a specified package along with dependencies.
✓ dnf remove <package>: Removes a package and its unused dependencies.
✓ dnf update: Updates all installed packages to their latest versions.
✓ dnf list: Lists available or installed packages in the system.
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Demonstration | Create a local repository in RHEL9
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Creating Local Repository
✓ Essential for managing software installations
Centralized Package
✓ Limited Ensure Consistency
Management
✓ Restricted
Software Installations ✓ Unavailable
Updates in Environment
Save Bandwidth Offline Access
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Summary
❖ The basics of package
❖ APT package manager in Ubuntu
❖ Red Hat based package manager: rpm, yum and dnf
❖ Creation of local repo in rhel9
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Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 11
Linux | Introduction to Process
Management
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Process Management
➢ Processes and their lifecycle
➢ Manage processes using various commands
➢ Process priority
➢ Foreground and Background processes
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Linux | Introduction to Processes
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Introduction to Processes
➢ What is a Process?
✓ A process is a running instance of a program
✓ When you open an app, like a web browser, it becomes a process on your system
✓ In simple terms, a process is a program that's currently running
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Introduction to Processes
➢ What are Threads?
✓ A thread is the smallest unit of work in a process
✓ Each process has a main thread and can create more for multitasking
✓ Threads share memory, making them lightweight and efficient on multi-core systems
Memory Space
Process
Thread
Thread
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Processes and Resources
✓ Processes use memory, CPU, and devices like network cards and hard drives
✓ The kernel manages resource allocation to optimize performance
Operating System
Process 1
Process 2 Memory
Linux CPU
Process n Kernel
Physical and logical
resources
Processes
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Process Creation in Linux
✓ All processes start from systemd, the first system process
✓ Parent processes create child processes using the fork mechanism, inheriting resources like file
access and environment variables
✓ The child process often uses exec to replace its inherited code with a new program
✓ Each process has a unique PID and a PPID (Parent Process ID)
✓ The parent "sleeps" while the child runs and clears unused resources after the child finishes
PARENT
fork exec
CHILD
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Process Lifecycle in Linux
✓ A script runs as a process, moving through various states
✓ The scheduler allocates CPU time based on priority and time needed
results
.PY
Python interpreter
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Created (New)
fork
(new)
✓ The OS uses fork to create a new process for the Python interpreter
✓ The process exists but hasn’t started executing yet
✓ It waits to be admitted into the scheduler’s queue, with no specific state
identifier until then
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Ready (R)
fork
schedule R
(new) Runnable
(ready)
✓ After creation, the process enters the Ready state (R)
✓ The scheduler adds the process to its queue, waiting for its turn to use the CPU
✓ The scheduler evaluates the queue based on priority and fairness to decide the
next process to run
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Running (R)
fork
R run R
schedule Running
(new) Runnable
(ready) (on a CPU)
reschedule
✓ Once assigned the CPU, the process enters the Running state (R)
✓ The Python script executes tasks like opening files, reading, and processing data
✓ The scheduler periodically switches processes to ensure fairness, so the script may not stay
in this state continuously
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Introduction to Processes
➢ Sleeping (S or D)
fork
R run R
schedule Running
(new) Runnable
(ready) (on a CPU)
reschedule
event or wait
signal
D S
Sleeping
✓ The process enters Sleeping state when it pauses, waiting for resources like file data or database input
✓ Interruptible Sleep (S) allows the process to wake up when the resource is ready or a signal is received
✓ Uninterruptible Sleep (D) occurs when the process waits for a critical resource and can't be interrupted
✓ During sleep, the scheduler focuses on other processes that are ready to run
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Introduction to Processes T
Stopped
➢ Stopped (T)
suspend resume
fork
R run R
schedule Running
(new) Runnable
(ready) (on a CPU)
reschedule
event or wait
signal
D S
Sleeping
✓ When manually paused (e.g., pressing Ctrl+Z), the process enters the Stopped state (T)
✓ The process halts execution, releases the CPU, but stays in memory
✓ It can be resumed later using the fg (foreground) command
✓ While stopped, the scheduler does not allocate CPU time to the process
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Introduction to Processes T
Stopped
➢ Zombie (Z)
suspend resume
fork
R run R Z
(new) schedule
Runnable Running exit
Zombie
(ready) (on a CPU)
reschedule
event or wait
signal
D S
Sleeping
✓ After execution, the process enters the Zombie state (Z)
✓ The process has completed its work, but the parent process hasn’t acknowledged its exit status
✓ This state is transitional and doesn’t consume system resources
✓ The scheduler is not involved, as the process is no longer active
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Introduction to Processes T
Stopped
➢ Terminated (Dead)
suspend resume
terminate
fork
R run R Z
(new) schedule
Runnable Running exit
Zombie
(ready) (on a CPU)
reschedule
event or wait
signal
D S
Sleeping
✓ After the parent process acknowledges termination, the process enters the Terminated state
✓ All resources (memory, file handles) are freed, and the process is removed from the system
✓ The process no longer exists in the process table
✓ The scheduler's role is finished, marking the end of the script's lifecycle
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Introduction to Processes
T
Stopped
suspend resume
fork terminate
R run R Z
(new) schedule Runnable Running exit
Zombie
(ready) reschedule (on a CPU)
event or wait
signal
D S
Sleeping
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Linux | Process Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Process Management
➢ Fundamental Commands Related to Processes
Command Description Syntax Usage
pidof Finds the process ID of a running pidof [options] pidof sshd
program <program_name>
ps Displays information about a ps [options] ps aux
selection of the active processes
pstree Shows running processes as a tree pstree [options] pstree
psgrep Searches for processes by name and pgrep [options] <pattern> pgrep -u user1
returns their process IDs
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a all users
u user, CPU, and memory usage
x not tied to a specific terminal
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Process
Management
➢ Kill Command
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Process
Management
➢ Kill Command
✓ Terminate the Process
✓ Free Up Resources
✓ Restore Server Performance
✓ Maintain User Experience
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Process
Management
➢ Kill Command
✓ Sends signals to manage processes, such as TERM,
KILL, or STOP
✓ Default signal: TERM (graceful termination)
✓ KILL: Forcefully stops a process
✓ STOP: Pauses the process
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Process
Management
➢ Kill Command
✓ Only owners or root users can kill processes
✓ The term "kill" can be misleading
✓ The command sends various signals, not limited to
termination
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Process
Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Process
Management
➢ Syntax for the kill command
kill [options] <pid>
Signal number (e.g., 9 for SIGKILL)
Full signal name (e.g., SIGKILL)
Signal name without the SIG prefix (e.g., KILL)
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Process
Management
PID Value Effect
PID > 0 Signal targets the process with the specified PID
PID = 0 Signal targets all processes in the current process group
PID = -1 Signal targets all user-owned processes; as root, it excludes init and
itself
PID < -1 Signal targets all processes in the group with a GID matching the
absolute value of the PID
✓ Use signal names, not numbers, for consistency and cross-platform portability
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Process
Management
killall
✓ Unsure of the process ID or prefer to target processes by name
pkill
✓ Sends signals to processes based on names, more flexible than killall
✓ Uses pgrep criteria (name, user, pattern) to target processes
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Process
Management
For example
Default signal (SIGTERM) to all matching processes
Additional options -> terminal (-t) or session (-s)
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Process
Management
➢ SIGTERM vs SIGKILL
✓ Avoid killing system processes to prevent instability or crashes
✓ SIGTERM: Gracefully terminates processes
✓ SIGKILL: Forcefully terminates without cleanup, causing potential issues
✓ Use signals carefully to avoid unintended consequences
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Linux | Process Priorities
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Process Priorities
➢ Nice and Renice
✓ Lower nice value = Higher priority
✓ Higher nice value = Lower priority
CPU=Chef
Processes=Order Scheduler=Manager
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Process Priorities
➢ Adjusting Process Priority
❑ nice Command
✓ Used when starting a process
✓ Sets the initial priority
❑ renice Command
✓ Used for running processes
✓ Dynamically adjusts priority
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Process Priorities
➢ Process Priority in Multi-Core Systems
✓ Parallel Execution: Processes run on multiple cores
✓ Priority Matters: Higher priority processes are favored
✓ Optimized Performance: Tasks balanced across cores
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Process Priorities
➢ Understanding Nice Values
✓ Range: -20 (highest priority) to 19 (lowest priority)
✓ High Priority (-20): Receives more CPU time
✓ Low Priority (19): CPU favors higher-priority processes first
✓ Default: 0
Ensures fair CPU resource allocation
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Process Priorities
➢ Monitoring System Performance: top vs. ps
❑ ps Command
✓ Provides a static snapshot of processes
✓ Requires manual reruns for updates
✓ Useful for specific point-in-time process data
❑ top Command
✓ Offers real-time, dynamic updates (default: every 2
seconds[Interval updates can be customized])
✓ Displays processes consuming the most CPU and memory
✓ Allows for continuous monitoring without rerunning commands
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Process Priorities
➢ Why Use top?
✓ Efficient for ongoing performance tracking
✓ Easier to monitor system health dynamically
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Process Priorities
➢ Understanding Load Average
✓ Shows processes waiting for CPU time
✓ Load of 1 fully uses a single-core CPU; >1 causes contention
✓ Multi-core ideal load matches core count (e.g., 4 cores = load of 4)
✓ High load suggests CPU overuse or system issues
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Process Priorities
✓ High kernel time (sy) with low user time (us) suggests system-level issues
✓ Low idle time with high us or sy indicates heavy CPU usage
✓ High wa values suggest memory or disk bottlenecks, with the CPU waiting on storage
✓ High hi or si indicates hardware or software interruption issues
✓ High st values suggest the host system is overloaded, affecting the VM's performance
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Linux | Foreground and Background
Processes
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Foreground and Background
Processes
✓ Foreground: Directly interacted with in the terminal, blocking other tasks until
finished or stopped
✓ Background: Run independently, allowing terminal use for other tasks while still being
monitored or controlled
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Foreground and Background Processes
Command Description Syntax Usage
jobs Lists all background jobs and their jobs jobs
statuses
fg Brings a background process to the fg %<job_id> fg %1
foreground
bg Resumes a paused process in the bg %<job_id> bg %1
background
✓ The kernel also runs background processes (kernel threads) for essential system tasks
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Summary
❖ Concept of processes and their lifecycle
❖ Process states: ready, sleep and stop
❖ Managing Processes: pidof, ps and kill
❖ Process Priorities: nice and renice
❖ Real-Time Monitoring: top
❖ Foreground and Background Processes: fg, bg and jobs
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 12
Linux | Service
Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Service Management
➢ Service management concepts
➢ Commands for managing services in Linux
➢ systemd and systemctl
➢ Install Apache on Ubuntu
➢ Manage Apache service using systemctl
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Linux | Introduction to Service
Management
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Service Management
✓ Web servers, databases, and logging systems run smoothly without
manual intervention. How?
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Service Management
➢ Services
✓ Are background processes vital for system operation
✓ Handle tasks like networking, scheduling, and more
✓ Manage critical tasks like web hosting and database access
✓ Service management controls how services start, stop, and interact
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Service Management
➢ SysVinit VS Systemd
❑ SysVinit ➢ Systemd
✓ Linux used the SysVinit system for managing services ✓ Modern replacement for SysVinit
✓ Launched essential services during system boot ✓ Introducing features like parallel startup,
✓ SysVinit faced challenges like managing dependencies dependency resolution, and robust logging
between services
✓ Handles entire boot process, ensures
system resources allocated efficiently
✓ SysVinit lacked an efficient way to handle dependencies ✓ Tracks all processes
✓ delays or even failures during startup
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Service Management
➢ Daemons
✓ Daemons are a subset of services managed by tools like systemd
✓ Processes designed to run continuously in the background
✓ Systemd interacts with these daemons to control their lifecycle
For Example
✓ Systemd initializes the sshd daemon, which handles secure remote logins
✓ Systemd can restart a daemon if it fails
✓ Services remain available without manual intervention
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Service Management
Startup Configuration
Understanding
Daemons
Continuous Operation User Interaction
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Service Management
➢ Examples of Daemons
crond mysqld systemd-journald
httpd
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Role of
systemd
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Role of
systemd
✓ Systemd is responsible for initializing the system and managing services
✓ Services are launched in the correct order and handles dependencies between services
✓ Responsible for controlling the lifecycle of services
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Role of
systemd
➢ Key roles of systemd
❑ Boot the System
✓ Kernel loads and initializes systemd
✓ It initializes the system by launching essential services
✓ It optimizes the boot process using parallelization
❑ Control Services
✓ Start, stop, restart, enable, or disable services
✓ Handle dependencies between services
✓ Use timers to schedule tasks
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Role of
systemd
➢ Key roles of systemd
❑ Resource Management
✓ Integrates with cgroups (control groups) to monitor and
control resource
❑ Logging and Troubleshooting
✓ Systemd includes journalctl, a centralized logging utility
✓ Logs are invaluable for troubleshooting and auditing
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Role of
systemd
➢ Key roles of systemd
❑ Power and Session Management
✓ Handles power management tasks like shutting down,
rebooting, and hibernating the system
❑ Advanced Networking and System States
✓ Supports managing network configurations using systemd-networkd
✓ Logs are invaluable for troubleshooting and auditing
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Role of
systemd
➢ Systemd introduces units
✓ Services
✓ Sockets
✓ Devices
✓ Timers
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Role of
systemd
➢ Important systemd units
Service Units (.service)
Socket Units (.socket)
Path Units (.path)
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Linux | Introduction to systemctl
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to
systemctl
Command Description Usage
systemctl start Starts a service immediately systemctl start apache2
<service>
systemctl stop Stops a running service systemctl stop apache2
<service>
systemctl restart Stops and then starts a service. systemctl restart apache2
<service> Useful after config changes
systemctl reload Reloads a service without stopping it systemctl reload apache2
<service>
systemctl enable Configures the service to start systemctl enable apache2
<service> automatically on boot
systemctl disable Prevents the service from starting on systemctl disable apache2
<service> boot
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Introduction to
systemctl
Command Description Usage
systemctl status Displays the current status of a systemctl status apache2
<service> service (e.g., active or inactive)
systemctl is-active Checks if the service is currently systemctl is-active apache2
<service> running
systemctl is-enabled Checks if the service is set to start on systemctl is-enabled apache2
<service> boot
systemctl list-units Lists all the systemd units currently systemctl list-units
loaded
systemctl list-units -- Lists systemd units & filters by type, systemctl list-units --
type service --all as services type=service
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Demonstration | Managing Services
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
User Management
File Description
UNIT Service unit name, e.g., cron.service
LOAD Loaded into memory; typically shows loaded if successful
ACTIVE Common states include active or inactive
SUB Detailed state, varies by service type and behavior, e.g., running,
exited, waiting (active), or dead, failed (inactive)
Description Brief purpose of the service
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User Management
Active State Description
active (exited) Service started successfully and completed its task (one-shot)
active (waiting) Service running but waiting for an event or condition to proceed
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Summary
❖ Services and daemons
❖ Role of systemd in service management
❖ Common systemctl commands
❖ Installed and managed Apache2 using systemctl
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 13
Linux | Disk Partitioning
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Disk Partitioning
➢ Types of filesystems
➢ Fundamentals of disk partitioning
➢ Demonstration of creating and managing disk partitions
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Filesystem Types
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Filesystem Types
➢ What is a Filesystem?
✓ Defines how data is stored, accessed, and organized
✓ Manages file naming, directory structure, and metadata
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Filesystem Types
➢ Filesystem Types
✓ Specific implementations of file storage structures
✓ Each offers unique features, optimizations, and limitations
✓ Suitable for different scenarios
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Filesystem Types
➢ Journaling
✓ Used by ext4, XFS to ensure data consistency
✓ Logs changes before applying them
✓ Enables recovery from crashes, preventing data corruption
✓ Replays journal on restart to apply or roll back changes
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Filesystem Types
➢ Inodes
✓ Data structures storing information about files and directories
✓ Contain metadata: size, permissions, timestamps, and pointers to data blocks
✓ Help manage and access files efficiently by separating metadata from content
✓ Enables recovery from crashes, preventing data corruption
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Filesystem Types
➢ Popular Filesystem Types
ext4 (Fourth Extended ✓ Default for many Linux distributions
Filesystem)
✓ Uses journaling for crash recovery
✓ Stores metadata in inodes (permissions, timestamps, data pointers)
✓ Reliable and performs well for general-use scenarios
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Filesystem Types
➢ Popular Filesystem Types
XFS (Extended ✓ High-performance filesystem with journaling for data consistency
Filesystem)
✓ Uses B-trees for better scalability and faster file lookups
✓ Ideal for large filesystems like databases and high-capacity servers
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Filesystem Types
➢ Popular Filesystem Types
Btrfs (B-Tree Filesystem) ✓ Modern filesystem with advanced features:
- Snapshots
- Data checksumming
- Copy-on-write (COW) for efficient storage
✓ Supports dynamic resizing and data integrity in complex storage setups
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Filesystem Types
➢ Popular Filesystem Types
Tmpfs (Temporary ✓ Stored in RAM for ultra-fast access
Filesystem)
✓ Used for temporary data that disappears after a reboot
✓ Commonly used for system directories like /tmp and /var/run
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Filesystem Types
➢ Popular Filesystem Types
NFS (Network File ✓ Allows file sharing over a network
System)
✓ Used in distributed environments where multiple systems need shared access
✓ Ideal for remote storage solutions
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Filesystem Types
➢ Choosing the Right Filesystem
✓ Essential for optimizing performance and ensuring data integrity
✓ Helps meet specific use cases based on system requirements
✓ Understanding filesystems aids in effective disk partitioning
✓ Ensures the system is customized for its workload
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Linux | Introduction to Disk Partitioning
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
Root Disk (Boot Disk): Default disk for OS, not ideal for storing application data
➢ Impact of Storing Application Data on Root Disk:
✓ Consumes significant disk space and I/O resources
✓ Can slow down OS and critical system processes
✓ Increases the risk of accidental modification or exposure of sensitive system files
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Setup
Amazon EC2
Amazon EBS Boot
Disk
(Runs OS)
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Optimizing Storage with AWS EBS
Amazon EBS Data
Amazon EC2 Disk
✓ Scalable, high-performance storage separate from the root disk
✓ Reduces load on the OS, enhancing performance and reliability
Amazon EBS Boot
Disk
(Runs OS)
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Partitioning
✓ Divides a disk into smaller, logical sections
✓ Enhances organization and manageability
➢ Types of partitions
Partition
Primary (4)
Extended
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Partitioning
500GB disk
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Partitioning
500GB disk
Primary Partitions
Extended Partition ✓ GPT (GUID Partition Table)- No Limit
100GB 100GB 100GB 200GB
✓ MBR (Master Boot Record) - 15
100GB 100GB
Logical Partitions
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Understanding Sectors
✓ Smallest unit of data storage on a disk (typically 512 bytes)
✓ Disk platters are divided into tracks, which are further divided into sectors
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Partitioning
500GB disk
Primary Partitions
Extended Partition
100GB 100GB 100GB 200GB
2048 sectors
reserved
100GB 100GB
Logical Partitions
2048 sectors
reserved
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Creating a Filesystem
✓ Partitioning alone isn't enough; a filesystem is required
✓ Filesystems like ext4 and XFS enable reading and writing
✓ Formatting prepares the partition to store files and directories
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Creating a Mount Point (Directory)
✓ Create a directory as the mount point
✓ This directory serves as the access point for partition data
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Mounting the Filesystem
✓ Temporary Mounting: Uses the mount command; lost after a reboot
✓ Permanent Mounting: Updates /etc/fstab to ensure automatic mounting at boot
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Unmounting and Decommissioning
❑ To securely decommission a disk
✓ Delete the data
✓ Remove the partition table
✓ Reformat the disk
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
Key Steps Summary
Create an EBS Volume Partition the Volume
Create a Filesystem Create a Mount Point
Mount the Filesystem Unmount and Decommission
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Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Disk Management Commands
Command Description Syntax
lsblk Lists all block devices, including disks and partitions lsblk
blkid Displays UUIDs of disks and partitions blkid
fdisk -l Lists all disks and partitions (MBR partitioning) fdisk -l
df -h Displays disk space usage for mounted filesystems df -h
fdisk /dev/sdX Opens fdisk to create or manage partitions fdisk /dev/sdX
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Introduction to Disk Partitioning
➢ Disk Management Commands
Command Description Syntax
mkfs.<filesystem> Creates filesystem on a partition mkfs.xfs /dev/sdX1
/dev/sdX1
mount -a Mounts all filesystems listed in /etc/fstab mount -a
umount /mnt Unmounts the partition mounted at /mnt umount /mnt
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Demonstration | Disk Partitioning
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Summary
❖ Types of filesystems and their use cases
❖ Concepts and commands related to disk partitioning
❖ Demonstrated partitioning an EBS volume and creating a
filesystem on it
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 14
Linux | Logical Volume Manager (LVM)
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LVM
➢ LVM overview, key components, advantages, and essential commands
➢ Practical demonstration of the LVM lifecycle on AWS EC2
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Introduction to LVM
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LVM
➢ Traditional Disk Management & Its Limitations
✓ Involves attaching, formatting, partitioning, and creating filesystems
✓ Works well in static environments but has limitations in dynamic settings
✓ Unused disk space remains inaccessible (e.g., 500GB disk with 400GB used)
500GB
wasted
400GB 100GB
✓ Expanding the filesystem often requires reformatting, risking data loss and downtime
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LVM
➢ Introduction to LVM
✓ LVM overcomes traditional disk management limitations
✓ Provides flexible and dynamic storage management
✓ Decouples physical storage from logical storage
✓ Allows resizing filesystems on the fly without downtime
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LVM
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
LVM
➢ Physical Shelves
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LVM
➢ Section Labels
Science
Universe
Languages
Fictional
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LVM
➢ Catalog Entries
Science Catalog
1. 6. 11.
2. 7. 12.
3. 8. 13.
4. 9.
5. 10.
Universe
1. 6. 11.
2. 7. 12.
3. 8. 13.
4. 9.
5. 10.
Languages
1. 6. 11.
2. 7. 12.
3. 8. 13.
4. 9.
5. 10.
Fictional
1. 7. 13.
2. 8. 14.
3. 9. 15.
4. 10.
5. 11.
6. 12.
Side view
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LVM
➢ Key Components of LVM
❑ Physical Volumes (PVs)
✓ Raw storage devices or disk partitions
✓ Initialized as PVs instead of direct disk usage
✓ Can be pooled with other PVs for better storage
management
✓ Similar to individual shelves in a library
Physical Volume (PV) Physical Physical Physical
Volume Volume Volume
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LVM
➢ Key Components of LVM
❑ Volume Groups (VGs)
✓ Collections of multiple Physical Volumes (PVs)
✓ Form a single, unified storage resource
✓ Similar to library sections organizing multiple shelves
✓ Enable efficient storage allocation based on needs
(e.g., application data, databases)
Volume Group (VG) Volume Group
Physical Volume (PV) Physical Physical Physical
Volume Volume Volume
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LVM
➢ Key Components of LVM
❑ Logical Volumes (LVs)
✓ Resizable virtual partitions within a Volume Group
(VG)
✓ Similar to books cataloged in a library section
✓ Divide storage into manageable units Logical Volume (LV) Logical Logical
Volume Volume
✓ Function like traditional partitions but can be
expanded or reduced dynamically Volume Group (VG) Volume Group
Physical Volume (PV) Physical Physical Physical
Volume Volume Volume
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LVM
➢ Key Components of LVM
❑ Key Advantage of LVM
File File
✓ Filesystem resides on top of the Logical Volume (LV) System System
✓ Allows on-the-fly resizing without downtime
✓ Supports expanding or shrinking storage as needed
Logical Volume (LV) Logical Logical
✓ Ideal for production environments requiring Volume Volume
uninterrupted access
Volume Group (VG) Volume Group
Physical Volume (PV) Physical Physical Physical
Volume Volume Volume
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LVM
➢ Implementing LVM for Dynamic Storage Management
✓ Involves attaching, formatting, partitioning, and
File File
creating filesystems System System
✓ Works well in static environments but has
limitations in dynamic settings Logical Volume (LV) Logical Logical
Volume Volume
✓ Unused disk space remains inaccessible (e.g., 500GB
disk with 400GB used) Volume Group (VG) Volume Group
500GB
400GB 100GB Physical Volume (PV) File File File
✓ Expanding the filesystem often requires System System System
reformatting, risking data loss and downtime
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LVM
➢ Key Components of LVM
File File
System System
Logical Volume (LV)
Logical Logical
Volume Volume
500GB Volume Group (VG)
Volume Group
Physical Volume (PV)
File File File
System System System
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LVM
➢ LVM offers several advantages
✓ Combines multiple devices into one logical volume
Flexible Capacity
✓ Allows filesystems to span multiple devices
✓ Resize Logical Volumes easily without reformatting
Resizable Storage Volumes
✓ Adjust storage on demand
✓ Move data between devices within a Volume Group
Online Data Relocation
✓ Perform maintenance or upgrades without downtime
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LVM
➢ LVM offers several advantages
✓ Create read-only or read-write copies of a Logical Volume
Snapshot Support ✓ Useful for backups and testing
✓ Capture a consistent state without disrupting operations
✓ Reduces wasted space by pooling storage resources
Improved Disk Utilization
✓ Logical Volumes can be resized as needed for better efficiency
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LVM
➢ LVM2 Enhancements
✓ Improved metadata storage and recovery formats
✓ Increased flexibility and reliability in storage management
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LVM
➢ Real-world scenario
appdata
applogs
database
➢ Limitations of Traditional Partitioning
✓ Fixed storage allocation can lead to imbalances
✓ Expanding partitions may require reformatting or migration
✓ Risk of downtime and potential data loss
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LVM
➢ LVM for Scalable Storage
Disk 1 PV 1
VG 1 LV 1 /appdata
Disk 2 PV 2 app VG
Disk 3 PV 3
VG 2 LV 2 /database
Disk 4 PV 4 data VG
LINUX
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LVM
➢ Implementing LVM for Dynamic Storage Management
LVM (Logical Volume Manager
✓ Attaching Multiple Disks to an EC2 Instance
File Systems /appdata (XFS) /data (XFS)
✓ Initializing Physical Volumes (PVs)
Logical Volumes appvol1 datavol1
✓ Creating a Volume Group (VG)
✓ Creating Logical Volumes (LVs) Volume Group appvg datavg
✓ Formatting LVs with a Filesystem
Physical Volumes /dev/xvdf /dev/xvdg /dev/xvdh
✓ Creating Directories as Mount Points
✓ Mounting Filesystems Disk Partitions /dev/xvdf /dev/xvdg /dev/xvdh
✓ Decommissioning and Cleanup
Hard Disks /dev/sdf /dev/sdg /dev/sdh
mkdir
mkfs
mount
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LVM
➢ Implementing LVM for Dynamic Storage Management
LVM (Logical Volume Manager
✓ Attaching Multiple Disks to an EC2 Instance
File Systems /appdata (XFS) /data (XFS)
✓ Initializing Physical Volumes (PVs)
Logical Volumes appvol1 datavol1
✓ Creating a Volume Group (VG)
✓ Creating Logical Volumes (LVs) Volume Group appvg datavg
✓ Formatting LVs with a Filesystem
Physical Volumes /dev/xvdf /dev/xvdg /dev/xvdh
✓ Creating Directories as Mount Points
✓ Mounting Filesystems Disk Partitions /dev/xvdf /dev/xvdg /dev/xvdh
✓ Decommissioning and Cleanup
Hard Disks /dev/sdf /dev/sdg /dev/sdh
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
LVM
LVM (Logical Volume Manager
File Systems /appdata (XFS) /data (XFS)
Logical Volumes appvol1 datavol1
Volume Group appvg datavg
Physical Volumes /dev/xvdf /dev/xvdg /dev/xvdh
Disk Partitions /dev/xvdf /dev/xvdg /dev/xvdh
Hard Disks /dev/sdf /dev/sdg /dev/sdh
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
LVM
➢ LVM Management Commands
❑ Physical Volume (PV) Management
Command Description Syntax
pvcreate Initializes a disk as a physical volume System is unusable
pvdisplay Displays information about a physical pvdisplay /dev/xvdf
volume
pvs Displays a summary of physical pvs
volumes
pvscan Scans all disks for physical volumes pvscan
pvremove Removes a physical volume pvremove /dev/xvdf
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
LVM
➢ LVM Management Commands
❑ Volume Group (VG) Management
Command Description Syntax
vgcreate Creates a volume group from one or vgcreate datavg /dev/xvdf
more physical volumes
vgextend Adds a new physical volume to an vgextend appvg /dev/xvdg
existing volume group
vgdisplay Displays detailed information about a vgdisplay datavg
volume group
vgs Displays a summary of volume groups vgs
vgscan Scans all disks for volume groups and vgscan
detects new ones
vgreduce Removes a physical volume from a vgreduce datavg /dev/xvdf
volume group
vgremove Removes a volume group vgremove datavg
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
LVM
➢ LVM Management Commands
❑ Logical Volume (LV) Management
Command Description Syntax
lvmdiskscan Scans for block devices that can be lvmdiskscan
used as physical volumes
lvcreate Creates a logical volume within a lvcreate -l 100%FREE -n datavol1
volume group datavg
lvextend Extends the size of a logical volume lvextend -L +6G
/dev/appvg/appvol1
lvreduce Reduces the size of a logical volume lvreduce -L -5G
(use with caution)
lvdisplay Displays detailed information about a lvdisplay /dev/datavg/datavol1
logical volume
lvs Displays a summary of logical lvs
volumes
lvremove Removes a logical volume lvremove /dev/datavg/datavol1
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
LVM
➢ LVM Management Commands
❑ Filesystem Management
Command Description Syntax
xfs_growfs Expands a mounted XFS filesystem xfs_growfs /appdata
after resizing a logical volume
resize2fs Expands a mounted ext2/ext3/ext4 resize2fs /dev/appvg/appvol1
filesystem after resizing a logical
volume
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | LVM
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ LVM overview: components, advantages, and commands
❖ Demonstrated LVM lifecycle on AWS EC2
❖ Created, extended, and resized volumes
❖ Decommissioned EBS volumes
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 16
Linux | Introduction to SSH
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH
➢ SSH is and its key components such as ssh, sshd, and scp
➢ SSH configuration file (sshd_config)
➢ Brief of DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
➢ Demonstration to set up passwordless authentication
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | SSH Client/Server
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ SSH
✓ Secure Shell
✓ Protocol used for securely connecting to remote systems over a network
✓ Secure, encrypted channel between a local machine and a remote machine
➢ Telnet and FTP transmitted data ➢ SSH
- Including passwords ✓ Uses encryption to ensure that the communication
between the client and server is secure
vulnerable to attacks
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SSH Client/Server
Cloud Server
Personal Machine
Production System
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
SSH Protocol
SSH Client SSH Server
✓ The SSH client connects to the remote machine via port 22
✓ The remote server’s SSH daemon (sshd) listens on this port and handles incoming connections
✓ Once authenticated (via password or key-based authentication), the server grants access to
the client
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ Connect to Remote Host
ssh -i "thinknyx.pem" [email protected]
➢ Private Key and Public Key Authentication
✓ A pair of cryptographic keys
- A private key and a public key
✓ Private key is kept on the client machine
✓ Public key is stored on the server in the authorized_keys file
✓ Public key on the server matches the private key
✓ Connection is authenticated without needing a password
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ sshd (SSH Daemon)
✓ OpenSSH server process responsible for handling incoming connections via the SSH protocol
- User authentication
- Encryption
- Terminal sessions
- File transfers
- Tunneling
➢ sshd (SSH Daemon)
✓ sudo systemctl stop ssh # To Stop the SSH service
✓ sudo systemctl start ssh # To Start the SSH service
✓ sudo systemctl restart ssh # Restart the SSH service after configuration changes
✓ sudo systemctl reload ssh # Without stopping just Reload the SSH service after configuration changes
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ Configuration Files for SSH
✓ sshd_config (the server-side configuration file)
✓ authorized_keys (where public keys are stored)
❑ /etc/ssh/sshd_config
✓ Primary configuration file for the SSH daemon
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ Configuration Files for SSH
✓ sshd_config (the server-side configuration file)
✓ authorized_keys (where public keys are stored)
❑ /etc/ssh/sshd_config
✓ Primary configuration file for the SSH daemon
❑ ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
✓ File holds the public keys of clients that are authorized
to access the server
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Password Authentication
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Key-Based Authentication
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ Introduction to SCP (Secure Copy)
scp [options] <path_of_file/filename>remoteuser@ip_address_remote_server:~/path_of_destination_directoty/
❑ Some of the common options:
✓ -r for Recursive copy of entire directories
✓ -i for identity file
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
SSH Client/Server
➢ Steps followed for key based authentication:
✓ Modify SSH settings in the sshd_config file on the VM, to enable key based authentication
✓ Create a new Ubuntu VM (ubuntu_2) with the same configuration as the first VM
✓ Generate SSH Key Pair(public and private keys) Locally
✓ Transfer the Private Key to the Remote Server ubuntu_1 using scp command
✓ Set the mininmum permissions on the private key file on the remote server using chmod
✓ Transfer the Public Key to both the Remote Servers, ubuntu_1 and ubuntu_2
✓ Now to test SSH Connections:
- SSH into ubuntu_1 using the private key
- SSH into ubuntu_2, without a key and password, to ensure key-based authentication works
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | DHCP
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
DHCP
➢ DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
✓ Network protocol automatically assign IP addresses to devices on network
✓ Allows devices to receive IP address dynamically from DHCP server
❑ Role of DHCP
✓ Eliminates the need to assign IP addresses to each device manually
✓ Each device gets unique IP address
DHCP
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
DHCP
➢ Checking IP Configuration
✓ ip a ✓ Interface
- IP address (inet) - enx0
- MAC address - wlan0
- Configuration information
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
DHCP
➢ Important Components of DHCP
✓ DHCP Server – Assigns IP addresses and network configurations to clients
✓ DHCP Client – Device that requests an IP address from the DHCP server
✓ IP Address Pool – Range of available IP addresses that DHCP server can allocate to clients
✓ Lease Time – Duration for which an IP address is assigned to client before it needs renewal
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
DHCP
➢ Systemd-networkd
✓ System service used to manage network configurations on Linux systems
✓ Handles network interfaces, automatically assign IP addresses via DHCP
➢ Netplan
✓ Default tool used for network configuration on Ubuntu 24.04 and later
✓ Define network settings using YAML configuration files
✓ Works alongside systemd-networkd
✓ Network setting - /etc/netplan/
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DHCP
➢ Why use dhclient?
✓ Manually request, release, or renew IP addresses
✓ Useful in troubleshooting, demonstrations, configuring network interfaces manually
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Summary
❖ SSH (Secure Shell)
❖ SSH client-server model and key-based authentication
❖ sshd daemon
❖ Key configuration files - sshd_config and authorized_keys
❖ Demonstration - setting up password and key-based authentication
❖ DHCP
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 17
Linux | Introduction to System
Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
System Management
➢ System Management and its key concepts
- Scheduler
- Logging Mechanisms
- Alerting Systems
- Memory Management
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Scheduler
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Scheduler
➢ Popular Tools
Cron Anacron
At Batch
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Cron
Command_to_Execute
✓ Time-based job scheduler * * * *
✓ Task known as ‘cron jobs’ *
✓ Crontab Day of the week (0-7)
- List of commands
Month (1-12)
- Execution time
Day of the Month (1-31)
Hour (0-23)
Minute (0-59)
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Understanding Cron's Special Strings
Special Strings Equivalent to Execution Result
@reboot - Executed once at system startup
@yearly or @annually 0011* Once a year at midnight on
January 1st
@monthly 001** Once a month at midnight on the
first day of the month
@weekly 00**0 Once a week at midnight on
Sunday
@daily or @midnight 00*** Once a day at midnight
@hourly 0**** Once an hour at the beginning of
the hour
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ For Example:
30 2 * * * ~/backup_script.sh
Understanding this structure allows you to schedule tasks with precision, ensuring they run exactly when needed
30th 2Applicable
AM
minute
Every Value
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Scheduler
✓ Manage and monitor scheduled jobs
crontab -l [To list current cronjob]
crontab -e [To edit cronjob]
crontab -r [To remove crontab]
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Scheduler
➢ Anacron
✓ Systems that may not run 24/7
✓ Periodically running tasks
✓ System is turned off for some time
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Syntax
✓ /etc/anacrontab
PERIOD DELAY JOB-IDENTIFIER COMMAND
Frequency in days Unique name
Startup execution delay Command to execute
✓ NOTE: /etc/anacrontab is not found by default in ubuntu 24.04 LTS
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Installation
✓ sudo apt install anacron
✓ cat /etc/anacrontab
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Scheduler
✓ /etc/anacrontab
1 5 log-cleanup find /root/scripts/logs -type f -name "*.log" -mtime +7 -exec rm {} \;
✓ Anacron doesn't provide direct commands
✓ Manage by editing the /etc/anacrontab file
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Listing & Deleting Jobs
✓ sudo nano /etc/anacrontab
➢ Use Case
✓ Periodic maintenance tasks
- System Backups
- System Updates
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ AT
✓ Schedule a one-time task to run at a specific time
➢ Syntax
at TIME [Time – specifies when the command should run]
➢ Related Commands
Commands Execution Result
atq List Scheduled Jobs
atrm [job_number] Remove Scheduled Jobs
or
at -r [job_number]
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Batch
✓ Schedules tasks when the system load is low
➢ Syntax - BATCH
➢ For Example - cleanup_script1.sh located in /root/scripts/cleanup_script1.sh
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Scheduler
➢ Listing & Deleting Scheduled Batch Jobs
atrm [job_id] ---- Deleting the scheduled batch jobs
➢ Use Case
✓ Data Backup
✓ System Updates
✓ Resource-Intensive Calculations
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Demonstration | Scheduler
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Linux | Logging
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
syslogd (rsyslog) logger
login logs journalctl
log rotation
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ syslogd / rsyslog used for System Logging
✓ Higher performance
✓ More filtering options
✓ Support for various protocols (TCP, UDP, TLS)
✓ Ability to write logs to databases, files, and remote servers
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ logger – Manually Logging Messages
/var/log/syslog
➢ For Example:
logger "Custom log message from thinknyx user"
❑ Some of the common usecases are:
✓ Log a message to syslog
✓ Log messages with a specific tag
✓ Input from command line and log to the syslog
✓ Assigning priorities to custom log messages
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ Login Logs – User Authentication Tracking
✓ Enhanced Security: Ensures that only authorized users access the Linux environment
✓ Comprehensive Activity Records: Logs detailed user actions such as login attempts and sudo usage
✓ Early Threat Detection: Helps administrators quickly spot unauthorized access and potential breaches
✓ Regulatory Compliance: Supports adherence to organizational policies and industry standards
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ Key Authentication Log Files:
/var/log/auth.log
❑ Command
sudo less /var/log/auth.log
❑ Reviewing Recent Logins
✓ The last command reads from the /var/log/wtmp file
✓ Such as username, terminal used, IP address or hostname of
the remote host, and login/logout times
❑ Reviewing Recent Logins
✓ The lastb command reads from the /var/log/btmp file
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ Real-Time Monitoring:
sudo tail -f /var/log/auth.log
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ Real-Time Monitoring:
✓ Timestamp: Indicates the date and time when the event occurred
✓ Hostname: The name of the host or server where the event was logged
✓ Service or Program Name: Identifies the service or application that generated the log entry
✓ Process ID (PID): The unique identifier of the process that logged the event
✓ Message Content: Provides detailed information about the event
✓ Module: Refers to the Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM) used
✓ Service Context: Specifies the service and the type of PAM interaction (session)
✓ Description: Indicates that a session for the user root has ended
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
Logging
➢ journalctl – Systemd Journal Logs
✓ journalctl is used to view logs managed by systemd in Ubuntu 24.04 LTS
❑ Basic Usage
▪ View All Logs
o journalctl
▪ View Logs in Real-Time
o journalctl -f
▪ View Boot Logs
o journalctl -b
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Logging
➢ journalctl – Systemd Journal Logs
o journalctl –xe
✓ The journalctl -xe command in Linux is used to view detailed system logs and
troubleshoot errors
❑ The option
o -x → Provides extra details and explanations for log messages (if available)
o -e → Jumps to the end of the log, showing the most recent entries first
❑ This command
✓ Helps diagnose system errors and failures.
✓ Provides detailed explanations of logs.
✓ Useful for troubleshooting service failures and security alerts
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Linux | Alerting
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Alerting
✓ Alerting is essential for monitoring system health, security, and performance
✓ Such as high CPU usage, low disk space, or service failures
✓ System logs or specific conditions like resource thresholds
➢ Linux provides tools for alerting
▪ cron jobs – Schedule checks and trigger alerts
▪ mail or sendmail – Send email notifications for critical events
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Linux | Memory Management
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Memory Management
➢ Memory management is a fundamental aspect of the Linux operating system, ensuring efficient
utilization of system resources and maintaining optimal performance
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Memory Management
➢ Virtual Memory
✓ Virtual memory is a technique that allows a computer to use its hard disk to extend its RAM
Less used data Hard Disk
Virtual
RAM Memory
Data needed
by the CPU
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Memory Management
➢ Linux provides:
✓ Process with its own virtual address space
✓ Large, contiguous memory area
✓ The kernel to manage mapping between virtual addresses and physical memory
✓ Efficient memory utilization and process isolation
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Memory Management
➢ Paging
✓ Memory is divided into fixed-size blocks called pages
Logical Physical
Address address
1000
CPU Physical
P d f d Memory
RAM
1111..11
P
f
Page table
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Memory Management
➢ Swap space
✓ Refers to an area on storage device that Linux OS uses as an extension of system's physical RAM
Operating
System
Swapped Out Process-1
User Space
Swapped In Process-2
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Memory Management
➢ Page Cache
✓ Linux uses a page cache to store frequently accessed disk data in memory
User space Kernel space
Disk
Data Physical cache Disk
array Page
Logical Cache
Library
buffer
Stack
Library
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Memory Management
➢ Memory Zones
✓ Kernel organizes physical memory into zones to optimize allocation
✓ ZONE_DMA
✓ ZONE_NORMAL
✓ ZONE_HIGHMEM
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Memory Management
➢ Slab Allocator
✓ Maintains caches of commonly used objects, allowing for quick allocation and deallocation
✓ Reduces fragmentation and improves allocation efficiency
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Memory Management
➢ Overcommit Handling
✓ Linux allows processes to allocate more memory than physically available
✓ Kernel uses overcommit, to balance the need for memory allocation with the risk of running out of memory
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Memory Management
➢ NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory Access)
✓ Supports Multi processor system
✓ In Linux kernel optimizes memory allocation to minimize latency
✓ Improves performance by allocating memory on the same node
✓ Reduces the need for cross-node memory access
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Summary
❖ Schedulers in linux like cron, at, anacron and batch
❖ Logging in linux
❖ /var/log/syslog file
❖ Logger command
❖ Memory management
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Thinknyx Technologies
Linux Course
Enhancing Strategy
Section - 18
Linux | Introduction to Monitoring
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Monitoring
➢ Monitoring
- Tracking
- Troubleshooting
- Optimal Performance
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Linux | Need of Monitoring in Linux
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Need of Monitoring in Linux
➢ Monitoring
✓ Maintaining health of linux system
➢ Importance of Monitoring
Monitoring
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Need of Monitoring in Linux
➢ Why Monitoring is Crucial?
CPU usage
Memory issues
Admin
Network congestion
Disk space
System Metrics Administrator
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Need of Monitoring in Linux
➢ Early Detection of Problems
Anomalies
Monitoring Tools Downtime User Experience
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Need of Monitoring in Linux
➢ Early Detection of Problems
✓ Real-Time Visibility
- Tools like top, htop, and iftop
- Quickly identify processes
✓ Resource Optimization
- Track and optimize system resources
- Make informed decisions
✓ Log Analysis
- Troubleshoot and analyze system health
- syslog or journalctl
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Need of Monitoring in Linux
➢ Early Detection of Problems
✓ Historical Data
- Store historical performance data
- Helps in capacity planning, peak load analysis, and long-term performance tracking
✓ Alerting and Automation
- Send alerts
- Email, SMS & automated responses
✓ Scalability and Distributed Monitoring
- Prometheus, Nagios, or Zabbix
- Track the health of multiple servers, databases, and services
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Need of Monitoring in Linux
➢ Early Detection of Problems
✓ Security Monitoring
- Track security events
- Early catch potential security breaches & rectification
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Linux | Monitoring tools in Linux
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Monitoring tools in Linux
➢ Popular monitoring tools available on Ubuntu 24.04 LTS:
✓ ntopng (ntop Next Generation) : A network monitoring tool that shows network traffic in real-
time.A modern, next-generation version of ntop with enhanced features
✓ free: Provides a quick overview of memory usage on the system
✓ vmstat: Displays information about processes, memory, paging, block IO, traps, and CPU activity
✓ iostat: Displays CPU and I/O statistics for devices
✓ watch: Executes the command periodically, showing output full screen
✓ iftop: Monitors network bandwidth and provides detailed information about network connections
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Demonstration | Popular Monitoring Tools
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Popular monitoring tools
1 KB = 1,000 bytes
1 kibibyte (KiB) = 1,024 bytes
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Linux | Advanced Monitoring tools
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Advanced Monitoring
tools
➢ sar and journalctl command
❑ sar
✓ sar (System Activity Reporter) is another command-line utility that is part of the sysstat package in Linux
- Collecting
- Reporting
- Saving system activity
Monitoring
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Advanced Monitoring tools
Real-time monitoring Historical data
sar
Customizable reporting Long-term trend analysis
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Advanced Monitoring
tools
➢ sar and journalctl command
❑ journalctl
✓ journalctl another powerful tool for querying and analyzing logs from systemd-based systems
✓ It’s useful for real-time monitoring and diagnostics
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Advanced Monitoring
tools Name Number Description
emerg 0 System is unusable
alert 1 Immediate action required
crit 2 Critical conditions
err 3 Error messages
warning 4 Warnings
notice 5 Significant but normal events
info 6 Informational logs
debug 7 Debugging messages
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Summary
❖ Importance of Monitoring - System performance & Issue detection
❖ Popular Monitoring Tools - Track system and Network performance
❖ Demonstration - Monitor real-time system metrics
❖ Overview of Advanced Monitoring Tools
Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
The Ultimate Linux Bootcamp for
DevOps, SRE and Cloud Engineers
(Hands-On)
User & Group File
System Monitoring Management Permissions
Process & Service Package
Management Management
Disk
Networking
SSH Configuration Partitioning
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Copyright © Thinknyx Technologies LLP
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@thinknyx
@thinknyx
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