Int. J. Environ. Res.

, 9(2):495-504, Spring 2015

ISSN: 1735-6865

Assessment of the Conservation Status of Natural and Semi-Natural Patches

Associated with urban Areas Through Habitat Suitability Indices
Natale, E.1*, Villalba, G.1, Junquera, J. E.1 and Zalba, S.M.2
1
Fundación Conservación y Desarrollo, ConyDes, Sobremonte 1653 (5800) Río Cuarto,
Córdoba, Argentina
2
GEKKO, Grupo de Estudios en Conservación y Manejo, Departamento de Biología,
Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Received 10 July 2014; Revised 6 Oct. 2014; Accepted 12 Oct. 2014

ABSTRACT:Urban environments rely on the surrounding natural ecosystems remnants as providers of ecosystem
functions, therefore these areas not only support a unique biodiversity but also have a social value for maintaining
public health and wellbeing. For this reason, urbanization is considered to be one the biggest threats to ecosystems,
leading to native biodiversity simplification and, thus, to a detriment of the provided ecosystem services. Moreover,
this change in land use results in high levels of landscape fragmentation and modification in areas surrounding the
habitat remnants which, in consequence, become inadequate for many native species. In this context, it is important
that urban planners have the information to assess the possible consequences of future changes in land use in
order to increase the landscape chances of supporting both, native biodiversity and the needs of a growing human
population. The objective of the present work is to evaluate the ecological integrity of natural and semi-natural
vegetation patches immersed in an urban area in order to generate a conceptual framework for landscape
assessment that allows urban planners to envision the best choice for city development at a given place. To do so,
we developed a quantitative integral environmental evaluation index that includes ecological characterization,
geological characterization, and environmental characterization (presence of anthropic disturbance) of the assessed
area. We conclude that the index we have generated in this work is suitable to be used as a management tool to
allow an unbiased valuation and to identify managing situations that require a short term response.

Key words: HSI, Urban planning, Landscape, Biodiversity, Sustainable development

INTRODUCTION
Urban areas around the globe are characterized economic, environmental and social value by
by high population densities and a network of non- sustaining public health and wellbeing as well as
natural, built-up infrastructure. Although they only contributing to conservation by supporting a unique
occupy about 3% of the earth’s land surface, urban biodiversity (Lawson et al., 2008; Escobedo et al.,
growth imposes major challenges to biodiversity by 2011). In addition to this, the global biodiversity
driving pollution dynamics and altering the structure crisis affecting the planet is mainly the result of
and function of natural ecosystem (Escobedo et al., changes in land use caused by human activities
2011). Accordingly, as the human population grows (Gordona et al., 2009; Jordán et al., 2003). This
extraordinarily, particularly in developing countries, crisis is characterized by expanding road networks,
so do conflicts with conservation aims (Kowarik, human settlements, resource extraction and other
2011). encroachments on the landscape that have increased
fragmentation and loss of natural areas (Crist et al.,
It is well known that urban ecosystems including,
2005; Pauchard et al., 2006 ). This effect becomes
cities, suburbs and towns, rely on their inner or
even more evident in urban and peri-urban areas,
surrounding natural or semi-natural vegetation
where the natural habitat left is not suitable for many
remnants for ecosystem functions such as air
native species. For this reason, urbanization is
filtering, temperature amelioration, and water storage,
considered to be one of the greatest threats to
filtration and drainage (Li et al., 2005).
biodiversity leading to the simplification of native
From this perspective, natural and semi-natural ecosystems (Jaeger et al., 2010; Pauchard et al.,
vegetation patches within urban areas acquire 2006).
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

495
 Natale, E. et al.

South America has not escaped the urbanization trend Information System (GIS) environment (Van der Biest
and follows current models of urban development, et al., 2014; Branquart et al., 2008).
where urban areas are expanding and replacing rural The aim of this research was to develop a
and natural areas (Galafassi, 2013). Although the quantitative index using a geographic information
degree of development in South America is far less system in order to assess the ecological integrity of
pronounced than in the developed countries including natural and semi-natural vegetation patches in urban
in United States or Europe, urban sprawl has, areas. The developed index, which integrates
nevertheless, a major impact on peri-urban biological, geological and hydrological variables as
ecosystems (Pauchard et al., 2006; Izquierdo & Grau, well as variables of anthropogenic activity, results in
2009). Mitigation of the impact that city -growth has a territorial assessment that can be easily interpreted
on natural processes and systems such as air filtering, by users that lack specific background. Hence, the
temperature amelioration and water storage, is model can be used as a tool to generate different land
challenging due to the high economic value of the management scenarios (Van der Biest et al., 2014)
land and the diversity of the stakeholders that that allow urban planners to choose the best options
generates conflicts of political, economic and social for the local urban development, taking into account
interest (Gordona et al., 2009). Therefore, urban features, needs and potentials of the natural resources
environments offer an opportunity to combine of the area and optimizing the ecological, economic
ecological management with landscape design, in
and social benefits. Finally, to illustrate the use of
order to provide a variety of services and goods
this index for landscape conservation planning we
(Williams et al., 2009). In this context, it is important
present an example of its application in Villa de Merlo
that researchers, land managers and other
City, Argentina.
stakeholders have the information to assess, rapidly
and critically, the possible consequences of
MATERIALS & METHODS
establishing diverse land use scenarios in order to
The criteria used for the development of the
increase the landscape capabilities of supporting both,
Evaluation Index, hereafter called Integral
native biodiversity and the needs of a growing human
Environmental Evaluation Index (IEEI), is based on
population (Turner et al., 2007). Extensive literature
the concept that an environmental or ecological status
supports the concept that effective landscape-scale
includes structure, function and all ecosystem
conservation relays on the information available about
processes, provided by physical, chemical,
the extension, spatial configuration, composition and
geographical, and climatic factors in combination
habitat quality of natural vegetation patches (Scolazzi
with the anthropogenic impact and the human
& Geneletti, 2012; Zerger et al., 2009). The habitat
activities on a particular area (Galparsoro et al.,
condition depends on its surroundings, which are
2009). The ecological evaluation and the evaluation
defined by means of the extension of the anthropic
of the anthropic disturbance were related by means
modifications (Manley et al., 2009), the number of
of an integral environmental evaluation index that was
patches and their relative abundance (Jordán et al.,
developed following US Fish and Wildlife Service
2003), and the intensity of land use (Thackway &
methodology (1980) for the development of habitat
Lesslie, 2006), among others . Altogether, the
suitability index (HSI) adapting it to landscape scale.
condition of vegetation patches in cities is a result It is worth highlighting that these models are used as
of environmental variation, historic disturbance (Apan species management tool for impact evaluation and
et al., 2002), native vegetation resistance to in ecological restoration studies (Burgman et al.,
variations and its restoration capability (Manley et 2001; Van der Lee et al., 2006). In general, these
al., 2009) and geologic dynamics (Vilches, 2012). models describe the relationship between different
For this reason, landscape analysis should ecological variables where they estimate the habitat
constitute a tool used to assess, simultaneously, suitability for a particular species using a scale that
several ecosystem properties in a suitable spatial ranges from 0 (unsuitable habitat) to 1 (maximum
scale improving, consequently, the analytic capability habitat suitability) (Chen et al., 2009).
of urban design (Sandström et al., 2006; Cadenasso The defined ecologic variables are represented
et al., 2007). Accordingly, there is a pressing need by a single suitability index (SI) and all the SI
of assigning metrics and values to the natural corresponding to the different variables are integrated
resources to be able to use them in territorial through mathematical algorithms (i.e. additive,
planning projects. Therefore, it is of great importance multiplicative or logical) that express the relationship
to develop indices and, in consequence, territorial existing among the considered habitat features
models that are embedded in a Geographic (Burgman et al., 2001) composing the Habitat

496
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 9(2):495-504, Spring 2015

Suitability Index. The resulting index was applied to that large patches provide greater benefits and small
the case study Villa de Merlo City (lat. 32°20' patches provide supplemental benefits (Jim & Chen,
46.99"S/long. 65° 0' 26.98"W) located on 2009; Forman, 1995). The ecological functionality
Comechingones mountains in the central area of was assessed by considering the patch role within the
Argentina with an extension of 58 km2. Because this landscape, particularly when fulfills the corridor
dry forest ecosystem has shown important urban function (Williams et al., 2005; Turner et al., 2007).
growth in the last decades resulting in a matrix of built- The geo-environmental complexity of the area was
up area and relicts of natural environments, Villa de assessed according to the criteria proposed by Gómez
Merlo provides a great opportunity to introduce an Orea and Gómez Villarino (2013). For this, two
urban design where development and conservation variables were defined, a geological singularity value
coexist in equilibrium. (particular constitutive elements of the landscape) and
In order to implement the Integral Environmental a protection value that comprised natural threats to
Evaluation Index (IEEI) the ecological status and the society or natural environmental fragility, where the
impact of the human activities was assessed for each highest value represented the most unfavourable
environmental unit. These values were obtained situation.
directly through visual analysis of satellite imagines To assess the degree of anthropic disturbance the
from Google Earth (Quick Bird), an Aster image with following variables were selected as indicators of the
a resolution of 15x15m and the Argentinean most frequently found pressures at the peri-urban
Geographic Information System in a 1:250.000 scale environment: road presence, settlement presence,
(IGM 2004). For the geological variables, a mosaic tree thinning, tree clearance and percentage of invaded
of the corresponding satellite imagines were used to surface. In order to delimit the thresholds of the
build thematic maps from where the variable values variable percentage of invaded area it was considered
were acquired. To obtain the environmental units that from the arrival of a new species to its
(Gómez Orea & Gómez Villarino, 2013) the establishment and dispersal, the consequences of
following protocol was implemented using the ENVI invasions increase over time. Furthermore, if the
4.2 and ArcGis 9.2: 1-Unsupervised visual species is detected while populations are still
classification: automatic search for homogeneous relatively small and restricted in space, the chances
spectral groups of values within the image; 2-Field of controlling its expansion are significantly higher
verification: 48 points of image verification were (Natale et al., 2013). Therefore, starting at 1% of
obtained and subjected to field surveys which invaded area the aptitude value of this variable drops
consisted on 1km transects that assessed the cover- considerably.
abundance of the plant species for the physiognomic-
Finally, for each variable adequacy tables were
structural description; 3-Supervised visual
constructed (Robinete & Croizier, 1976) setting
classification: the first classification was adjusted and
critical thresholds to define the condition of the patch:
environmental units were defined.
very good, good, regular and bad (Tables 2 - 3). The
thresholds were defined based on the carrying
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
capacity obtained through field evaluation of the
To perform the ecological evaluation of a patch
studied territorial system (Gomez Orea & Gómez
the selected variables were: patch size, shape, type Villarino, 2013).
of patch and type of contact of the patch with the
border (Table 1). In order to define the values of the Once the thresholds were defined, they were
variable type of contact we considered flora and land quantified by creating for each variable a single
cover contrasts. The variable patch shape had a high evaluation index (SI) (Fig.1) and finally the indices
when the shapes showed a border/interior relation that were integrated through mathematical algorithms into
minimizes the border effect (Crist et al., 2005; a general equation to show the interaction between
Forman, 1995). In order to define values for the variables.
variable patch type, it was considered that Thus, the Integral Environmental Evaluation Index
environmental patches change slowly, reflecting the was constituted as follows: First, variables describing
stability of the substrate; however, remnant and the impact of human activities on patches were
disturbance patches change relatively rapidly, related. As shown in equation 1 road presence (Rp),
reflecting the rate of succession, and disappear when settlement presence (Sp), tree thinning (Tt) and tree
they converge in similarity with the adjacent clearance (Tc) have a compensatory relation because
vegetation (McElhinny et al., 2005; Forman, 1995). the impact that one of the variables has on the patch
Likewise, for the patch size variable it was considered can be as high as the one imposed by a conjunction of

497
 Conservation biodiversity and HIS

Table 1. Variables used in the ecological assessment of the vegetation patches, according to the
proposed by Forman (1995)

Patch Type Patch Shape Type of contact

Disturbance (DIS) Natural Regular(NR) Floristic natural (FN)
Remnant (REM) Anthropic Regular (AR) Floristic introduced (FI)
Environmental (ENV) Natural irregular (NI) Structural natural (SN)
Regenerated (REG) Anthropic Irregular (AI) Structural Anthropic (SA)
Introduced (INT) Elongated (ELO)

Table 2. Thresholds of the variables used for the ecological assessment

Variables Very Good Good Regular Bad

Patch size > 51 ha. 40 to 50 ha. 10 to39 ha < 10 ha
Patch shape NR or NI AR ELO AI

Type of ENV REM REG or DIS INT

Patch
Type of >60% FN >60% SN -FN and SN -SN and FI/SA
contact -FN and SA/FI - > 60% FI/SA
Geological Function of Fun ction relevant to Function of low Function indifferent
singularity particular the ecosystem relevance to the to the ecosystem
value relevance to the ecosystem
ecosystem
Protection Tree g eological Two geological One geological Two o r more
value variables with high variables with high variable with hig h geological variables
or mediu m susceptibility value susceptibility value with low
susceptibility value and one with and at least two with susceptibility value
intermediate value intermediate value

Table 3. Thresholds of the variables used in the impact human characterization

Impact Very good Good Regular Bad
Road presence 0 to 1 2 secondary 3 to 4 5 o more secondary
secondary ro ads secondary roads roads or 1 main road
road
Settlements presence 0 1 2 or 3 >4
Percentag e of invaded 0% to 0,9% 1% to 15% 15% to 30% >31%
surface
Tree clearance < 5% 5% a 15% 16% a 30% > 31%
Tree thinn ing < 10% 10% a 20% 20% a 50% > 51%

several variables (USFWS, 1980; Gibbs et al., 1998). the intensity of the impact that this pressure, on its
The effect of road presence depends on the width, kind own, has on patch quality (Simberloff et al., 2013;
(paved or unpaved), and intensity of vehicle transit Didham et al., 2007). Equation 1 is intended to
along the road. In this proposal it has been accounted account for habitat degradation, both by
as for small to medium size unpaved roads, but it fragmentation (affecting the matrix surrounding
could be easily adjusted for heavier transit just by remnants of native vegetation) and also by losses in
weighting this variable in index 1. The same applies habitat quality directly affecting the remnants.
for settlement presence (or degree of urbanization)
and tree thinning. While for the percentage of invaded Impact (Im) = [((Rp + Sp + Tt + Tc)/4)* Pi]1/2 (1)
surface (PI), the relationship is limiting because of

498
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 9(2):495-504, Spring 2015

Fig.1. Graphics representing ecological variables individual evaluation indices, including patch size
(a), patch shape (b), type of patch (c), percentage of invaded surface (d), type of contact (e), number of
settlement (f), geological singularity value (g), ecological functionality (h), protection value (i),
percentage of clearance surface (j), percentage of thinned surface (k), number of road (l)

For those variables reflecting the ecological status (2)

of the patch (equation 2) a compensatory relationship Ecological status (Es) = [((pSh+ pT + Tc)/3)* pSz]1/2
was also determined between the variables patch shape
(pSh), patch type (pT) and type of contact (Tc). On In addition, the variables protection value (Pv) and
the other hand, because of the importance of the geological singularity value (Sv) that constitute the
variable patch size (pSz) for the maintenance of a Geological value, were also associated through a
viable population, a limiting relationship was assigned compensatory relationship (equation 3) .
to this variable (McNeill & Fairweather 1993).

499
 Natale, E. et al.

(forest formation - preferential recharge area),

Geological value (Gv) = (Pv + Sv)/2 (3) Romerillal (shrub formation - medium fans and rocky
blocks raised by faul lines), transition forest and
To consider a patch in adequate environmental Espinal (xerophytic forest formation - alluvial plains)
status it should present an acceptable value of the (Burkart et al., 1996) (fig. 2a).
described components, for this reason a limiting The preferential recharge area of the aquifer was
relationship was defined for the three components in selected as singularity value for the geological value
the equation 4. Different weights could be assigned since it constitutes an integration point for superficial
to these variables depending on the specific and underground systems, which are connected and
objectives, vulnerabilities and/or the ecological value become part of the aquifer that provides water for
of the assessed area. human consumption. The susceptibility values
included in the protection value were seismic activity
Partial index (Pi) = (Im*Es*Gv)1/3 (4) and occurrence of gravitational and alluvial processes,
which constitute the main geological activity detected
Finally, equation 5 defines the Integral in the studied area (Table 4 & Table 5).
Environmental Evaluation Index (IEEI) by adding
to the equation 4 an additional value representing its Next, the suitability index of each single variable
functionality as biological corridor (Fe). This value was determined for each vegetation patch and finally
clearly depends on the taxon or group of taxa of the IEEI value was obtained for each environmental
particular interest, but, in general terms, it can be unit (fig. 2b). The analysis showed that both grassland
assessed considering the width of the corridor, its and mollar are the most conserved vegetation units,
importance (as measured in equations 1 and 2 of the showing low fragmentation and high pristine nature,
patches connected by it), and the structure and next are the romerillal and the south-east transition
diversity of its vegetation (Beier et al., 2008). zone, Chaco-Espinal, which also present patches of
considerable surface showing environmental
IEEI= Pi + (Pi*0.1*Fe) (5) continuity to the east side but anthropic discontinuity
to the west. The north-west zone of the Chaco-Espinal
The IEEI values fluctuated between 0 and 1, where 0 transition presented a lower conservation value
to 0.44 was considered bad condition, 0.45 to 0.64 a (regular to bad) caused by the presence of higher
regular condition, 0.64 to 0.84 a good condition and number of smaller patches resulting from the city
1 a very good condition. growth on the mountainside that generates a great
Based on the vegetation analysis and the analysis of discontinuity on the natural landscape.
the geological an geomorphical features, 66 patches Last is the Espinal with two different conditions:
were relieved and were assigned to one of the 5 in the north the Espinal has almost disappear due to
environmental units: grassland (cuspidal area), Mollar the emplacement of the city of Merlo, remaining only

Table 4. Thresholds of the variables used in the singularity value for Villa de Merlo

Variable Very good Good Regular Bad

Recharge permeable Slightly permeable Poorly permeable impervious materials
value materials materials materials

Table 5. Critical threshold defining the susceptibility values for Villa de Merlo

Sus ceptibility valu e H igh Medium Low

Alluvial process es On water courses Near water courses Away from water
with abundant with rare signs of cours es wit h no signs of
signs of water water erosion erosion.
eros ion.
Gravitational Slopes greater than Slopes of 30-15% with Slopes sm aller that 15%
proces ses 30% with s igns of signs of erosion with no signs of erosion
eros ion.
Seism ic processes On active faul ts Near active faults Away from active faults

500
 Fig. 2. a) Map of environmental units from the city of Villa Merlo, San Luis; b) Patches valoration by means of appliying
the integral environmental index

501
Int. J. Environ. Res., 9(2):495-504, Spring 2015
 Conservation biodiversity and HIS

patches smaller than 5ha immersed in the urban habitats (threaten species, endemic species, etc.) thus
matrix, showing, in general, high degree of invasion allowing a deeper evaluation of the system, according
and therefore the lowest conservation category (bad); to Saura and Pascual-Hortal (2007). On the other
however, in the south, few patches of greater hand, this would require more extensive field work
extension are found due to the type of anthropic and consequently more time. Therefore, including this
activity present (farming). The regular condition of type of variables in the index should be analyzed in
these patches is caused by the presence of anthropic terms of costs-benefits when urban planning projects
irregular borders, high percentage of the surface under are developed.
recovery (presumably abandoned) and mainly Although it was not the aim of this work,
structural anthropic contact. following Scolazi and Geneletti (2012) we present
In summary, over 60% of the patches showed a an index based on the concept of structural
high conservation value, the reason for this is that connectivity (measured through the landscape
those patches that present a low ecological state value structural analysis and not the organisms attributes)
(including the anthropic impact) also have a high which is faster and easier to evaluate. This allows land
geological value. The geological value overcame the use projects, which are generally of short term
ecological status in the north-east and in the south- execution, to obtain fast answers at low costs.
east areas, bearing the highest physical
A measure of the functional connectivity, which
susceptibilities. In general, this antagonistic effect
takes into account the organism behavior in response
with the ecological status shows the importance of
to different elements of the landscape, could be used
vegetation for the control of geological phenomena
in latter stages to monitor the effect produced by the
of erosive nature. The following usage
implementation of a particular land use project.
recommendations were originated from this
Accordingly, a variety of indices have been developed
evaluation, which were taken by planners and
to evaluate habitat connectivity and fragmentation.
incorporated into the regulation standards of the
Most of them require gathering information about
territorial system (Sprechmann & Capandeguy,
specific habitat requirements for the evaluated area.
2009).
One of the most accepted indices is the Probability
of Connectivity Index proposed by Saura and Pascual-
CONCLUSIONS
Hortal (2007), which can only be applied on a
The methodology employed in the present work
particular species and is based on the concept of its
allows the study of greater land extensions at lower
habitat availability. This is ideal for places or
economic cost and in shorter periods of time.
scenarios where detailed information of the studied
Obtaining quantitative data allows us to quantify the
area and its biodiversity is available, or where there
possible environmental impact produced by the
is no time pressure to collect all the data required to
execution of a particular land use project and provides
apply the index.
useful information to perform two types of
comparisons: 1) the relative value of different areas However, there are many regions, particularly
at same point in time and; 2) the relative value of an surrounding urban areas, where this type of
area at different time points (Galbraith et al., 2004; information may not be available, or particular
U.S. FWS 1980). In this study we worked on the first situations where there is no time to perform detailed
type of comparison by making a quantitative valuation basic research to obtain the necessary data. In this
of vegetation patches to finally define the zoning of context, the index proposed in the present work could
the studied area. The second type of comparison could be of great value, since it integrates in a holistic
be applied by following a monitoring protocol to manner factors that impact on the ecological status
assess what are the effects of the planning process of vegetation patches, thus providing a simple
on the evaluated patches over time. In order to define management tool to easily deal with urbanization
this protocol the planner will have to select what processes that require fast environmental diagnosis.
indicators to measure (sensitive to the concern This index could be extrapolated to other fields of
factor), how to measure them, and the frequency of study, although it should be noticed that variables that
data collection (Europarc, 2005). integrate the geological and anthropological
disturbance should be adjusted to fit the particular
The integral environmental evaluation index
features of the system under assessment.
(IEEI) could be improved by including other variables
that contemplate more specific issues about the In the particular case of Villa de Merlo, taking
vegetation such as different strata coverage, richness into consideration the east-west direction, we found
and diversity indexes and variables of key species that the patches could also be acting as corridors, by

502
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 9(2):495-504, Spring 2015

restoring the effects that urbanization has on the fauna July to September in the East China Sea. Journal of
movement among different vegetation units. The Oceanography, 65, 93-102.
identified patches exerting corridor function could Crist, M.R., Wilmer, B. and Aplet, G.H. (2005). Assessing
be important because of their ecological role and the value of roadless areas in a conservation reserve strategy:
their contribution to the landscape structural biodiversity and landscape connectivity in the northern
connectivity, since they could constitute refuge areas Rockies. Journal of Applied Ecology, 42, 181–191.
or stepping stones for wildlife. Didham, R.K., Tylianakis, J.M., Gemmell, N.J., Rand, T.A.
For these reasons intervention in these and Ewers, R.M. (2007). Interactive effects of hábitat
modification and species invasion on native species decline.
environments should take into account environmental
Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22(9), 489-496.
and landscape parameters that encompass low intrusive
and sustainable use, and consider the establishment Escobedo, F.J., Kroeger, T. and Wagner, J.E. (2011). Urban
of a “green-areas network” that ensures the ecological forests and pollution mitigation: Analyzing ecosystem services
and disservices. Environmental Pollution, 159, 2078-2087.
functionality.
EUROPARC. (2005). Diseño de planes de seguimiento en
Finally, the present index allows the espacios naturales protegidos. Manual para gestores y técnicos
quantification of the conservation status of the Ed. Fundación Fernando González Bernáldez. (Madrid-
environmental units and can be translated into a GIS España).
platform to define scenarios, by means of different
Forman, R.T.T. (Ed) (1995). Land Mosaic: The Ecology of
intervention choices, where the planners may Landscapes and Regions. (Great Britain: Cambridge
establish, based on the objectives and available University Press).
resources, the option that fulfils better the population
Galbraith, H., Price, J., Dixon, M. and Stromberg, J. (2004).
needs, the territorial system and its natural
Development of HSI Models to Evaluate Risks to Riparian
components. Wildlife Habitat from Climate Change and Urban Sprawl (in
L. Kapustka, H. Galbraith, M. Luxon, and G. Biddinger,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (Eds.), Landscape ecology and wildlife habitat evaluation:
This work was funded by Conservation and critical information for ecological risk assessment, land-use
Management foundation. Authors wish to thank Ana management activities, and biodiversity enhancement.
Laura Monqaut for reviewing the language of the (Bridgeport, NJ 331pp).
manuscript Galafassi, G.P. (2013). Ecological Crisis, Development and
Capital Contradictions in Latin America. Theomai (27-28),
98-114.
REFERENCES
Apan, A.A., Raine, S.R. and Paterson, M.S. (2002). Mapping Galparsoro, I., Borja, A., Bald, J., Liria, P. and Chust, G. (2009).
and analysis of changes in the riparian landscape structure of Predicting suitable habitat for the European lobster (Homarus
the Lockyer Valley catchment, Queensland, Australia. gammarus), on the Bosque continental shelf (Bay of Biscay),
Landscape and Urban Planning, 59, 43–57. using Ecological-Niche Factor Analysis. Ecological Modelling,
220, 556–567.
Beier, P., Majka, D.R. and Spencer, W.D. (2008). Forks in
the road: choices in procedures for designing wildland linkages. Gibbs, J.P., Hunter, Jr. M.L. and Sterling, E.J.(1998). Problem-
Conservation Biology, 22(4), 836-851. solving in Conservation Biology and Wildlife Management.
(Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd).
Branquart, E., Verheyen, K. and Latham, J. (2008). Selection
criteria of protected forest areas in Europe: The theory and Gómez Orea, D. and Gómez Villarino, A. (2013). Ordenación
the real world. Biological Conservation, 141(11), 2 7 9 5 –2 Territorial. (Madrid Mundi: Prensa).
8 0 6. Gordona. A., Simondsona, D., White, M., Moilanenc, A. and
Burgman, M.A., Breininger, D.R., Duncan, B.W. and Ferson, Bekessya, S.A. (2009). Integrating conservation planning and
S. (2001). Setting Reliability Bounds on Habitat Suitability land use planning in urban landscapes. Landscape and Urban
Indixes. Ecological Applications, 1, 70-78. Planning, 91, 183-194.

Burkart, R., Bárbaro, N., Sánchez, R. and Gómez, D. (1996). Instituto Geográfico Militar (2004). Sistema de Información
Eco-Regiones de la Argentina. Administración de Parques Geográfica de Argentina (Geographic Information System of
Nacionales. (Bs. As. Argentina). Argentina) Escala 1:250.000. [DVD]. (Buenos Aires).

Cadenasso, M.L., Pickett, S.T.A. and Schwarz, K. (2007). Izquierdo, E.A, Grau, H.R. (2009). Agriculture adjustment,
Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land-use transition and protected areas in Northwestern
land cover and a framework for classification. Frontiers in Argentina. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 858–
Ecology and the Environment, 5, 80–88. 865.

Chen, X., Gang, L., Bo, F. and Tian, S. (2009). Habitat Jaeger, J.A.G., Bertiller, R., Schwick, C. and Kienast, F.
Suitability Index to Chub Mackerel (Scomber japonicus) from (2010). Suitability criteria for measures of urban sprawl.
Ecological Indicators, 10, 397–406.

503
 Natale, E. et al.

Jim, C.Y. and Chen, W.Y. (2009). Ecosystem services and E., Pascal, M., Pyšek, P., Sousa, R., Tabacchi, E. and Vilà,
valuation of urban forests in China. Cities, 26, 187–194. M. (2013). Impacts of biological invasions: what’s what and
the way forward. Trends in ecology & evolution, 28(1), 58–
Jordán, F., Báldi, A., Orci, K.M. and Rácz Iand Varga, Z.
66.
(2003). Characterizing the importance of habitat patches and
corridors in maintaining the landscape connectivity of a Sprechman, M. and Capandeguy, D. (2009). Plan de desarrollo
Pholidoptera transsylvanica (Orthoptera) metapopulation. local y regional Villa Merlo: Código de Ordenamiento
Landscape Ecology, 18, 83–92. territorial del ejido municipal de villa de Merlo San Luis
(Argentina. Realizado por IDEL (Instituto de Estudios del
Kowarik, I. (2011). Novel urban ecosystems, biodiversity, and
Desarrollo Local y Regional/ Universidad Católica del
conservation. Environmental Pollution, 159, 1974-1983.
Uruguay) y Estudio SPRECHMANN & CAPANDEGUY
Lawson, D.M., Lamar, C.K. and Schwartz, M.W. (2008). Arquitectos Asociados. (Uruguay: IDEL).
Quantifying plant population persistence in human-dominated
Sandström, U.G., Angelstam, P. and Khakee, A. (2006). Urban
landscapes. Conservation Biology, 22, 922–928.
comprehensive planning—identifying barriers for the
Li, F., Wang, R., Paulussen, J. and Liu, X. (2005). maintenance of functional habitat networks. Landscape Urban
Comprehensive concept planning of urban greening based on Planning, 75, 43–57.
ecological principles: A case study in Beijing, China.
Thackway, R. and Lesslie, R. (2006). Reporting vegetation
Landscape and Urban Planning, 72, 325-336.
condition using the vegetation assets, states and transitions
Manley, P.N., Parks, S.A., Campbell, L.A. and Schlesinger, (VAST) framework. Ecological Management Restoration, 7,
M.D. (2009). Modeling urban land development as a S53–S62.
continuum to address fine-grained habitat heterogeneity.
Turner, M.G., Gardner, R.H. and O‘Nell, R.V. (2007).
Landscape and Urban Planning, 89, 28–36.
Landscape ecology in theory and practice. Pattern and
McElhinny, C., Gibbons, P., Brack, C. and Bauhus, J. (2005). Process. (New York :Springer-Verlag).
Forest and woodland stand structural complexity: its definition
US Fish and Wildlife Service (1980). Standards for the
and measurement. Forest Ecology Manage, 218, 1–24.
development of habitat suitability index models. Ecological
McNeill, S.E. and Fairweather, P.G. (1993). Single Large or Service Manual. (Washington, DC: USFWS).
Several Small Marine Reserves? An Experimental Approach
Van der Biest, K., D’Hondt, R., Jacobs, S., Landuyt, D., Staes,
with Seagrass Fauna. Journal of Biogeography, 20, 429-440.
J., Goethals, P. and Meire, P. (2014). EBI: An index for delivery
Natale, E. Zalba, S.M and Reinoso, H. (2013). Presence– of ecosystem service bundles. Ecological Indicators, 37: 252–
absence versus invasive status data for modelling potential 265.
distribution of invasive plants: Saltcedar in Argentina.
Van der Lee, G.E.M., Van der Molen, D.T., Van den Boogaard,
Ecoscience, 20, 161-171.
H.F.P. and Van der Klis, H. (2006). Uncertainty analysis of a
Pauchard, A., Aguayo, M., Pen, E. and Urrutiab, R. (2006). spatial habitat suitability model and implications for ecological
Multiple effects of urbanization on the biodiversity of management of water bodies. Landscape Ecology, 21, 1019–
developing countries: The case of a fast-growing metropolitan 1032.
area (Concepción, Chile). Biological conservation, 127, 272-
Vilches, S. (2012). Approach to the formulation of a theoretical
281.
model for landscape management units. Mercator, 11,115-
Robinete, A. and Croizier, E. (1976). Resource planning. A 126.
Meted for Allocating Land Uses in Natural Areas. (Estados
Williams, N.S.G., Schwartz, M.W., Vesk, P.A., McCarthy,
Unidos: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).
M.A., Hahs, A.K., Clemants, S.E., Corlett, R.T., Duncan,
Saura, S. and Pascual-Hortal, L. (2007). A new habitat R.P., Norton, B.A., Thompson, K. and McDonnell, M.J.
availability index to integrate connectivity in landscape (2009). A conceptual framework for predicting the effects of
conservation planning: Comparison with existing indices and urban environments on floras. Journal of Ecology, 97, 4–9.
application to a case study. Landscape and Urban Planning,
Williams, J.C., ReVelle, C.S. and Levin, S.A. (2005). Spatial
83, 91-103.
attributes and reserve design models: a review. Environmental
Scolazzi, R. and Geneletti, D. (2012). A multi-scale qualitative Modeling and Assessment, 10, 163–181.
approach to assess the impact of urbanization on natural
Zerger, A., Gibbons, P., Seddon, J., Briggs, S. and
habitats and their connectivity. Environmental impact
Freudenberger, D. (2009). A method for predicting native
assessment review, 36, 9-22.
vegetation condition at regional scales. Landscape and Urban
Simberloff, D., Martin, J.L., Genovesi, P., Maris, V., Wardle, Planning, 91, 65–77.
D.A., Aronson, J., Courchamp, F., Galil, B., García-Berthou,

504