1

CHAPTER
Life Processes

Short Notes

1. Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for maintaining their life.
2. The basic life processes are – nutrition, respiration, transportation, and excretion.
3. Life processes require energy which is provided by nutrition.
A. Nutrition: It is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body for life processes.
I. Modes of Nutrition
(i) Autotrophic: It is a type of nutrition in which organisms can synthesize their own food.
e.g., Green Plants
(ii) Heterotrophic: It is a type of nutrition in which organisms do not possess the ability to synthesize their own
food. They depend on autotrophs for their food supply directly or indirectly.
e.g., Animals, Fungi
(iii) Types of heterotrophic nutrition: There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition. They are saprophytic,
parasitic, and holozoic nutrition.
(a) Saprophytic nutrition: In this type of nutrition, organisms secrete some digestive enzymes to digest the
dead organic food and get nourishment from organic remains like excreta, dead organisms, etc.
e.g. Fungi, yeast, and mushrooms.
(b) Parasitic nutrition: In this type of nutrition, one organism resides on or inside the body of another organism
and derives its food without killing other organisms. Parasites are those organisms which obtain shelter &
food from another organism.
e.g. Cuscuta, orchids, ticks, lice, leeches, roundworms, tapeworms, plasmodium, etc.
(c) Holozoic nutrition: In this mode of nutrition, the organism involves the intake of solid pieces of food. This
food is subsequently digested and absorbed.
e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, birds, fishes, humans, etc.
It involves the following steps: ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.
II. Nutrition in Plants:
(a) Photosynthesis: It is the process by which plants prepare food by using carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of sunlight and chlorophyll. The food prepared is carbohydrate which is stored in the form of starch. Oxygen is
released in this process.
(b) Equation of photosynthesis:
Chlorophyll
6CO2 + 12H2O       C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Sunlight
(Glucose)
(c) Raw materials required in photosynthesis:
1. Carbon dioxide 2. Photosynthetic pigment
3. Sunlight 4. Water
 (d) Site of Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast or kitchen of the cell in green tissues inside and
young stem.

Fig. 36:
(e) Mechanism of photosynthesis: Photosynthesis takes place in three main steps.
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting up of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrates.
(f) Importance of photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is an anabolic process which provides food to the living organisms. It purifies the atmospheric
air by consuming CO2, and evolving oxygen. It transforms light energy into chemical energy.
III. Nutrition in animals:
(a) Nutrition in Amoeba: Amoeba is a unicellular animal living in water. It takes in food by forming finger-like
projections called pseudopodia and forms a food vacuole. Inside the food vacuole, the food is digested and
absorbed. The undigested food is then sent out through the surface of the cell.
Nucleus
Food particle
(a)

Pseudopodia
(b)

Food Vacuole

(c) Food Particle

(d)

Fig 37: Nutrition in Amoeba

2 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 (b) Nutrition in Humans: The human digestive system comprises of alimentary canal and associated digestive
glands.
Starch
Salivary
1. Mouth Salivary glands secrete → saliva
amylase
(change starch into sugar).
Maltose
Teeth (Chewing/griding of food)
Tongue (Rolling, tasting of food).

2. Oesophagus Takes food from mouth to oesophagus by

peristatic movements.
(contraction and expansion of ailimentary canal
Gastric Juice
3. Stomach

Mucus HCl Pepsin

Makes medium breaksdown
Protects inner lining acidic Protein
of stomach from HCl

4. Small intenstine Liver → Secrete bile

Pancreas → Secrete pancreatic juice
Intestinal enzyme

Carbohydrate Fats Protein

Glucose Fatty acid + Glycerol Amino acids

Pancreatic Juice

Trypsin Lipase

Protein Peptones Fatty acid

Emulsified Fats
Glycerd
Large Emulification Small
fat globules fat globules
5. Large Intestine (remaining nutrients absorbed)

6. Rectum    (Temporary collection of faecal matter)

7. Anus     (Helps in egestion)
™ As shown in the flow chart, digestion begins from the mouth. In the mouth, it is broken down by salivary
amylase.
™ The food moves to the stomach through the oesophagus which performs peristaltic movement.
™ Enzymes and various digestion juices from the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas act on the chunks from the
stomach in the small intestine.
™ In the large intestine, the remaining nutrients are absorbed and the leftover is removed from the body through
the rectum and anus.
B. Respiration: It is a process in living organisms involving the production of energy, typically with the intake of
oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex organic substances.
(a) Respiration involves:
(i) Gaseous exchange (Breathing): Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of CO2.
(ii) Cellular respiration: Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell.

Life Processes 3
 (b) Breakdown of Glucose by various pathways

Absence of Oxygen
Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
(In yeast)
(2-carbon molecule)
Glucose Pyruvate Lack of oxygen Lactic acid + Energy
(6-carbon molecule) (3-carbon molecule) (in muscle cells) (3-carbon molecule)
Presence of
oxygen
Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
(In mitochondria)

Respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic
‰ Takes place in the presence of oxygen ‰ Takes place in the absence of oxygen.
‰ Occurs in mitochondria. ‰ Occurs in cytoplasm.
‰ End product CO2 and H2O ‰ End products are alcohol and lacitic acid.
‰ More amount of energy is released. ‰ Lesss amount of energy is released.
‰ Equation ‰ Equation
Glucose → Pyruvate → CO2 + H2O + Energy In yeast :
Glucose → Pyruvate → Ethanol + H2O + Engery
In muscle cell:
Glucose → Pyruvate → Lactic acid + Energy

(c) Passage of air through the respiratory system:
™ Nostril: Air is taken into the body.
™ Nasal Passage: It is a channel for airflow through the nose.
™ Nasal Cavity: It is lined with hairs and mucus membranes. It warms, moisturizes, and filters air as it reaches
the lungs.
™ Pharynx: common passage for food and air.
™ Larynx: It houses the vocal cords and manipulates pitch and volume, which is essential for phonation. It is
also known as the voice box.
™ Trachea: The pharynx splits into the trachea and esophagus. It connects the larynx (or voice box) to the
bronchi of the lungs. It provides airflow to and from the lungs for respiration.
™ Bronchi: They are the main passageway into the lungs. They are the extensions of the windpipe that shuttle
air to and from the lungs. The oxygen goes to the lungs and carbon dioxide leaves the lungs through them.
™ Bronchioles: Bronchi get smaller when they reach closer to lung tissues and are called bronchioles. They
are the passageways by which air passes through the nose or mouth to the alveoli of the lungs.
™ Alveoli: Alveolar ducts are smaller tubes that finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called
alveoli. They allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to move between the lungs and the bloodstream.
™ Blood capillaries: These are the sites of transferring oxygen and other nutrients from the bloodstream to
other tissues in the body. They also collect carbon dioxide and waste materials and return it to the veins.

4 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 IV. Mechanism of breathing:
Inhalation Exhalation
1. During inhalation, the volume of the thoracic 1. Thoracic cavity contracts.
cavity expands.
2. Ribs move upwards. 2. Ribs move downwards
3. The diaphragm becomes flat in shape. 3. The diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped.
4. The volume of the lungs increases, pressure 4. The volume of the lungs decreases, pressure
decreases and air enters the lungs. increases, and air exits from the lungs.
Pleural Air rushing into Air moving out from
membranes the lungs in the lungs

Ribs
Ribs raised returned
Trachea to normal vertebral
position column

Rib

Diaphragm Diaphragm
pulled returned to its
Contracted Relaxed
down normal shape
muscle of muscle of
diaphragm diaphragm
(a) Inhalation (b) Exhalation

V. Exchange of Gases between alveolus, blood and tissues:

O2
1. Air (rich in O2) Blood [through blood bind with
(in alveolus) vessels] (capillaries) haemoglobin
in RBC

O2 is released
in tissues
2. Air (rich in CO2) CO2 released in CO2 is dissolved
(in tissues) blood in blood

CO2
(Sent out Released in Blood vessels
through nostrils) alveolar sac (capillaries)
(in alveoli)
Terrestrial Organisms: Use atmospheric oxygen for respiration
Aquatic Organisms: Use oxygen dissolved in water.
VI. Respiration in Plants: Respiration in plants is simpler than the respiration in animals. Gaseous exchange occurs
through
1. Stomata in leaves.
2. Lenticels in stem.
3. The general surface of the roots.

Life Processes 5
C. Transportation:
I. Transportation in Human beings: Human beings like other multicellular organisms need a regular supply of
food, oxygen, etc. This function is performed by the circulatory system.
The circulatory system in humans consists of
(i) The Heart (Pumping organ)
(ii) Arteries and veins (Blood vessels)
(iii) Blood and lymph
II. The circulatory system in humans:
Aorta

Vena Cava from upper body Pulmonary arteries

Pulmonary veins
Right atrium Left artium
Vena Cava from lower body

Right ventricle
Septum Left ventricle
(dividing wall)

III. Heart: A muscular organ which pumps blood to all parts of the body.
™ It has four chambers. The upper chambers are called atria and the lower chambers are called ventricles.
™ Since the ventricles pump the blood to the different organs, their walls are thicker than the atria.
™ The right and left chambers are separated by a septum. It prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood.
™ The atria and ventricles have valves between them to prevent blood from flowing backward.
IV. Arteries: Carry pure blood from the heart to all parts of the body. They are thick-walled and do not have valves.
V. Veins: Carry impure blood from all parts of the body to the heart. They are thin-walled and have valves.
VI. Capillaries: Very narrow blood vessels which connect arteries and veins together. The exchange of food, water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. between the blood and cells takes place through the capillaries.
VII. Blood: Transports food, oxygen, and waste products. It consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood
cells (WBC) and platelets. Plasma transports food, water, carbon dioxide, nitrogenous waste, etc. Red blood cells
transport oxygen. White blood cells kill harmful microbes and protect the body. Platelets help in the clotting of
blood and prevent loss of blood during injury.
Blood
(A fluid connective Tissue)

Solid Component Liquid Component

Blood Corpuscles PLASMA

R.B.C.s Blood W.B.C.s

Platelets
– c arries respiratory Fight off injections A yellow colour fluid
gas (O2, CO2) helps in blood clotting contain 90% water & 10%
– Contain Hb organic substances like
which impart –P
 lasma, proteins viz.
red colour to the albumin, globulin
blood.
inorganic mineral ions.

6 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
VIII. Lymph:
™ It is a yellowish fluid which escapes from the blood capillaries into the intercellular spaces. It contains fewer
proteins than blood.
™ It carries digested and absorbed fat from the intestine and drains excess fluid from extracellular space back into
the blood.
IX. Double Circulation: Blood travels twice through the heart in one complete cycle of the body.
™ Pulmonary circulation: Blood moves from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
™ Systemic circulation: Blood moves from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart.
X. Transportation in Plants: There are two main conducting tissues in a plant.
Conducting Tissue

Xylem Phloem
1. Carries water and minerals 1. Carries product of
from the root of other part of photosynthesis from leaves to
the plant. other parts of the plant.
2. No energy is used. 2. Energy is used to from ATP.
XI. Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water in the form of vapours.
™ Role of Transpiration
1. Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating suction pull.
2. Helps in temperature regulation in plants.
XII. Translocation: The transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different parts of the plant is called translocation.
D. Excretion system in human beings:
The excretory system consists of:
1. A pair of kidneys.
2. A urinary bladder
3. A pair of ureters.
4. A urethra

Adrenal gland
Inferior vena cava
Right Kidney Lift kidney

Aorta

Ureter
Urinary Bladder
(out open) Open of Urethra
Urethra

I. Process of Excretion
1. The renal artery brings in blood containing waste substances to the kidneys. The kidney filters blood.
2. Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until it is
released through the urethra.

Life Processes 7
 II. Function of Kidney: It removes the waste product from the blood i.e. urea which is produced in the liver.
III. Nephron: Each kidney has a large number of filtration units called nephrons.

The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
Branch of
Renal Artery
Afferent Arteriole Efferent
Arteriole

Distal
Convoluted
Tubule
Proximal Convoluted Tubule Collecting Tubule
Branch of Renal Vein
Ascending Limb of loop of Henle
Descending limb
of Loop of Henle Opening of other Nephron

Loop of henle Nephron

IV. The mechanism of Urine Formation involves three steps:
1. Glomerular Filtration: Blood is filtered from the glomerulus into the bowman capsule of the nephron. This
filtrate passes through the tubules of the nephron.
2. Tubular re-absorption: Now, useful substances from the filtrate like Na+, K+, glucose, amino acids, etc. are
reabsorbed by the capillaries surrounding the nephron into the blood.
3. Secretion: Urea, extra water, and salts are secreted into the tubule which opens up into the collecting duct & then
into the ureter.
V. Artificial kidney: It is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis.
Hemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is meant for kidney failure patients.
VI. Excretion in Plants:
1. Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
2. H2O by transpiration.
3. Wastes may be stored in leaves, bark, etc. which fall off from the plant.
4. Waste products stored as gums, and resin in old xylem.
5. Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.

8 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Previous Year Questions

(c) (i) Glucose, (ii) fatty acids and glycerol (iii) amino
Multiple Type Questions acids
1. A stomata closes when: [CBSE 2024] (d) (i) Sugars (ii) amino acids. (iii) fatty acids and
(i) it needs carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. glycerol
(ii) it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. 5. The process in which transport of soluble products
(iii) water flows out of the guard cells. of photosynthesis takes place in plants is known as:
(iv) water flows into the guard cells.  [CBSE 2024]
The correct reason(s) in this process is/are: (a) Transpiration (b) Evaporation
(a) (i) only (b) (i) and (iii) (c) Conduction (d) Tans-location
(c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv)
6. In human respiratory system, when a person
2. Which of the following statement(s) is (are) true breathes in, the position of ribs and diaphragm will
about human heart? [CBSE 2024] be: [CBSE 2024]
(A) Right atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs (a) lifted ribs and curve/dome shaped diaphragm.
through pulmonary artery. (b) lifted ribs and flattened diaphragm.
(B) Left atrium transfers oxygenated blood to left (c) relaxed ribs and flattened diaphragm.
ventricle which sends it to various parts of the
(d) relaxed ribs and curve/dome shaped diaphragm.
body.
7. Assertion (A): The rate of breathing in aquatic
(C) Right atrium receives Deoxygenated blood through
organisms is much faster than in terrestrial organisms.
vena cava from upper and lower body.
Reason: The amount of oxygen dissolved in water
(D) Left atrium transfers oxygenated blood to aorta is very high as compared to the amount of oxygen
which sends it to different parts of the body. in air. [CBSE 2024]
(a) (A) (b) (A) (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true
(c) (B) and (C) (d) (B) and (D) and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of
3. An organism which breaks down the food material Assertion (A)
outside the body and then absorbs it is[CBSE 2024] (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true
(A) a plant parasite,Cuscuta and Reason  is not the correct explanation of
Assertion (A)
(B) an animal parasite, Tapeworm
(c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(C) a bacteria, Rhizobium
(d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.
(D) a fungi, Rhizopus
8. Assertion (A): In the human heart ventricles have
(a) (B) only (b) (A) and (D)
thicker muscular walls than atria.
(c) (B) and (C) (d) (B) and (D)
Reason (R): Ventricles have to pump the blood into
4. In human beings, when the process of digestion is various organs. [CBSE 2024]
completed, the (i) proteins, (ii) carbohydrates, and (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
(iii) fats are respectively finally converted into: Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
 [CBSE 2024] (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
(a) (i) Amino acids, (ii) glucose and (iii) fatty acids Reason  is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
(b) (i) Amino acids, (ii) glucose, (iii) fatty acids and (c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
glycerol (d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.

Life Processes 9
 9. Water in the root enters due to [CBSE 2023] Reason (R): These villi have a large surface area to
(a) the function of the root to absorb water help the small intestine in completing the digestion
(b) difference in the concentration of ions between the of food. [CBSE 2023]
root and the soil (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
(c) excess water present in the soil Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
(d) diffusion of water in the roots (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
10. As compared to terrestrial organisms, the rate of Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
breathing in aquatic organisms is  [CBSE 2023] (c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(a) faster because they need more oxygen for thelr (d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.
survival.
14. Assertion (A): The walls of atria are thicker than
(b) faster because the amount of dissolved oxygen in
those of the ventricles.
water is fairly low.
(c) slower because the amount of dissolved oxygen in Reason (R): Ventricles have to pump blood into
water is fairly low. various organs at high pressure. [CBSE 2023]
(d) slower because the capacity of water of dissolving (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
atmospheric air is limited. Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
11. Observe the following diagram and identify the (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
process and its significance from the following Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
options: [CBSE 2023] (c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.
15. In human alimentary canal, the specific enzyme/
juice secreted in locations (i), (ii) and (iii) are
 [CBSE 2022]

(i)
(i)

(a) Evaporation: maintains water contents in leaf cells.

(b) Transpiration: creates a suction force which pulls
water inside the plant.
(c) Excretion: helps in excreting out waste water from
the plant.
(d) Translocation: helps in transporting materials from
one cell to another. (ii)
(ii)
12. The process in which loss of water in the form of (iii)
(iii)
vapours from the aerial parts of plants takes place
is X, which helps in Y. Here, X and Y respectively
are [CBSE 2023]
(a) Transpiration and photosynthesis
(b) Transpiration and temperature regulation (a) (i) Amylase (ii) Pepsin (iii) Bile
(c) Translocation and movement of soluble products (b) (i) Amylase (ii) Bile (iii) Trypsin
of photosynthesis in phloem
(c) (i) Lipase (ii) Amplase (iii) Pepsin
(d) Translocation and absorption of water and minerals
from soil by roots. (d) (i) Trypsin (ii) Bile (iii) Amylase
13. Assertion (A): The inner walls of the small intestine 16. Read the following and answer the question from
have finger like projections called villi whid are rich (i) to (iv),  [CBSE 2022]
in blood. Take a healthy potted plant with elongated leaves.

10 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Select a leaf and insert about one half of this leaf 18. Which one of the following conditions is true for
in a test tube containing KOH and make it air tight. the state of stomata of a green leaf shown in the
Place the set-up in sun for two hours. Take out the given diagram? [CBSE 2022]
leaf from the test tube and dip it in boiling water
for a few minutes. Put this leaf in a beaker with
alcohol and boil it in a water bath. Wash the leaf
with water and then dip the leaf in iodine solution
for a few minutes. The portion of the leaf dipped
in KOH solution will not show any change when
dipped in iodine solution

(A) (a) Large amount of water (Bflows

) into the guard
cells.
(b) Gaseous exchange is occurring in large amount.
(c) Large amount of water flows out from the guard
cells.
(i) The function of KOH taken in the test tube is to (d) Large amount of sugar collects in the guard
absorb: cells.
(a) released water vapours 19. A student was asked to write a stepwise procedure
(b) released CO2 to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is necessary for
(c) released O2 photosynthesis. He wrote the following steps. The
(d) chlorophy II. wrongly worded step is:  [CBSE 2022]
(ii) On the basis of this activity, we may conclude
that the factor for photosyntheis is:
(a) carbon dioxide (b) oxygen
(c) chlorophyll (d) water vapour
(iii) The event that does not occur in photosynthesis Green
is: Plant
(a) absorption of light energy by chlorophlyll
(b) reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates KOH
(c) oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide (a) (b)
(d) conversion of light energy to chemical energy. (a) both potted plants are kept in dark room for at least
(iv) Iodine solution gives blue-black colour with: three days
(a) starch (b) proteins (b) bottom of the bell jars is sealed to make them alr
(c) glucose (d) fats tight
17. The correct statements with reference to single (c) both potted plants are kept in sunlight after the
celled organisms are:  [CBSE 2022] starch test
(i) complex substances are not broken down into (d) a leaf from both the plants is taken to test the
simpler substances. presence of starch.
(ii) simple diffusion is sufficient to meet the 20. The length of small intestine in a deer is more as
requirement of exchange of gases. compared to the length of small intestine of a tiger.
(iii) specialised tissues perform different functions The reason for this is: [CBSE 2022]
in the organism.
(a) mode of intake of food
(iv) entire surface of the organism is in contact with
(b) type of food consumed
the environment for taking in food.
(c) presence or absence of villi in intestines
(a) (i) and (iii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iv) (d) presence or absence of digestive enzymes.

Life Processes 11
 21. The sequence of anaerobic respiration in our muscle 26. Respiratory structures of two different animals-a
cells during heavy exercise is  [CBSE 2022] fish and a human being are shown.
Cytoplasm
(a) Glucose 
→ Pyruvate  →
Muscle cells Observe (A) and (B) and select one characteristic
that hold true for both of them. [CBSE 2022]
Lactic acidd + Energy Gills (A) Alveoli (B)
Mitochondria Muscle cells
(b) Glucose → Pyruvate 
→
Carbon dioxide + Water Water
Cytoplasm Muscle cells flows in
(c) Glucose 
→ Pyruvate  →
through
Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
mouth
Mitochondria Muscle cells
(d) Glucose → Pyruvate  →
Ethanol + Lactic acid (a) Both are placed internally in the body of animal.
22. The energy released during cellular respiration is (b) Both have thin and moist surface for gaseous
used to synthesise: [CBSE 2022] exchange.
(a) ribosomes (b) RBC (c) Both are poorly supplied with blood vessels to
(c) ATP (d) mitochondria conserve energy.
(d) In both, the blood returns to the heart after being
23. Which of the following statements are correct
oxygenated.
in reference to the role of A (shown in the given
diagram) during a breathing cycle in human beings? 27. Observe the diagram of an activity given below.
 [CBSE 2022] What does it help to conclude, when the person
exhales into the test-tube?  [CBSE 2022]

Lime water

(i) It helps to decrease the residual volume of air in

lungs. (a) Percentage of carbon dioxide is more in inhaled
air.
(ii) It flattens as we inhale.
(b) Fermentation occurs in the presence of oxygen.
(iii) It gets raised as we inhale.
(c) Percentage of carbon dioxide is more in the exhaled
(iv) It helps the chest cavity to become larger.
air.
(a) (ii) and (iv) (b) (iii) and (iv) (d) Fermentation occurs in the presence of carbon
(c) (i) and (ii) (d) (i), (ii) and (iv) dioxide.
24. The function of the lining of mucus in the nasal 28. The separation of the right side and the left side of
passage of human beings is to: [CBSE 2022] heart is useful to:  [CBSSE 2022]
(a) increase the temperature of inhaled air (a) keep a check on oxygenated blood from mixing
(b) move the air in and out with deoxygenated blood.
(c) filter the air that we breathe in (b) Allow a slow supply of oxygen in the body
(d) absorb oxygen from the air. (c) Supply energy to animals with low energy needs
25. In living organisms during respiration which of the (d) Often change their body temperature.
following products are not formed if oxygen is not 29. In spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue of
available?  [CBSE 2022] plants is transported to the buds for: [CBSE 2022]
(a) Carbon dioxide + Water (a) the energy needs of the buds to grow
(b) Carbon dioxide + Alcohol (b) temperature regulation
(c) Lactic acid + Alcohol (c) balancing the storage in different organs
(d) Carbon dioxide + Lactic Acid (d) diffusion process

12 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
30. Upward movement of water in tall trees is due to (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true
 [CBSE 2022] and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of
(a) translocation (b) excretion Assertion (A)
(c) photosynthesis (d) transpiration (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true
and Reason is not the correct explanation of
31. Thin walled blood vessels are called:[CBSE 2022] Assertion (A)
(a) aorta (b) capillaries (c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(c) arteries (d) vena cava (d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.
32. Consider the following statements in connection 35. Assertion (A): The rate of breathing in aquatic
with the functions of the blood vessels markex A organisms is much slower than that seen in terrestrial
and B in the diagram of a human heart as shown. organisms. [CBSE 2022]
 [CBSE 2022]
Reason (R): The amount of oxygen dissolved in
A water is very low as compared to the amount of
B oxygen in air.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and is the correct
explanation of.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but is not the correct
explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(i) Blood vessel A - It carries carbon dioxide rich (d) (A) is false, but is true.
blood to the lungs.
(ii) Blood vessel B - It carries oxygen rich blood from Very Short Answer Type Questions
the lungs.
36. We need to water the soil in plants on a regular
(iii) Blood vessel B - Left atrium relaxes as it recelves
basis. But it ultimately reaches the leaves of the
blood from this blood vessel.
plant. Explain how thls takes place. [CBSE 2024]
(iv) Blood vessel A - Right atrium has thick muscular
wall as it has to pump blood to this blood vessel. OR

The correct statements are Name the type of nutrition exhibited by Amoeba.
Explain how food is taken in and digested by this
(a) (i) and (ii) only
organism?
(b) (ii) and (iii) only
37. State one role of each of the following in human
(c) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
digestive system: [CBSE 2024]
(d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(i) Hydrochloric acid
33. Identify the two components of phloem tissue that (ii) Villi
help in transportation of food in plants. (iii) Anal Sphincter
 [CBSE 2022]
(iv) Lipase
(a) Phloem parenchyma and sieve tubes
38. (i) Why is respiratory pigment needed in multicellular
(b) Sieve tubes and companion cells organisms with large body size? [CBSE 2024]
(c) Phloem parenchyma and companion cells (ii) Give reasons for the following:
(d) Phloem fibres and sieve tubes (a) Rings of cartilage are present in the throat.
34. Assertion (A): Nitrogen is an essential element for (b) Lungs always contain a residual volume of
plant growth and is taken up by plants in the form air.
of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. [CBSE 2022] (c) The diaphragm flattens and ribs are lifted up
Reason (R): The soil is the nearest and richest when we breathe in.
source of raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorus (d) Walls of alveoli contain an extensive network
and other minerals for the plants. of blood vessels.

Life Processes 13
39. Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves and the 47. (a) List the events in proper sequence that take place
food prepared by it reaches other parts of the plants. during the process of photosynthesis.
Name the process involved and explain it. OR
 [CBSE 2024] (b) Explain in brief two ways by which leaves of a
40. (a) Sometimes while running the athletes suffer from plant help in excretion. [CBSE 2023]
muscle cramps. Why? How is the respiration in
48. Give the name of the enzyme present in the fluid in
this case different from aerobic respiration? our mouth cavity. State the gland which produces it.
OR What would happen to the digestion process if this
(b) Write the other name given to lymph. State its two gland stops secreting this enzyme? [CBSE 2023]
functions. [CBSE 2024]
Short Answer Type Questions
41. Explain in brief two ways by which leaves of a
plant help in excretion. [CBSE 2023] 49. (i) How does Parameclum obtain its food? 
42. (i) Name the type of blood (oxygenated/deoxygenated)  [CBSE 2023]
transported by each of the following mentioning (ii) List the role of each of the following in our
the path (i.e. from one organ (which place) to digestive system:
another (which place)). [CBSE 2023] (a) Hydrochloric acid
(a) Vena cava (b) Trypsin
(b) Pulmonary artery (c) Muscular walls of the stomach
(d) Salivary amylase
OR
50. (a) With the help of an activity, explain the action of
(ii) With the help of a schematic flow chart, show the
salliva on the food we eat.  [CBSE 2023]
breakdown of glucose in a cell to provide energy
(b) Why is bile juice important in the process of
(a) in the presence of oxygen
digestion?
(b) in lack of oxygen
51. What is the other name of “tissue fluid’? Write its
43. Name the part of the human excretory system where two functions. [CBSE 2023]
nephrons are found. Write the structure and function
52. What will happen if: [CBSE 2023]
of nephrons. [CBSE 2023]
(a) Xylem tissue in a plant is removed.
44. (a) Why is it important to prevent oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood from mixing in birds and (b) We are injured and start bleeding?
mammals? 53. Complete the following flow chart as per the given
(b) Which animals can tolerate some mixing of the instructions. [CBSE 2021]
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood streams? On Gastric glands present in the wall of stomach
what factor does the body temperature of these Secretions
animals depend? [CBSE 2023]
a b c
45. Write one specific function of each of the following
Function Function Function
organs in relation to excretion in human beings:
 [CBSE 2023] d e f
(i) Renal Artery
54. (a) Describe the structure and function of the basic
(ii) Urethra filtering unit of the kidney.
(iii) Glomerulus (b) List two factors on which the reabsorption of water
(iv) Tubular part of nephron from urine depends. [CBSE 2021]
46. Two green plants are kept separately in oxygen-free 55. (a) In the process of respiration, state the function of
containers, one in the dark and the other in sunlight. alveoli. [CBSE 2021]
It was observed that plants kept in the dark could not (b) The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much
survive longer. Give a reason for this observation. faster than that in terrestrial organisms. Give
 [CBSE 2023] reasons.

14 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 (c) Complete the following pathway showing the (b) Why is bile juice important in the process of
breakdown of glucose. digestion?
In cytoplasm presence of O2
Glucose (i) 59. (i) What is double circulation?  [CBSE 2023]
6-carbon In mitochondria

molecules (ii) Why is the separation of the right side and the left
(ii) + H2O + Energy side of the heart useful? How does it help birds
and mammals?
56. (a) Why is there a difference in the rate of breathing
between aquatic organisms and terrestrial 60. (i) Plants absorb water from the soil. Explain how it
organism? Explain is taken up and transported from the soll.
 [CBSE 2021]
(b) Draw a diagram of the human respiratory
(ii) When we are injured and start bleeding, it requires
system and label it - the pharynx, trachea, lungs.
the loss of blood from the system to be minimised”
dlaphragm and alveolar sac on it. [CBSE 2021]
What will happen if the blood loss is not stopped?
Long Answer Type Questions Is there anything the system could do omits own
to prevent the loss?
57. (a) Design an experiment to demonstrate that carbon
61. In the human body, the site of absorption of digested
dioxide is essential for photosynthesis. Write the
food is the small intestine. How is the process of
observation and conclusion of the experiment.
absorption carried out, and why is the absorption of
 [CBSE 2024] digested food necessary? [CBSE 2021]
OR 62. (a) State the role played by the following in the process
(b) (1) of digestion:  [CBSE 2021]
(i) Enzyme trypsin
(ii) Enzyme lipase
Syringe (b) List two functions of finger-lilke projections
present in the small intestine.
63. Give reasons:  [CBSE 2021]
(a) Ventricles have thicker muscular walls than atria.
(b) The transport system in plants is slow.
(c) Circulation of blood in aquatic vertebrates differs
Lime water
Lime water from that in terrestrial vertebrates.
(d) During the daytime, water and minerals travel
faster through the xylem as compared to the
night.
In the experimental set-up shown above in diagram (e) Veins have valves, whereas arteries do not.
(1) atmospheric air is being passed into lime water. 64. (a) “Blood circulation in fishes is different from the
Time taken by water to turn milky in both the test blood circulation in human beings”: Jnstify the
tubes is different. Give reason. statement.
(ii) Draw the diagram of an open stomatal (b) Describe “blood circulation” in human beings.
pore and label (i) Guard cells, and (ii)  [CBSE 2021]
Chloropolast on it. Mention two functions 65. (a) Name the organs that form the excretory system
performed by stomata. in human beings.
58. (a) With the help of an activity, explain the action of (b) Describe in brief how urine is produced in the
saliva on the food we eat. [CBSE 2023] human body. [CBSE 2021]

Life Processes 15
66. (a) Why is nutrition necessary for the human body? Line from
artery to pump
(b) What causes the movement of food inside the tubing made of selectively
permeable membrane
alimentary canal?
(c) Why is the small intestine in herbivores longer
than in carnivores?
(d) What will happen if mucus is not secreted by the
gastric glands? [CBSE 2021]
67. Human digestive system is a tube running from
Dialysing
mouth to anus. Its main function is to breakdown Line from Solution
apparatus
complex molecules present in the food which cannot to vein
be absorbed as such into smaller molecules. These
molecules are absorbed across the walls of the tube
Fresh dialysing Used dialysing
and the absorbed food reaches each and every cell solution solution
of the body where it is utilised for obtaining energy. (i) The haemodialyser has semi-permeable lining of
(a) Name the glands present in the buccal cavity tubes which help:
and write the components of food on which the (a) to maintain osmotic pressure of blood
secretion of these glands act upon. (b) to filter niltrogenous wastes from the dialysin
(b) Two organs have a sphincter muscle at their exit. solution
Name them. (c) in passing the waste products in the dialysing
(c) What will happen if: solution
(i) mucus is not secreted by the gastric glands. (d) to pump purified blood back into the body of the
(ii) Vili are absent in the small intestine. patient.

OR (ii) Which one of the following is not a function of

artificial kidney?
(c) “Bile juice does not contain any enzyme, yet it has
important roles in digestion.” Justify the statement. (a) To remove nitrogenous wastes from the blood
(b) To remove excess fluids from the blood.
(c) To reabsorb essential nutrients from the blood.
Case-Based Type Questions (d) To filter and purify the blood.
68. Read the following and answer the questions from (iii) The ‘used dialysing’ solution is rich in:
(i) to (iv). [CBSE 2022] (a) urea and excess salts
(b) blood cells
The figure shown below represents a common type
(c) lymph
of dialysis called as haemodialysis-It removes waste
(d) proteins.
products from the blood, such as excess salts, and
urea which are insufficiently removed by the kidney (iv) Which part of the nephron in human kidney, serves
in patients with kidney failure. During the procedure, the function of reabsorption of certain substances:
the patient’s blood is cleaned by filtration through a (a) glomerulus
series of semi-permeable membranes before being (b) bowman’s Capsule
returned to the blood of the patient. On the basis of (c) tubules
this answer the following questions. (d) collecting Duct

16 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 breathe faster than teresestrial organisms because
Previous Year Questions they need to extract enough oxygen from water,
which has less oxygen available than air. Therefore,
Multiple Type Questions while the assertion is correct, the reason given is
1. (c) Somata are small openings on the surface of incorrect beccusse it states thut water has a high
leaves that allow gases to enter and exit the plant. amount of dissolved oxygen, which is not true
They close when the plant does't need carbon compared to air.
dioxide for photosyesthesis (which is when it’s 8. (a) Ventricles have thicker walls than atria as they
not producing food and when water flows out of have to pump blood to the organs with high pressure.
the guard cells (which helps the plant to conserve 9. (b) Water needed by plants is absorbed by roots.
water). Therefore. the correct answers are (ii) and (iii). The root hair absorb water from soil by osmosis.
2. (c) The correct statements about the human heart are Difference in concentration of ions is created
(B) and (C). The left atrium does transfer oxygenated between roots and soil which enables water to enter
blood to the left ventricle, which then pumps it to into roots to compensate difference in concentration.
the body. The right atrium receives deoxygenated 10. (b) In aquatic organisms, the rate of breathing is
blood from the body through the vena cava, while higher.
(A) is incorrect because the right atrium actually
receives deoxygenated blood, not oxygenated, and These organisms utilize oxygen dissolved in water.
(D) is misleading as the left atrium transfers blood The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is
to the left ventricle, rot directly to the aorta. relatively low compared to the oxygen available in
3. (d) Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus as it obtains the air, Therefore, aquatic organisms need to breathe
nutrition from dead and decaying matter. It faster to obtain sufficient oxygen for their survival.
consumes soil's dead and decaying organic matter 11. (b)
which is broken down into simpler compounds. • Transpiration pull aids in the upward
4. (b) During digestion in humans, proteins are broken movement of water from the roots to the
down into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose, leaves.
and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Therefore, the • A significant amount of water evaporates
correct answer is (b) because it accurately describes through the stomata on the leaf surface.
the final products of these macro-nutrients after • This evaporation process generates a suction
digestion. force, pulling water up through the plant from
5. (d) This process refers to the movements of the the roots.
soluble products of photosynthesis, like sugars, from 12. (b)
the leaves where they are made to other parts of the • Process (X): Transpiration
plant where they are used or stored. Translocation Transpiration is the process where water is lost
is essential for distributing energy throughout the in the form of vapours from the aerial parts
plant. of plants primarily through the stomata in the
6. (b) The correct answer is (b) lifted ribs and leaves.
flattened diaphragm. When a person breathes in, the Significance (Y): Temperature Regulation
diaphragm contracts and flattens, while the ribs are • Transpiration helps in temperature regulation
lifted upward and outward. This movement creates by cooling the plant. As water evaporates
more space in the chest cavity, allowing air to fill from the leaf surfaces, heat is dissipated, thus
the lungs. maintaining optimal temperature conditions
7. (c) The correct answer is (c) Assertion (A) is true., for various physiological processes, including
but Reason (R) is false. Aquatic organisms do photosynthesis.

Life Processes 17
 13. (c) Reason is false because villi increases the surface 17. (c) Unicellular organisms are one-celled and
area for greater absorption of digested food. perform all the life processes that are essential
14. (d) Assertion (A): The walls of atria are thicker for maintaining the life of cell or organisms like
than those of the ventricles. nutrition, respiration, reproduction excretion, etc. In
single celled organisms such as Amoeba, complex
This statement is false. In reality, the walls of the
substances are broken into simpler substances.
ventricles are thicker than those of the atria.
18. (c) The opening and closing of the stomatal pore
Ventricles have thicker muscular walls because they
depends on the turgidity of the guard cells. The
pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and the rest
given figure shows a closed stomatal pore which
of the body, which requires more force (pressure).
occurs when guard cells looses water and become
Reason (R): Ventricles have to pump blood into flaccid.
various organs at high pressure.
19. (c) Both potted plants should be kept in sunlight for
This statement is true. Ventricles indeed pump about two hours before the starch test.
blood into the arteries and throughout the body at
20. (b) Herbivores such as deer eating grass need a
high pressure to ensure blood reaches all organs and
longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be
tissues.
digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores
Therefore, while Reason (R) correctly explains the like tigers have a shorter small intestine.
physiological need for thicker ventricular walls due 21. (a) When there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle
to high-pressure pumping Assertion (A) is incorrect cells, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid and
because the ventricular walls are thicker than atrial energy. Therefore, the correct pathway of glucose
walls, not the other way around. metabolism in our muscle cells during heavy
15. (b) Saliva (i) is secreted in the mouth. Saliva excercise is:
contains an enzyme called salivary amylase for Cytoplasm Muscle cells
digestion. Liver (ii) secretes bile to emulsify fat. Glucose 
→ Pyruvate 
→

The pancreas (iii) secretes pancreatic juice which lactic acid + Energy
contains enzyme trypsin for digestion of proteins. 22. (c) The energy released during cellular respiration
16. (i) (b) In the given experiment, KOH (Potassium is immediately used to synthesise a molecule called
hydroxide) in the test tube absorbs carbon dioxide, ATP which is energy currency of the cell and is
thus, due to the absence of CO2. the leaf fails to used as fuel for cellular activities.
produce starch which proves that carbon dioxide 23. (a) During inhalation, we lift our ribs and flatten
is necessary for photosynthesis. our diaphragm (A), and the chest cavity becomes
(ii) (a) The given experiment demonstrates the larger as a result. Because of this, air is sucked into
requirement of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli. When our
When KOH absorbs the available CO2 from the ribs and diaphragm return to their normal position
portion of leaf dipped in it, formation of sugar and and the chest cavity becomes smaller, exhalation
starch is inhibited and the portion of leaf dipped occurs. During breathing, the lungs always contain
in KOH did not show any change when dipped a residual volume of air, so that there is sufficient
in iodine solution Thus, it is proved that CO2 is time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon
necessary for photosynthesis. dioxide to be released. The residual volume remains
(iv) (c) Following are the three events that occur during unchanged in normal conditions.
the process of photosynthesis 24. (c) The mucus lining in the nasal passage helps to
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll. moisten and warm the inhaled air and also trap dust
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical particles (i.e., helps in filtering the inhaled air).
energy and splitting of water molecules into 25. (a) In aerobic respiration, glucose is completely
hydrogen and oxygen. broken down to CO2and H2O with the production
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. of a large amount of energy (ATP)
(iv) (a) The brown coloured iodine will turn In cytoplasm
blue-black when it reacts with starch. Glucose → Pyruvate + Energy

18 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Presence of O2
(A). Nitrogen is indeed essential for plant growth,

(In mitochondria)
→ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy and plants absorb it mainly as inorganic nitrates or
nitrites. However, while the soil is a rich source of
Thus, CO2 and water are formed as a result of aerobic
nutrients for plants, the reason provided does not
respiration and will not formed in the absence of
directly explain why nitrogen is taken up in that
oxygen (anaerobic respiration).
specific form, so it’s not a correct explanation of
26. (b) Both have thin and moist surfaces for gaseous the assertion.
exchange. This characteristic is essential for both
35. (d) The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is
gills in fish and alveoli in humans as it allows fairly low as compared to the amount of oxygen in
oxygen to efficiently diffuse into the blood and the air but the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms
carbon dioxide to diffuse out. These surfaces are is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms
specially adapted to maximize the area available for because the aquatic animals have to breath rapidly
gas exchange, enhancing the efficiency of respiration to take in sufficient oxygen.
in both organisms.
27. (c) When a person blows air from mouth into the
Very Short Answer type Questions
test tube containing lime water, the lime water turn 36. When water is lost through stomata in the leaves by
into a white precipitate which appears milky. This transpiration, it creates a suction force/transpiration
occurs because the air we exhale has more carbon pull. Due to which water is pulled up through xylem
dioxide. of the roots to the leaves.
28. (a) The right and left sides of the heart are OR
separated by a muscular wall that prevents mixing The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is known as
of oxygenated with deoxygenated blood. Such holozoic nutrition.It involves the ingestion, digestion
separation allows a highly efficient supply of and egestion of food material. Amoeba takes in food
oxygen to the body. using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell
surface which fuse over the food particle forming
29. (a) In spring, new buds are formed. These buds a food-vacuole. Inside the food vacuole, complex
need more energy to grow than other parts of the substances are broken down into simpler ones which
plant. This energy comes from the sugar stored in then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining
root or stem tissue and is transported to the buds by undigested material is moved to the surface of the
phloem. cell and thrown out.
30. (d) In tall trees, the driving force to move water 37. Role of:
upward is transpiration. During transpiration, as the (i) Hydrochloric acid: Creates an acidic medium
water evaporates through the stomata in the leaves, for facilitating the action of enzyme/ kills
it creates a negative pressure in the leaves and microorganisms.
xylem tissues. (ii) Villt: Increases the surface area for absorption of
31. (b) Capillaries are blood vessels which have thin digested food.
walls and are one-cell thick. Exchange of materials (iii) Anal Sphincter: Exit of waste material from anus
between blood and surrounding cells takes place is regulated.
across these thin walled, capillaries. These also take (iv) Lipase: Breakdown/digestion of emulsified fats or
waste products away from tissues. lipids
38. (i) Diffusion/Diffusion pressure alone cannot take
32. (d) Blood vessel A represents pulmonary artery and
care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the body.
blood vessel B represents pulmonary vein. Oxygen
(ii) Reasons:
rich blood from the lungs comes to the left atrium
via pulmonary vein. The left atrium relaxes when it (a) To ensure that the air-passage does not
collapse.
receives blood.
(b) There is sufficient time for oxygen to be
33. (b) The two components of phloem tissue that helps absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be
in transportation of food in plants are sieve tubes released.
and companion cells. (c) Chest cavity becomes larger.
34. (b) The correct answer is (b) Both (A) and (R) (d) Because exchange of gases takes place in the
are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of alveoli.

Life Processes 19
 39. (i) Translocation (b) Amphibians/reptiles.
(ii) Transport of soluble products or food prepared by The body temperature of these animals depend
photosynthesis, through phloem in the sieve tubes upon the temperature of the environment.
with the help of companion cells, both in upward 45. (i) Renal artery carries blood from the aorta to the
and dowward directions by utilising energy. kidneys for filtration.
40. (a) (i) Formation of lactic acid in muscles causes (ii) The urethra receives urine stored in the bladder
cramps. and releases it outside.
(ii) Aerobic respiration takes place in the (iii) Glomerulus filters the blood passing through it and
presence of oxygen whereas the respiration initiates urine formation.
taking place above is due to lack of oxygen.
(iv) The tubular part of the neptron allows selective
End products of aerobic respiration are
reabsorption of useful substances like glucose.
energy whereas in the above case, lactic acid
amino acids, salts, and water into the blood
+ Energy is formed.
capillaries.
OR
(b) Tissue fluid/ Extracellular fluid Functions: 46. The plant kept in the dark could not survive
longer because it will not be able to produce the
i. Carries digested and absorbed fats from the oxygen required for its respiration by the process of
intestine.
photosynthesis. Oxygen is evolved as the byproduct
ii. Drains excess fluid from eatracellular space of photosynthesis during the photolysis of water
back into the blood. and helps plants to survive longer than is kept in
iii. Fight against infections. sunllight.
41. Most of the carbon dioxide is released through 47. (a) Events taking. place in the process of
stomata in leaves. Plants can get rid of excess water photosynthesis are as follows:
by the process of transpiration, i.e., evaporative loss (i) Absorption of lightenergy by chlorophyll.
of water. Many plant waste products are stored in
leaves, which are excreted when shed oft. (ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and
splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
42. (i) Vena cava - deoxygenated blood from body to oxygen.
heart.
(iii) Reduction of cerbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Pulmonary artery - deoxygenated blood from heart
to lungs. OR
OR (b) Two ways by which leaves of a plant help in
In cytoplasm excretion are:
(ii) Glucose → Pyruvate
(i) Excess water is excreted by transpiration.
Presence of oxygen (ii) Oxygen as waste product of photosynthesis is
→ CO 2 + Water + Energy
(in mitrochondria) excreted through stomata.
In cytoplasm

Glucose → Pyruvate 48. Salivary-amylase is present in the fluid in mouth
cavity. Salivary gland, secretes the salivary amylase.
lack of oxygen

In human muscles cells
→ Latic acid + Energy Salivary anaylase acts on the carbohydrates and
digests them into simple sugars. So, if the salivary
43. Nephrons are found in kidneys. glands are unable to produce salivary amylase,
Structure: A cluster of thin-walled capillaries digestion of carbohydrates will be hampered in the
(glomerulus) associated with cup-shaped end of a body.
tube called Bowman's capsule. This further extends
into a tubular part which ends in collective ducts. Short Answer type Questions
Function: Filtration of nitrogenous waste from blood 49. (i) In Paramecium, a unicellular protozoan, the
to form urine. Reabsorption of useful materials from hair-like outgrowth cilia are present on the entire
the filtrate. surface and help collect the food. They sweep the
44. (a) Birds and mammals have high energy needs to food inside the body through the oral groove.
maints in their body. temperature. The separation of (ii) (a) Role of hydrochloric acid: It helps to

oxygenated and deoxygenated blood allow highly. maintain the acidic pH in the stomach required for
efficient supply of oxygen to maintain their body activation of the enzyme pepsin that digests proteins
temperature. in the stomach.

20 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 (b) Role of trypsin in our digestion system:
e - Pepsin acts in an acidic medium, which breaks
Trypsin breaks down protein into smaller peptides down proteins into peptones.
in the duodenum of the small intestine. It helps
f - 
The mucus protects the inner lining of the
in digesting dietary protelin by breaking the chain
of amino acids. It also activates some proenzymes stomach from the corroding action of HCl.
present in pancreatic juice. 54. (a) Nephron is the structural and functional unit
(c) Role of muscular walls in the stomach in our
of the kidney. Its main role is to regulate the
digestive system. The muscular walls in the stomach concentration of water and soluble substances
contract periodically and thereby help in the like sodium and other salts by filtering the blood,
churning and mixing of the food with the digestive reabsorbing the excess water that is needed, and
enzymes and HCL. It helps in chemical digestion. excreting the rest as urine.
(d) Role of salivary amylase in our digestive spstem:
(b) Two factors on which the reabsorption of water

Salivary amylase found in saliva breaks down the from urine depends are:
starch and converts it into the simplest sugar.
™ The amount of excess water which is present in
50. (a) The action of saliva on the food we eat is
the body.
explained with the help of activity as follows:
Take two test tubes, A and B. In test tube A. put ™ The amount of dissolved waste that needs to be
one teaspoon full of boiled rice, and in test tube B, excreted out of the body.
keep one teaspoon full of boiled rice after chewing 55. (a) Functions of alveoli are:
it for 3 to 5 minutes. Add 3.4 mL of water in both
test tubes and add a few drops of iodine solution (i) They increase the surface area for the
to each test tube. In test tube A, the colour of the exchange of gases.
rice changes because of the absence of any enzyme, (ii) The thin walls of alveoli facilitate the rapid
while in test tube , no colour change is observed exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
because when rice is chewed, the amylase encyme between alveolar air and blood.
present in saliva breaks down the starch of rice to
simple sugars. (b) Aquatic animals like fishes obtain dissolved
oxygen from water present through their gills.
(b) Bile juice breaks down fats into fatty acids that
can be taken into the body by the digestive tract. In The amount of dissolved oxygen is quite small
addition, it provides alkaline fluid in the intestine to compared to the amount of oxygen in the air.
neutralize the acidic pH of food that comes from the Therefore, to obtain the required amount of oxygen
stomach. from water, aquatic animals have to breathe much
51. Tissue fluid is also called lymph. The functions of faster than terrestrial organisms.
tissue fluid are: In cytoplasm Presence of O2
(c) Glucose (i) Pyruvate
(i) It carries digested and absorbed fat from the 6-carbon 3-carbon In mitochondria
molecule molecule
intestine. + energy
(ii) It drains excess fluid from extracellular space back (ii) CO2 + H2O + Energy
into the blood.
56. (a) Terrestrial organisms inspire atmospheric oygen,
52. (a) If the xylem is removed, transport of water and
minerals from the soil would not occur, which leads while equatic organisms thrive on the dissolved
to the wilting of leaves and, ultimately, the death of oxygen present in water. Oxygen diffuses through
the plant. water at a much slower rate than in air. A terrestrial
(b) In case of any injury, when bleeding occurs, organism has the advantage of utilizing greater
platelets circulate around the body and form a a mounts of oxygen at a faster rate with lesser
mesh-like network or clot at the site of injury. effort, whereas aquatic organisms have to put more
53. a - Hydrochloric acid (HCl) effort into obtaining the same amount of oxygens
b - Pepsin therefore, breathing in aquatic organism is much
c - Mucus faster than the tertestrial organisms.
d - HCl makes medium acidic for the activation of (b) The labelled diagram of the human respiratory

an enzyme pepsin. system is as follows:

Life Processes 21
 Epiglottis 58. (a) The action of saliva on the food we eat is
Larynx explained with the help of activity as follows: Take
Trachea two test tubes, A and B. In test tube A, put one
teaspoon full of boiled rice, and in test tube B, keep
one teaspoon full of boiled rice after chewing it for 3
Bronchus to 5 minutes. Add 3.4 mL of water in both test tubes
Cut end Pleural and add a few drops of iodine solution to each test
of rib heart membranes tube. In test tube A, the colour of the rice changes
Alveoli
Pleural fluid
because of the absence of any enzyme, while in test
Lung
Bronchiole tube B, no colour change is observed because when
Diaphragm rice is chewed, the amylase enzyme present in saliva
breaks down the starch of rice to simple sugars.
Long Answer type
Fig. 3:Diagrammatic Questions
view of human respiratory system (b) Bile help in emulsification of fat bile juice
(sectional view of the left lung is also shown) breaks down fats into fatty acids that can be taken
57. (a) Take two heasthy potted plants. A and  of nearly
the same size. into the body by the digestive tract. In addition, it
™ Keep them in darkness tor three days. (Destarch
provides alkaline fluid in the intestine to neutralize
the axidic pH of food that comes from the stomach.
the plant)
59. (i) Double circulation is a mechanism in which blood
™ Place a watch glass containing potasssium
circulates twice through the heart in one complete
Iydrowide by the side of potted plant A but not cycle. Systemic circulation and pulmonary
in potted plant 8. circulation are two pathways through which blood
™ Cover both the plants with separate bell jars and flows in double circulation
seas the bottom of the jars with Vaseline. Lungs capillaries
Pulmonary
™ Keep toth the plants in surlight for two hours. artery to lungs Pulmonary vein
from lungs
™ Puck one leaf each from both the plants and test
for the presence of starch with iodine solution
™ Observation: The lezf of the potted plant A with Vena cava Aorta to body
KOH did not turn blue - black. The leaf of the from body
potted plant B turns bue:
™ Conclusion: KOH absortbs  so photosynthesis Deoxygenated oxygenated
blood blood
did not occur in potted plant A.
OR
(b) (i) In set up (i) lime water turns milky in more (ii) The separation of the right and left sides of the
time as compared to set up (ii) because the air heart helps in the separation of oxygenated and
we exhaled contains high percentage of CO2 as deoxygenated blood and allows the highly efficient
compared to atmospheric air. supply of oxygen to the body. Birds and mammals
Guard cells
are warm-blooded animals, and their metabolism
(a)
is quite complex. They require a constant supply
of oxygen. Without proper separation, oxygenated
blood can mix with deaxygenated blood, which can
cause problems in birds and mammals. Separation
Chloroplast of the right side and left side of the heart ensures
(b) the circulation of oxygenated blood to different
body parts.
Open Stomatal Pore 60. (i) From minerals and water needed by the plants are
absorbed by roots. The root hairs absorb water
Two labellings: (i) Guard Cells
from the soil by the process of osmosis and take
(ii) Chloroplast Two functions performed by in minerals by the process of diffusion. Thus,
stomata: a difference in concentration of ions is created
Gaseous exchange between the roots and the soil which enables the
Transpiration water to enter into the roots to compensate for

22 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 the difference in concentration. This water, along (b) The transport system in plants is less elaborate than
with diswolved minerals from the root hair, passes in animals, as plants are less active, so their cells
into xylem vessels through cells of the cortex, do not need to be supplied with materials quickly.
endodernis, and pericycle, and then ascent of sap (c) The aquatic vertebrates, like fish, have gills to
takes place from the xylem of roots into the xylem oxygenate blood. The flow of blood in a fish
of stem. is single circulation because the blood passes
(ii) Bleeding leads to a loss of presure, which reduce through the heart only once in one complete cycle
the efficiency of the pumping system. When an of the body. Terrestrial vertebrates, libe birds and
injury is cassed, the blood platelets release certain humans, have double circulation as the blood
chemicals which are called the platelet factors e.g. travels to the heart twice in one complete cyle
thromboplastin. These platelet factors help in the of blood, and they have lungs for oxygenation of
clotting of blood. blood.
61. The small intestine is the main region for the (d) During the day time, water and minerals travel
absorption of digested food. It consists of the faster through the xylem because the rate of
following parts: The inner surface of the small transpiation is higher during the day time.
intestine has millions of tiny finger -like projections (e) The lumen of veins has valves, which allow
called villi. These vill increase the surface area for the blood to flow in onlly one direction. Thus
efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many preventing the backflow of blood.
blood vessels are present that absorb the digested
food and carry it to the bloodstream. The small 64. (a) Fishes have only two chambers in their heart.
intestine in human beings is the site of the complete The blood is pumped to the gills for oxygenation and
digestion of food like carbohydrates, proteins, and from there. it passes directly to the rest of the body.
fats. The absorption of digested food is necessary Thus, the blood goes only once through the heart
because an organism takes the complex organic during one cycle of passage through the body. This
materials by the process of absorption and then type of circulation is termed as single circulation.
utilizes absorbed nutrients for various metabolic In human beings, during circulation, blood travels
processes. With the help of these metabolic twice through the heart in one complete cycle of
processes, the body uses these food nutrients for the body, which is called double circulation. The
energy. growth, and cell repair. pathway of blood from the heart to the lung and
62. (a) (i) Enzyme trypsin: This enzyme is produced back to the heart is called pulmonary circulation,
by the pancreas in an inactive form called and the pathway of blood from the heart to the rest
trypsinogen. of the body and back to the heart is called systemic
Trypsin converts the remaining proteins into circulation.
peptones, and the peptones into peptides and (b) In human being, deoxygenated blood from the
amino acids. body tissues is poured into the right atrium.
(ii) Enzyme lipase: It is secreted by the pancreas Contraction of the heart forces it into the right
and small intestine. Lipase corverts fats into ventricle. From the right ventricle, deoxyygenated
fatty acids and glycerol. blood goes to the lungs through the pulmonary
(b) Internally, the wall of the small intestine is provided artery. Oxygenated blood from the lungs is returned
with long finger-like projections called villi. Two to the left atrium and then into the left ventricle
functions of villi are: via pulmonary vein. The left ventricle forces the
(i) The villi greatly increase the absorptive oxygenated blood to the whole body Thus, to make
surface area of the inner lining of the small one complete round or circulation circuit around
intestine. all body parts, the blood passes through the beart
(ii) Villi are richly supplied with blood vessels twice. This is known as the double circulation of
that carry absorbed food to all cells of the blood.
body, where it is utilized for obtaining 65. (a) The excretory system (urinary system) in human
energy. beings consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of
63. (a) Since ventricles have to pump blood into various ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
organs with high pressure, they have thicker walls (b) In the kidney, the wastes are converted to urine by
than atria. three processes:

Life Processes 23
 (i) Ultrafiltration: A large amount of water, (c) The small intestine in herbivores is longer than

along with certain harmful substances in carnivores because herbivores eat plants, rich
like urea, uric acid, K+, ammonium in cellulose, which takes longer time for complete
salts, creatinine, etc., and certain useful digestion by the enzymes present in symbiotic
substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, bacteria. Therefore, they have longer small intestines.
etc. pass through glomerular capillaries Carnivores feed on flesh, which is easier to digest
and glomerular membrane into the cavity and does not contain cellulose. Therefore, they have
of Bowman's capsule of nephrons under shorter intestines for the digestion of food eaten by
pressure. The filtrate so formed is called them.
nephric filtrate, which is moved towards the (d) Gastric glands secrete HCl, mucus, rennin,
ureter. and pepsin enzymes. The mucus protects the inner
(ii) Selective reabsorption: A large amount of lining of the stomach from the action of acidic HCl
water and sodium, a whole of glucose and and enzymes. In the absence of mucus, there would
amino acids, and a small amount of urea be erosion of the inner lining of the stomach leading
are passed back from the nephric filtrate to acidity and ulcers.
into the blood capillaries. It occurs either 67. (a) Salivary glands; Starch/Carbohydrate
by back diffusion (i.e., water and urea) or
(b) Stomach,Anus
active transport (i.e., Na+, glucose, and
amino acids). It generally occurs in the PCT (c) (i) The inner lining of the stomach will not be
(Proximal convoluted tubule) of nephrons. protected from the action of acid.
(iii) Tubular secretion: Certain harmful (ii) Digested food will not be absorbed. /
chemicals like uric acid, creatinine, K+, Absorption area will be reduced
etc., are passed from blood capillaries OR
surrounding the nephron into nephric filtrate Emulsification of fats.
by active transport. It generally occurs in the Acidic medium has to be made alkaline for the
DCT (Distal convoluted tubule) of nephrons. pancreatic enzymes to act.
Now, the fluid is termed as urine and is
excreted out of the excretory organs. Case-Based type Questions
66. (a) Nutrition is necessary for the human body 68. (i) (c) The semi-permeable lining of the tubes of
because the human body continuously requires haemodialyser allow the passage of waste products
energy for life activities like respiration, circulation, urea, creatinine, etc, from the blood to the dialysing
excretion, etc. Energy is required even when we are fluid.
sleeping because a number of biological processes (ii) (c) Artificial kidney is not involved in the
keep on occurring. All these processes require reabsorption of essential nutrients from the blood.
energy, and this energy is obtained from nutrition.
(iii) (a) The used dialysing fluid/solution is rich in
It is also needed for the growth and repair of the
waste products like urea and excess salts because
human body.
during the passage of patient’s blood through tubes
(b) The wall of the alimentary tract contains with a semi-permeable lining, the waste products
muscles that can contract and expand alternatively. from the blood pass into the dialysing fluids by
The contraction and expansion movements of the diffusion.
wall of the food pipe is called peristaltic movement.
(iv) (c) The function of tubules of nephron is to allow
The peristaltic movement moves the partially
the selective reabsorption of useful substances like
digested food in all the digestive organs throughout
glucose, amino acids, salts and water into the blood
the alimentary canal.
capillaries.

24 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 2
CHAPTER

Short Notes

Control and Coordination

‰ All the living organisms respond and react to changes in the environment around them.
‰ The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are called stimuli such as light, heat, cold,
sound, smell, touch etc.
Control and Coordination in Animals:
‰ In animals, the nervous system and hormonal system are jointly responsible for control and coordination.

Nervous System:
The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues, called nervous tissue.
‰ The nerve cell or neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system.
‰ It is the nervous system which is mainly responsible for control and coordination in complex animals.
Structure of Neuron:
Dendrite
Node of Axon Terminal
Cell body Ranvier

Schwann cell
Axon
Myelin sheath
Nucleus
A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
Neuron:
Neuron is a highly specialized cell which is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses. The neuron consists of the
following parts:
(i) Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair-like structures protruding out of
the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites. Dendrites receive the nerve impulses. (ii) Axon: It ends in
several hair-like structures, called axon terminals. The axon terminals relay nerve impulses. (iii) Myelin sheath: There
is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath.
TYPES OF NEURON:
Sensory neuron Motor neuron Association or relay neuron
These neurons receive signals from a These neurons send signals to a These neurons relay the signals between the
sense organ. muscle or a gland. sensory neuron and motor neuron.

Life Processes 25
Important Terminologies:
Synapse: The point contact between the terminal branches of the axon of one neuron with the dendrite of another neuron
is called synapse.
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): NMJ is the point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with a motor neuron carrying
nerve impulse from the control nervous system.
Transmission of Nerve Impulse:
Dendrites → cell body → axon → nerve endings at the tip of axon → synapse → dendrite of the next neuron.
Chemicals released from the axon tip of one neuron, cross the synapse or neuromuscular junction to reach the next cell
Presynaptic
Axon of terminal
motor junction Neuromuscular
Junction Synaptic
vesicles

Muscle fiber
Capillary Mitochondrion Postsynaptic
Myofibrils membrane
Human Nervous System:
Human Nervous System

Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous

System (CNS) System (PNS)

Brain Spinal Cord Somatic Nervous Automatic Nervous

system (SNS) system (SNS)

Sympathetic Ner- Parasympathetic

vous system Nervous System

Human Brain:
Cerebrum
Cranium (Skull)

Fore Brain
Mid brain

Hypothalamas
Pituitary gland Pons
Hind Brain Medulla Spinal cord
Cerebellum

‰ Human brain is a highly complex organ, which is mainly composed of nervous tissue.
‰ The tissues are highly folded to accommodate a large surface area in less space.
‰ The brain is covered by a three-layered system of membranes, called meninges.
‰ Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges.
‰ The CSF provides a cushion to the brain against mechanical shocks. Furthermore, protection.
‰ The human brain can be divided into three regions parts:

26 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 1. Forebrain:involved in thinking
(i) Cerebrum: largest part of the brain, responsible for intelligence, memory and consciousness.
(ii) Thalamus: coordinates the sensory impulses from the various sense organs such as eyes,ears and relays it to the
cerebrum.
(iii) Hypothalamus: contains control centres for body temperature, heart rate, hunger, thirst, sleep and blood pressure.
2. Midbrain: It serves as a relay centre for sensory information from sense organs to cerebrum.
3. Hindbrain: (i) cerebellum: second largest part of brain and responsible for maintaining posture and balance of the
body.
(ii) Pons: consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
(iii) Medulla oblongata: contains centres for various activities e.g., respiration, sneezing, coughing, cardio- vascular
reflexes and gastric secretions.
Reflex Action:
Spinal Cord
(CNS) Message of Brain

Sensory neuron Relay neuron

Receptors = Heat/pain Motor
receptor in skin neuron
Effector – Muscle in arm

A reflex action is a sudden, involuntary and mechanical action in response to stimulus in the environment. Reflex actions
are controlled by the spinal cord. Reflex arc is defined as the route taken by the nerve impulses and responses in a reflex
action.
Receptor → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron → Motor neuron → Effector (muscle)
‰ The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in reflex action do not travel up to the brain.
‰ This is important because sending signals to the brain would involve more time.
Advantage of Reflex Action:
‰ Protects the body by enabling the body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli.

Coordination in Plants:
‰ Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use chemical means for control and coordination.
‰ Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in plants.
Coordination in Plants
movement in Plants

Movement dependent on growth Movement independent of growth

[immediate response to stimulus]
Tropic movements e.g. dropping of leaves of Touch-me-not
[direction movements in response to stimulus] plant on touching is (Thigmotropism)

Phototropism Geotropism Phototropism Phototropism

Movement Movement towards Movement towards light Movement

towards light gravity Chemicals/(growth of towards/water
pollen tube towards ovule)

Life Processes 27
Plant hormones: Plant hormones are chemicals which help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the envi-
ronment. Type of plant hormones:
‰ Auxin: (Synthesized at shoot tip)
‰ Gibberellin: Helps in the growth of the stem
‰ Cytokinins: Promotes cell division.
‰ Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth, causes wilting of leaves. (Stress hormone)

Hormones in Animals:
Hormones: These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised tissues called ductless
glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source. The Endocrine system helps in control and coor-
dination through chemical compounds called hormones.
ENDOCRINE GLAND LOCATION HORMONE FUNCTION
Pituitary gland Base of the brain Growth hormone ‰ GH stimulates growth.
( master gland) (GH),Thyroid stimulating ‰ TSH stimulates the functioning of
hormone (TSH),Follicle the thyroid gland.
stimulating hormone (FSH)
‰ FSH stimulates the follicles during
ovulation.
Testis (male) Scrotum Testosterone ‰ Sperm production
‰ Development of secondary sexual
characters during puberty.
Ovary (female) Abdominal Oestrogen ‰ Egg production
cavity ‰ Development of secondary sexual
characters during puberty.
Pancreas Near stomach Insulin Controls blood sugar level

Adrenal gland Above kidneys Adrenalin Prepares the body for

emergency situations and hence
is also called ‘Fight and flight’
hormone
Neck Thyroxine Controls general metabolism
Thyroid Gland and growth in the body.

28 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Previous Year Questions

(c) Promote the opening of stomatal pore.

Multiplie Choice Type Questions (d) Help in the growth of stem.
1. In a nerve cell, the site where the electrical impulse 8. The part in which gustatory receptors receptors are
is converted into a chemical signal is known as: present in our body is: [CBSE 2023]
 [CBSE 2024] (a) inner ear (b) skin
(a) Axon (c) tongue (d) inner lining of nose
(b) Dendrites 9. Walking in a straight line and riding a bicycle are
(c) Neuromuscular junction the activities which are possible due to a part of the
(d) Cell body brain. Choose the correct location and name of this
2. Select out of the following a gland which does NOT part from the given table: [CBSE 2023]
occur as a pair in the human body: [CBSE 2024] Part of the Brain Name
(a) Pituitary (b) Ovary (a) Fore brain Cerebrum
(c) Testis (d) Adrenal (b) Mid brain Hypothalamus
3. A plant growth inhibitor hormone which causes (c) Hind brain Cerebellum
writing of leaves is called: [CBSE 2024] (d) Hind brain Medulla
(a) Auxin (b) Cytokinin
10. Sensory nerve of a reflex arc carries information
(c) Abscisic acid (d) Gibberellin
from the receptor cells to the  [CBSE 2023]
4. The correct sequence of events when someone’s hand (a) spinal cord
touches a hot object unconsciously: [CBSE 2024]
(b) brain
(a) Receptors in skin → Motor neuron → Relay neuron
(c) muscles of the effector organ
→ Sensory neuron → Effector muscle in arm
(d) bones of the receptor organ
(b) Receptors in skin → Relay neuron → Sensory
neuron → Motor neuron → Effector muscle in arm
(c) Receptors in skin → Sensory neuron → Relay Very Short Type Questions
neuron → Motor neuron → Effector muscle in arm
11. (a) H
 ow is the movement of leaves of a sensitive
(d) Receptors in skin → Sensory neuron → Effector
plant different from the downward movement of
muscle in arm → Motor neuron → Relay neuron
the roots?
5. Sense organ in which olfactory receptors are present
is: [CBSE 2024] OR
(a) Nose (b) Skin (b) There is a hormone which regulates carbohydrate,
protein and fat metabolism in our body. Name the
(c) Tongue (d) Inner ear
hormone and the gland which secretes it. Why
6. Select from the following the correct statement about is it important for us to have iodised salt in our
tropic movement in plants: [CBSE 2023] diet? [CBSE 2024]
(a) It is due to stimulus of touch and temperature.
12. Where are auxins synthesized? How do they promote
(b) It does not depend upon the direction of stimulus phototropism? [CBSE 2024]
received.
13. Name the part of brain which is responsible for the
(c) It is observed only in roots and not in stems.
following actions: [CBSE 2023]
(d) It is a growth related movement.
(i) Maintaining posture and balance
7. In plants the role of cytokinin is: [CBSE 2023] (ii) Beating of heart
(a) Promote cell division.
(iii) Thinking
(b) Wilting of leaves.
(iv) Blood pressure

Life Processes 29
 Table: TSH levels during pregnancy
Short Answer Type Questions
Stage of Normal Low High
14. Define reflex action. With the help of a flow chart pregnancy (mU/L) (mU/L) (mU/L)
show the path of a reflex action such as sneezing. First trimester 0.2 – 2.5 < 0.2 2.5 - 10
 [CBSE 2024] Second trimester 0.3 – 3.0 < 0.3 3.01 – 4.5
15. (a) How is the brain and spinal cord protected in Third trimester 0.8 – 5.2 < 0.8 > 5.3
human beings?
(b) State one main function of It is important to monitor TSH levels during pregnancy.
High TSH levels and hypothyroidism can especially
(i) Medulla and affect chances of miscarriage. Therefore, proper
(ii) Cerebellum. [CBSE 2023] medication and consultation with a doctor is required
16. Where are auxins synthesised in a plant? Which to regulate/control the proper functioning of the thyroid
organ of the plant shows: gland.
(i) Positive phototropism (i) Give the full form of TSH.
(ii) Negative geotropism (ii) State the main function of TSH.
(iii) Why do TSH levels in pregnant women need to be
(iii) Positive hydrotropism [CBSE 2023]
monitored?
17. Name a plant hormone responsible for bending of a (iv) A pregnant woman has TSH level of 8.95 mU/L.
shoot of a plant when it is exposed to unidirectional What care is needed for her? [2020]
light. How does it promote phototropism?
 [CBSE 2023] 2. Answer question numbers (a) to (d) on the basis of
your understanding of the following information and
18. Define geotropism. Draw a labelled diagram of a related studied concepts.
plant showing geotropic movements of its parts.
Thyroid gland is a bilobed structure situated in our

 [CBSE 2020]
neck region. It secretes a hormone called thyroxine.
Iodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make
Long Answer Type Questions thyroxine. Thyroxine regulates carbohydrate, protein
and fat metabolism in the body. It promotes growth
19. (a) (i) Define a reflex arc. Why have reflex arcs of body tissues also. When there is an excess
evolved in animal? Trace the sequence of events of thyroxine in the body, a person suffers from
which occur, when you suddenly touch a hot object. hyperthyroidism and if this gland is underactive
it results in hypothyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is
(ii) Name the part of nervous system which helps
diagnosed by blood tests that measure the levels of
in communication between the central nervous thyroxine and Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH).
system and other parts of the body. What are the Hypothyroidism is caused due to the deficiency of
two components of this system? iodine in our diet resulting in a disease called goitre.
OR Iodised salt can be included in our diet to control it.
(b) (i) Leave of ‘chhui-mui’ plant begin to fold up and (a) Where is thyroid gland situated in our body ?
droop in response to a stimulus. Name the stimulus (b) State the function of thyroxine in human body.
and write the cause for such a rapid movement. Is (c) What is hyperthyroidism ?
there any growth involved in the movement? (d) How can we control hypothyroidism ?  [2020]
(ii) Define geotropism in plants. What is meant by 3. Questions numbers (a) to (d) are based on table
positive and negative geotropism? Give one example given below.
of each type. [CBSE 2024] Study the table in which the levels of Thyroid
Stimulating Hormone (TSH) in women are given
Case Study and answer the questions that follow on the basis
1. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) stimulates of understanding of the following paragraph and
thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. the related studied concepts.

30 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Age Range Normal (mU/L) Low (mU/L) high TSH and heart diseases. But a 2017 study
showed that older women are especially at risk for
18-29 years 0.4-2.34 mU/L < 0.4 mU/L developing thyroid cancer if they have high TSH
30-49 years 0.4-4.0 mU/L < 0.4 mU/L levels along with thyroid nodules.
(a) A 35 year old woman has TSH level 6.03 mU/L.
50-79 years 0.46-4.68 mU/L < 0.46 mU/L
What change should she bring in her diet to control
Women are at greater risk for developing abnormal this level ?
TSH levels during menstruation, while giving birth (b) When do women face a greater risk of abnormal
and after going through menopause. Around 5% TSH level ?
of women in the United States have some kind of (c) State the consequence of low TSH level.
thyroid problem compared to 3% of men. Despite (d) Name the mineral that is responsible for
claims that high TSH increases your risk for heart synthesis of hormone secreted by thyroid gland.
disease, a 2013 study found no link between  [CBSE 2020]

Multiplie Choice Type Questions 5. (a) Olfactory receptors, which are responsible for
the sense of smell, are located in the nasal cavity
1. (c) This is the place where the electrical impulse of the nose. When you inhale, these receptors
traveling along a nerve cell is converted into a detect different scents and send signals to the brain,
chemical signal to communicate with a muscle allowing you to identify various smells.
cell. At this juction, neurotransmitters are released,
allowing the nerve cell to signal the muscle to 6. (d) Tropic movements depend upon the direction of
contract. stimulus received.
2. (a) The pituitary gland is a single gland located 7. (a) Cytokinins primarily promotes cell division.
at the base of the brain and is often referred to as 8. (c) Gustatory receptors are present on tongue.
the “master gland” because it controls many other 9. (c) Cerebellum controls posture and balance of the
hormone glands in the body. In contrast, the ovaries, body.
testis, and adrenal glands occur in pairs (one on each
10. (a) Reflex arc is pathway taken by nerve impulses
side of the body).
and responses in a reflex action, i.e., from receptor
3. (c) Abscisic acid is a plant hormone that acts as a organs like skin to spinal cord and from spinal cord
growth inhibitor and helps plants respond to stress, to effector organs like muscles.
such as drought. It causes the stomata to close,
reducing water loss and leading to wilting of leaves Very Short Type Questions
when the plant is under stress. 11. (a)
4. (c) Receptors in skin → Sensory neuron → Relay Movement of Downward
neuron → Motor neuron → Effector muscle in arm. leaves of sensitive movement of roots
When you touch something, hot, the receptors in plant
your skin detect the heat and send a signal through (i) Stimulus is touch. Stimulus is gravity.
sensory neurons to the relay neurons in the spinal (ii) No growth is Growth is involved
cord. Then , relay neurons send the signal to motor involved in the in the movement
neurons, which activate the effector muscles in your movement.
arm to pull away quickly, helping you avoid injury.
(iii) Non directional Directional

Life Processes 31
 OR 18. The movement of the growth of the roots downwards
(b) Thyroxine and the shoots upwards under the stimuli of gravity
is called geotropism. The movement of the part of
Thyroid gland the plant towards or away from the stimulus gravity.
Iodine is necessary for thyroid gland to make
throxine hormone. Deficiency of iodine in our diet
causes goitre.
12. (i) Synthesized at shoot tip/root tip
(ii) When light falls on one side of the plant, auxin
diffuses towards the shady side of shoot. The
concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to grow
longer on the side of shoot which is away from light.
Thus plant appears bent towards light/phototropism. Long Short Type Questions
13. (i) Cerebellum 19. (a) (i) The pathway in which impulses travel during
(ii) Medulla oblongata the reflex action is called a reflex arc.
(iii) Cerebellum Because the thingking part of the brain is not fast
(iv) Medulla oblongata enough/for quick response to avoid injury.
Reflex arc:
Short Answer Type Questions
Hot Plate (stimulus) → Receptor (skin) → Sensory
14. Reflex action is a sudden/spontaneous/immediate
neuron → Spinal cord (Relay neuron) → Motor
action in response to the environment/stimulus e.g.
neuron → Effector (Muscles) → Response
sneezing.
(ii) Peripheral Nervous System
Stimulus → Receptor (Nose) → Sensory neuron
→ Spinal cord (Relay neuron) → Motor neuron → Components: Cranial Nerves; Spinal Nerves
Effector (Muscles) → Response OR
15. (a) Brain and spinal cord are protected by skeleton- (b) (i) Touch
brain by the cranium and spinal cord by vertebral
The shape of the leaves changes by changing the
column.
amount of water in them.
(b) (i) Medulla- It controls involuntary actions like
No, there is no growth involved in this type of
heart beat, respiration, etc.
movement.
(ii) Cerebellum- It maintains posture and balance of
body. Case Study
16. Auxin is synthesised at tip of the stem apices or 1. (i) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
shoots. (ii) TSH from pituitary gland stimulates thyroid gland
(i) Shoots to release thyroxine.
(ii) Shoots (iii) Thyroxine regulates basal metabolism which is
very crucial at the time of pregnancy as maternal
(iii) Roots (bend towards water)
body feeds the child. Thyroxine also inhibits TSH
17. Auxin is responsible for bending of a shoot of a plant through negative feedback. Hence, TSH levels in
when it is exposed to unidirectional light. In the blood are in turn regulated by Thyroxine which
presence of sunlight, the auxin present in the stem is dependent on iodine. If the level of thyroxine
starts accumulating in the region away from sunlight, in blood is low and TSH is high, the chances of
due to which the concentration of auxin in the region miscarriage increases.
of the stem increases, resulting in bending of a
So, to protect the developing foetus, TSH level
shoot of a plant when it is exposed to unidirectional
must be maintained.
light. Thus, auxin promote phototropism that is the
regulation of physiology or development in response (iv) If TSH levels are high, one of the possible reason
to day length. is less production of thyroxine which might be due

32 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 to poor levels of iodine in her diet. She should look (d) Can be controlled by including iodised salt in our
at her salt consumption as salt is a good source of diet.
iodine. 3. (a) She should monitor iodine intake in her diet.
2. (a) In the neck region (b) During menstruation / during pregnancy and after
(b) Thyroxine regulates carbohydrate, proteins and going through menopause. (any two)
fat metabolism in the body. It promotes growth of (c) Low TSH level leads to swelling of neck region /
body tissue. disease called goitre.
(c) Excess of secretion of throxine in the body / (d) Iodine
overactivity of the thyroid gland

Life Processes 33
 3
CHAPTER
How Do Organisms
Reproduce?

Short Notes

Reproduction:
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of the same species.
Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase in the population of a species. If organisms do not reproduce,
their population decreases and species will become extinct.

Significance of Reproduction:
1. It allows continuity of a species generation after generation.
2. It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favorable variations from one generation to another generation.

Body Design of Organisms:

Organisms look similar because their body design are similar.
‰ Reproduction at its most basic level involves making copy of the blue print of body design.
‰ DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making protein and different proteins lead to different body design.
‰ A basic level of reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
‰ DNA copy is accompanied by a cell division giving rise to two cells.
‰ DNA copying always involves some variation, hence DNA copies generated are similar but not identical. this tendency
of variation during reproduction leads to evolution.

The importance of variation:

DNA copying during reproduction is important for maintaining the body designs of different organisms to survive in the
existing environment. But the environment is constantly changing due to changes in temperature, climate, water levels etc.
If organisms cannot adjust themselves to the changes in the environment then their species will become extinct. If there
are variations in some individuals of a species they may be able to survive the changes in the environment. So variations
in species is necessary for the survival of different species and for the evolution of new species.

Types of reproduction:
There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms. They are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction:- New individuals are produced from a single parent.
Sexual reproduction:- Two individuals are involved to produce a new individual.
Asexual reproduction is of different types. They are:- fission, budding, regeneration, fragmentation, spore formation,
vegetative propagation etc.
(i) Fission: Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular organism divides and forms two or more new
individuals. Fission is of two types. They are binary fission and multiple fission.
 (i) Binary fission:- In this method, an organism divides and forms two individuals. First the nucleus divides and
forms two nuclei. Then the cytoplasm divides and forms two daughter cells. Eg:- Amoeba, Paramaecium etc.
(ii) Multiple fission:- In this method, one organism divides into many daughter cells. Eg.Plasmodium (Malarial
parasite).

Binary fission Multiple fission

(ii) Budding: In this method a bud like projection is formed on the body of the organism. The bud then develops into a
new individual. It then separates from the parent and forms an independent individual. Eg:- Hydra, Yeast etc.
Cytoplasm
Bud
Single cell Nucleus

Vacuole
Reserve Food
bodies

(iii) Regeneration: It is the ability of a fully differentiated organisms to give rise to new individual organisms from its
body part. The body part which contain a specialesed cell grow or regenerate into separate individuals.
Eg: Hydra, Planaria, Star fish etc.

Recognition Growth
Amputation

Hydra

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 35

(iv) Fragmentation: In this method, the body of a simple multicellular organism breaks up into smaller pieces on maturation
and each fragment develops into new individuals.
Eg: Spirogyra, Flatwom.

Nucleus

Septa

Spiral
Chloroplast

Fragmentation in Spirogyra
(v) Spore formation: In this method structures called sporangia produce tiny cells called spores. When the spores come
in contact with a moist surface, it develops into new individuals.
Eg: Rhizopus(Bread mould), Mucor, Penicillium etc.

Sporangium

Spores
re
ho
iop
ng
ora
Sp

Germinating
spore

Stolon
rhizoids

(vi) Vegetative propagation: In this method new plants are produced from the vegetative parts of the plant like root, stem
or leaves without the help of any reproductive organs.
It may be natural:
By Roots: Dahalia, Sweet potato.
By stems: Ginger(Rhizome), Potato(Tuber), Onion(Bulb)
By leaves: Bryophyllum

36 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Vegetative propagation can also be done artificially by cutting, layering, grafting etc.
Cutting - Rose, Chrysanthum, Grapes etc.
Layering - Lemon, Guava, Hibiscus, Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Rasberry, Strawberry etc.
Grafting - This method is applied to improve variety of fruits like mango, apples, peas, etc.
Advantages of vegetative propagation:
1. Plants takes less time to grow.
2. It also helps in the propagation of plants which do not produce seeds like rose, jasmine banana or produce seed with
prolonged period of dormancy.
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation:
1. There is no genetic variation, so there is less adaptibility to the environment.
2. The disease of the parent plants get transferred to the offspring.
3. New characters can neither be introduced nor undesirable characters be eliminated.
(vii) Tissue Culture: In this method, new plants are grown by removing tissues or cells from the growing tip of a plant. In
this technique cells are induced to divide artificially by chemicals(Cytokinin) to form a group of cells called 'callus'.
Now the callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are
now placed in soil, so that they grow into mature plants.
™ This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.

Characteristics of asexual reproduction:

1. Only one individual of an organism is involved.
2. The new individual produced are genetically identical to their parents.
3. It presents a rapid mode of multiplication.
Advantages of asexual reproduction:
1. Plants takes less time to grow.
2. It also helps in the propagation of plants which do not produce seeds like rose, jasmine banana or produce seed with
prolonged period of dormancy.
3. It helps to preserve parental characters.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
1. There is no genetic variation, so there is less adaptability to the environment.
2. The disease of the parent plants get transferred to the offspring.
3. New characters can neither be introduced nor undesirable characters be eliminated.
Sexual reproduction:
It is the process of producing new organisms from two parents by making use of their sex cells or gametes.
e.g- Human, fish, dogs, cats and most of the flowering plants.
‰ Thus the two major process i.e. formation of gametes and fusion of gametes constitutes sexual reproduction.
‰ Two sexes namely male( producing male gamete/sperm) and female (producing female gamete / Ova) are involved.

Significance of sexual reproduction:

1. It promotes variation and thus promotes diversity of characters in the offsprings.
2. It plays a prominent role in the origin of new species.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants:

(a) Reproductive parts of a flower: The stamen and pistil are the reproductive parts of the flower. Stamen is the male
reproductive part. It produces pollen grains in the anther which contains the male germ cell (male gamete). Pistil is the
female reproductive part. It produces ovules in the ovary which contain the female germ cell (female gamete)

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 37

(b) Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination. It takes place
by wind(Anemophily), water (Hydrophily) insects (Entomophily), animals (Zoophily), birds (Ornithophily) or bat
(Chiropterophily).
It is of two types:-
A. Self pollination: If the pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower it is called self
pollination. E.g.- Pea, wheat, rice, chinarose etc.
It can further be of two types:
(a) Autogamy:- If the transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower is called
autogamy.
(b) Geitonogamy:- when pollen from one flower transferd over the stigma of another flower borne on the same plant
is called Geitanogamy.
Advantages of self pollination:
1. Ensure continuity of a race.
2. It helps to preserve parental characters as the gametes from the same flower is involved.
3. It is not necessary for flower to produce nectar or scent or be colourful.
Disadvantages of self pollination:
1. New varieties cannot be obtained.
2. The genetic defects of the breed cannot be removed.
3. Repeated self pollination leads to loss of vigour & vitality of the species.
B. Cross pollution:- It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower born
on other plant of the same species.
Advantages of cross pollination:
1. It results in healthier offspring.
2. Seeds produced have much better germinating capacity.
3. More abundant and viable seeds are produced.
4. Variations are introduced by cross pollination.
Disadvantages of cross pollination:
1. Plants have to depend on external agencies for pollination.
2. The pollen grains have to be produced in large quantity to ensure pollination.
C. Fertilisation: After the pollen grain is transferred to the stigma it produces a pollen tube which passes through the style
and enters the ovary and ovule. In the ovule the male germ cell (male gamete) fuses with the female germ cell (female
gamete) to form a zygote. This process is called fertilisation.

38 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times and forms the embryo which then develops into the seed and the
ovary develops into the fruit.
Pollen grains
Stigma

Style
Pollen tube
Nuclei

Ovary

Embryo Sac
Micropyle
Egg

Germination:
It is the initial stage in the growth of a seed to develop into a seedling under appropriate conditions

Plumule
(future shoot)
Cotyledon Radicle
(future
root)

Reproduction in human beings:

‰ Sexual reproduction involves male reproductive organ and female reproductive organ.
‰ The reproductive organs of human being i.e. testis in male and ovary in female become functional only after attaining
sexual maturity.
In male, sexual maturity is attainded at the age of 13-14 years while in female at the age of 10-12 years. This is known
as the age of puberty.

Sexual maturity in human beings:

Various changes takes place in human body at the time of sexual maturity:
Changes common in both boys and girls:-
1. Thick hair growth in armpits & genital area between the thigh (also called pubic region).
2. Thinner hair on legs, arms and faces.
3. Oily skin and appearence of pimples.
Changes different in boys and girls:
In girls:
1. Breast size begin to increase.
2. Darkening of the nipple skin.
3. Start of menstruation.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 39

In boys:
1. Thick facial hair growth.
2. Voice begin to crack.
3. Penis occasionally begin to erect and enlarged followed by night flow.

Puberty:
It is the age at which the sex hormone or gametes begin to be produced and the boy and girls becomes sexually mature.
Reproduction in human beings:
(a) Male reproductive system: It consists of two portions one that produces germ cell and the other that deliver the germ
cell to the site of fertilisation. The human male reproductive systems consists of the following organs:

Bladder

Seminal Vesicle
Vas deferens Prostate

Urethra Edipidymis
Testicle

(1) Testes(Sing-Testis): One pair lies in a small sac-like structure outside the abdominal cavity called scrotum.
Function: to produce Sperm and male sex hormone called testosterone.
The scrotum decreases the temperature inside by 2 degree centigrade thus provides the optimal temperature for
formation of sperms.
(2) Epididymis: Coiled tube-like structure firmly attached to the testis.
Function: It serves as storehouse of the sperms. Inside the epididymis the sperm become mature and develop
motility.
(3) Vas-deferens: The sperms are carried by a long tube called vas-deferens or sperm duct into organs called seminal
vesicles, where the sperm got nourished and stored.
(4) Urethra: It is a common duct for the passage of both urine and spermatic fluid. Urethra carries the sperm to an organ
called penis which opens outside through a male genital pore.
(5) Penis: Forms the external male genital organ. It is copulatory organ with thick muscular wall.
Accessory Gland:
1. Seminal vesicles: A pair of thin walled muscular elongated sac which secrete fluid for nourishment of sperms.
2. Prostate gland: Produce fluid which is released in the urethra along with secretion of seminal vesicles.
3. Bulbo-urethral gland/Cowper’s gland: One pair secrete watery alkaline fluid which neutralise acidic urethra and
lubricate the urethra for passage of semen.
Semen: The fluid ejaculated through penis during sexual intercourse (3-4 ml / ejaculation).
Semen = Seminal fluid + Sperm
Seminal fluid: Secretion of seminal vesicles, prostate and cowper’s gland.
Function:
(i) Provide nutrition and activation of sperm.
(ii) Neutralise the acidic urethra .
(iii) Lubrication of urethra and female genitilia to facilitate sexual intercourse.

40 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
Sperm: 20-200 million / ml or 300 - 600 million/ejaculation
‰ Increased number of sperm cells in the semen increases sperm competitiveness and should not be considered as biological
wastage.
‰ Life span: 24-48 hours in female genitilia.

Structure:
Acrosome
Head
tail

midpiece

(b) Female reproductive system: The human female reproductive system consists of the following organs:
(1) Ovaries: One pair located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney. Ovaries are the female primary reproductive
organ which perform dual function of production of female gamete or ovum and the secretion of female sex hormone
- oestrogen & progesterone.
Fallopian tube

Uterus
Endometrium Ovary
Cervix

Vagina

(2) Fallopian tube: One pair long convoluted tubes that carry ova/egg from the ovary to the uterus. These tubes open
into an elastic bag-like structure, the uterus.
(3) Uterus/Womb: It is a hollow organ within which embryo develops. Its upper portion is broader, while its lower
portion is narrower, called cervix.
(4) Vagina: is long (about 8 cm) & tubular muscular structure receiving the cervix of the uterus. It is also called "birth
canal". It receives sperms from the male and also serve as the passage through which fully developed foetus is born.

Sexual reproduction in human being:

‰ The sperm is introduced inside the female vagina through the penis by the process of copulation or mating. Fertilisation
occurs in the fallopian tube.
‰ Sperms are highly active & mobile which move up through cervix into the uterus and then pass into the fallopian tubes.
‰ In the fallopian tube, only one sperm fertilises the ovum to form zygote. This is called fertilisation.(Fertilisation occurs
only if copulation takes place during the ovulatory period).
‰ The embryo development of the zygote starts immediately in the fallopian tube and pregnancy starts while menstruation
stops.
‰ The embryo moves down to reach the uterus. The embryo get embedded in the thick inner lining of the uterus(process
is called Implantation). Then a special tissue develops between the uterine wall and the embryo (foetus) called placenta,
through which the exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste products take place between the foetus and the mother.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 41

‰ The time period from the development of foetus inside the uterus till birth is called gestation period. It is approximately
9 months in human.
‰ At the end of gestation period the female give birth to the fully developed foetus (The act of giving birth is termed as
Parturition).
Reproductive cycle/ Sexual Cycle/ Menstrual Cycle: Represent cyclic changes in the reproductive system of female.
It begins with menstruation.
Menstruation: The breakdown and removal of the inner thick and soft lining of the uterus along with blood vessels
in the form of vaginal bleeding is called menstruation / menstrual flow.
First menstruation which occurs at the age of 11-12 years is called menarche.
The last menstruation which occurs at the age of 45 years marks the end of the reproductive period is called
menopause.
Reproductive Health: All those aspects of general health which help a person to lead a normal, safe and satisfying
life.
STDs (Sexually Transmitted Disease):- The diseases which are spread by sexual contact from an infected person
to a healthy person. They are caused by various microorganisms that live in warm and moist environments of the
vagina, urethra, anus and mouth. Some of the common STDs are:
1. Gonorrhoea: is caused by bacterium - Neisseria gonorrhoea. It is charecterised by inflamation of urinogenital tract and
the patient feels burning sensation during urination. This bacteria infects the ureters in men and cervix in women.
2. Syphilis: is caused by bacterium Treponema Pallidium. It is characterised by lesions in the mucous membrane of
urinogenital tract.
3. Trichomoniasis: is caused by Protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. It is characterised by some vaginal discharge at the
urino-genital tract of the female.
4. AIDS(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) :- It is caused by virus called HIV (Human Immune Virus) which
suppresses the body's immune system and thereby making it susceptible to any disease.
Modes of transmission of aids:
‰ By having sexual contact with an infected person.
‰ By the transfusion of blood from an infected person.
‰ Through infected needles used for injection.
‰ Through the placenta from the mother to child during pregnancy.

Methods to avoid pregenency:

Mechanical Barrier method: In this method physical devices such as condoms, diaphragm & cervical caps are used.
These devices prevent the entry of sperm in the female genital tract during copulation, thus acting as barrier between
them.
Chemical methods: In these methods, specific drugs are used by females which are of two types- oral pills and
vaginal pills.
Oral pills (oral contraceptive-Ocs): contains progesterone hormone mainly which stops the ovary from releasing
ovum into the fallopian tube by changing the hormonal balance of the body.
IUCD. (Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices):
e.g- Copper-T (Placed safely inside the uterus by a doctor) It prevents implantation in the uterus.
Surgrical method: In this method, a small portion of vas deferens in male and the fallopian tube in female is
surgically removed or tied. It is called vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females.

42 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Previous Year Questions

6. Chromosomes:
Multiplie Choice Type Questions (i) carry hereditary information from parents to the
next generation.
1. Identify the mode of asexual reproduction in the
following organism:[2024] (ii) are thread like structures located inside the nucleus
of an animal cell.
(iii) always exist in pairs in human reproductive cells.
(iv) are involved in the process of cell division.
 [2024]
The correct statements are:
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (iii) and (iv)
(c) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(a) Fragmentation (d) (i) and (iv)
(b) Multiple fission 7. Assertion (A) and Reason (R), answer these questions
(c) Budding selecting the appropriate option given below:[2024]
(d) Binary fission Assertion (A): Offsprings produced by asexual
2. Part(s) of a flower which attracts insects for reproduction are genetically similar to the parents.
pollination is (are) [2024] Reason (R): Asexual reproduction involves a single
(a) petals and sepals. parent.
(b) anther and stigma. (a) Both and are true and is the correct explanation
(c) petals only. of .
(d) sepals only. (b) Both (A) and (R) are true and is not correct
explanation of .
3. The plants that can be raised by the method of
(c) (A) is true, but is false.
vegetative propagation are: [2024]
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(a) Sugarcane, roses, grapes
(b) Sugarcane, mustard, potato
(c) Banana, orange, mustard Very Short Type Questions
(d) Papaya, mustard, potato
8. Define fragmentation. [2021 C]
4. A zygote is formed by the fusion of a male gamete
9. After examining a prepared slide under the high
and a female gamete. The number of chromosomes
power of a compound microscope, a student
in the zygote of a human is: [2024]
concludes that the given slide shows the various
(a) 23 (b) 44 stages of binary fission in a unicellular organism.
(c) 46 (d) 92 Write two observations on the basis of which such a
5. The incorrect statement about placenta is: [2024] conclusion may be drawn. [2019]
(a) It is a disc embedded in the uterine wall. 10. Define multiple fission. Give its one example.
(b) It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue.  [2019, Foreign 2014]
(c) It has a very small surface area for glucose and 11. Newly formed DNA copies may not be identical at
oxygen to pass from mother to the embryo. times. Give one reason. [NCERT, AI 2017]
(d) The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood 12. When a cell reproduces, what happens to its DNA?
through it.  [AI 2017]

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 43

13. Name the method by which spirogyra reproduces
under favourable conditions. Is this method sexual
or asexual? [Delhi 2017]
14. How does plasmodium reproduce? Is this method A
sexual or asexual? [Delhi 2017]

Short Answer Type Questions B

15. What are sexually transmitted diseases? List two

examples each of diseases caused due to (i) bacterial
infection and (ii) viral infection. Which device or
devices may be used to prevent the spread of such
diseases? [2019]
C
16. Draw labelled diagram to show the following parts
in an embryo of a pea seed: Cotyledon, plumule,
radicle. [2019]
17. Reproduction is one of the most important
characteristic of living beings. Give three reasons in (ii) Write the post fertilisation changes that occur in a
support of the statement. [AI 2017] flower.
18. State the basic requirement for sexual reproduction. 24. (i) What happens when:
Write the importance of such reproductions in nature. (1) Leaves of Bryophyllum fall on the soil?
 [Delhi 2017] (2) Planaria is cut into many pieces?
19. List any two steps involved in sexual reproduction (3) Sporangia of Rhizopus on maturation liberate
and write its two advantages. [Delhi 2017] spores?
20. State the changes that take place in the uterus when: Mention the modes of reproduction in each of the
above three cases.
(a) Implantation of embryo has occurred.
(ii) Write the changes that occur in a flower once the
(b) Female gamete/egg is not fertilised. fertilization has taken place. [2023]
 [Delhi 2017] 25. Name the part/organ of the human female
21. What is vegetative propagation? State two advantages reproductive system  [2022]
and two disadvantages of this method. [Al 2017] (a) where contraceptive devices such as loop or
22. Describe reproduction by spores in Rhizopus. copper-T are placed to prevent pregnancy.
 [AI 2017] (b) which is blocked to prevent the transfer of eggs.
(c) where formation of germ cells as ova takes place.
(d) from where the embryo gets nutrition from the
Long Answer Type Questions mother’s blood.
23. (a) (i) What are spores? On which structures are they 26. Mention the changes that occur in the following after
formed? How do they overcome unfavourable fertilisation in a flower: [Term-11,2021 C]
(a) Petals (b) Zygote
conditions? Name the organism which multiplies
(c) Ovary (d) Ovule
with the help of these structures.
27. (a) List three different categories of contraceptive
 [2024]
methods.
(ii) Give two reasons why some plants are grown by
the method of vegetative propagation. List two (b) Why has Government of India prohibited prenatal
methods used to grow plants vegetatively. sex determination by law? State its benefits in the
OR long run.
(b) (i) Study the diagram given below and name the (c) Unsafe sexual act can lead to various infections.
parts marked as A, B and C. What happens when B Name two bacterial and two viral infections caused
reaches C in the ovary ? Mention its significance. due to unsafe sex. [2020]

44 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 28. The growing size of the human population is a 31. (a) Identify the modes of asexual reproduction in each
cause of concern for all people. The rate of birth of the following organisms:
and death in a given population will determine (i) Hydra
its size. Reproduction is the process by which (ii) Planaria
organisms increase their population. The process of (iii) Amoeba
sexual maturation for reproduction is gradual and (iv) Spirogyra
takes place while general body growth is still going (v) Rhizopus
on. Some degree of sexual maturation does not
(b) List three advantages of vegetative propagation.
necessarily mean that the mind or body is ready for
(c) Why cannot fertilisation take place in flowers if
sexual acts or for having and bringing up children.
pollination does not occur? [2020]
Various contraceptive devices are being used by
human beings to control the size of population. 32. Draw a neat diagram showing fertilisation in a flower
(i) List two common signs of sexual maturation in and label
boys and girls. (a) pollen tube
(ii) What is the result of reckless female feticide? (b) Male germ cell and
(c) Female germ cell on it.
(iii) Which contraceptive method changes the hormonal
Explain the process of fertilisation in a flower.
balance of the body?
What happens to the (i) ovary and (ii) ovule after
(iv) Write two factors that determine the size of a
fertilisation? [2020]
population. [2020]
33. (a) Name the mode of reproduction of the following
29. Based on the given diagram answer the questions organisms and state the important feature of each
given below: mode:
B (i) Planaria
A (ii) Hydra
Bladder (iii) Rhizopus
(b) We can develop new plants from the leaves of
Bryophyllum. Comment.
(c) List two advantages of vegetative propagation over
D other modes of reproduction. [2020]
C 34. (a) Identify the given diagram. Name the parts 1 to 5

Testis
(a) Label the parts A, B, C and D.
(b) Name the hormone secreted by testis and mention
its role.
(c) State the functions of and in the process of
reproduction. [2020]
30. (a) What is puberty?
(b) Describe in brief the functions of the following
parts in the human male reproductive system.
(i) Testes
(ii) Seminal vesicle (b) What is contraception? List three advantages of
(iii) Vas deferens adopting contraceptive measures.
(iv) Urethra  [NCERT Exemplar, Delhi 2019]
(c) Why are testes located outside the abdominal 35. (a) Draw a diagram of human female reproductive
cavity? system and label the parts:
(d) State how sperms move towards the female germ (i) which produce an egg
cell. [2020] (ii) where fertilisation takes place

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 45

 (b) List two bacterial diseases which are transmitted (c) Explain how the developing embryo gets nourishment
sexually. inside the mother’s body. [Delhi 2017]
(c) What are contraceptive devices? Give two reasons 38. (a) What is variation? How is variation created in a
for adopting contraceptive devices in humans. population? How does the creation of variation in
 [Al 2019] a species promote survival?
36. Define pollination. Explain the different types of (b) Explain how, offspring and parents of organisms
pollination. List two agents of pollination. How does reproducing sexually have the same number of
suitable pollination lead to fertilisation? chromosomes. [CBSE 2017-18 C]
 [Delhi 2019] 39. List three techniques that have been developed to
37. (a) Name the organ that produces sperms as well as prevent pregnancy. Which one of these techniques
secretes a hormone in human males. Name the is not meant for males? How does the use of these
hormone it secretes and write its functions. techniques have a direct impact on the health and
(b) Name the parts of the human female reproductive prosperity of a family?
system where fertilisation occurs.  [NCERT Exemplar, Al 2017]

4. (c) In humans, a zygote is formed when a male

Previous Year Questions gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg) fuse
together. Each gamete contains 23 chromosomes,
Multiple Choice Questions so when they combine, the zygote has a total of
1. (c) In the organism shown, you can observe a small 46 chromosomes, which is the normal number for
new organism growing from the body of the larger human cells.
one. 5. (c) This statement is incorrect because the placenta
This is typical example of budding, where a new actually has a large surface area, which allows
organism develops from an outgrowth or bud due for efficient transfer of nutrients like glucose and
to cell division at one particular site. This method oxygen from the mother’s blood to the embryo. The
is common in yeast and some invertebrates like placenta is designed to maximize the exchange of
hydras. these essential substances to support the developing
2. (c) Petals are often brightly colored and fragrant, fetus.
which helps attract insects for pollination. They 6. (d)
serve as visual cues that guide insects to the Statement (i) is true because chromosomes carry
flower, encouraging them to visit and transfer genetic information from parents to their offspring,
pollen from one flower to another, aiding in plant determining traits. Statement (iv) is also true as
chromosomes play a crucial role in cell division,
reproduction.
ensuring that genetic material is accurately copied
3. (a) Vegetative propagation is a method of asexual and distributed. However, statement (iii) is incorrect
reproduction where new plants are grown from because human reproductive cells (sperm and egg)
parts of existing plants, such as stems, roots, or have only one set of chromosomes, not pairs.
leaves. Sugarcane, roses, and grapes can be easily 7. (a)
propagated using this method, allowing for the rapid Offsprings produced by asexual reproduction are
production of new plants with desirable traits. genetically identical to their parent because asexual

46 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 reproduction involves only one parent, resulting 16. Embryo of pea seed is shown as follows:
in no mixing of genetic material. This is why the
assertion about the genetic similarity of offspring
and the reason about single-parent involvement are
both true and directly related.

Very Short Type Questions

8. Fragmentation is the mode of reproduction in which
parent body breaks into two or more fragments and
each fragment develops into a new individual. E.g.,
Spirogyra.
17. Reproduction is one of the most important
9. The two observations that was taken by the student
characteristics of living beings because:
that concludes that the given slide shows the various
stages of binary fission in a unicellular organism are (i) It is essential for existence and continuity of a
as follows: species.
(ii) It helps to pass genetic information to next
Presence of unicellular and uninucleate organism
generation.
showing irregular outline.
(iii) It brings variations in next generation which is the
Division of nucleus of parent cell into two equal basis for evolution.
halves.
18. The basic requirement for sexual reproduction is
10. Multiple fission is an asexual mode of reproduction involvement of both sexes, i.e., male and female,
in which the parent organism splits to form many to produce an offspring. It takes place by the
new organisms at the same time. Multiple fission combination of gametes which come from two
occurs in Plasmodium. different parents.
11. When a cell reproduces, DNA replication occurs The importance of sexual reproduction in nature are:
which results in formation of two similar copies of (i) Fusion of male and female gametes coming from
DNA. The process of copying the DNA leads to some two different and sexually distinct individuals,
variations each time. As a result, the DNA copies exhibit diversity of characters in offspring.
produced are similar to each other but sometimes
may not identical. (ii) Meiosis during gametogenesis provides opportunities
for new combination of genes, which leads to
12. When a cell reproduces, DNA replication occurs variation required for evolution and plays a prominent
which forms two similar copies of DNA. role in the origin of new species. Variations lead to
13. The method by which Spirogyra reproduces under the appearance of such characters, which fit to the
favorable conditions is fragmentation. This is an changing environment, resulting in the survival of
asexual mode of reproduction. the species.
14. Plasmodium reproduces through multiple fission 19. The two main steps involved in sexual reproduction
method. In this method, the parent organism splits are:
to form many new organisms at the same time. This (i) Formation of male and female gametes.
is an asexual method of reproduction. (ii) Fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete to
form a new cell called zygote by the process of
Short Answer Type Questions fertilisation.
15. The diseases that are spread by sexual contact with
The two important advantages of sexual reproduction
an infected person are called sexually transmitted
are:
disease (STDs).
(i) It promotes diversity of characters in the offspring
(i) Bacterial infection causes gonorrhoea, syphilis. through genetic variations.
(ii) Viral infection causes AIDS, genital herpes. (ii) It plays an important role in continuous evolution
STDs can be prevented by using male and female of better organisms that may lead to the origin of
condoms. new species.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 47

 20. (a) Implantation is the close attachment of the (ii)
blastocyst (young multicellular embryo) to • Plants which have lost the capacity to produce
the uterine wall. It is followed by a number of seeds.
developmental changes in the thickened wall of • Plants bear flowers and fruits earlier so as to reduce
uterus. An intimate connection between the fetal time.
membrane and the uterine wall called placenta is • To get genetically similar plants.
formed. This is a disc which is embedded in the Methods: Layering and Grafting
uterine wall. The placenta serves as the nutritive, OR
respiratory and excretory organ of the fetus.
(b) (i)
(b) When the female gamete/egg is not fertilised,
• A - Male Germ Cell/Male Gamete;
this lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining B - Pollen tube; C - Female Germ Cell /
slowly breaks and comes out through vagina as Female Gamete.
blood and mucus. This cycle takes place every
• B carries male germ cell and this germ cell
month and is known as menstrual cycle.
fuses with C (female germ cell) to form a
21. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual zygote.
reproduction in which the plant parts other than
seeds are used as a propagule. • Significance: Zygote is capable of growing
into a new plant.
Advantages of vegetative propagation:
(i) Desirable character of the plant can be preserved (ii) Fertilization is the process of the fusion of
through generation. the male and the female gamete to form
a diploid zygote. After fertilization, the
(ii) Seedless plants can be grown via this method.
zygote divides several times to form an
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation: embryo. The fertilized ovule forms a seed.
(i) Plants produced by this method posses less vigour The seed contains an embryo, enclosed in
and are more prone to diseases. a protective covering, called the seed coat.
(ii) Plants produced by this method shows no genetic As the seed grows further, other floral
variation. parts wither and fall off. This leads to the
growth of the ovary, which enlarges and
22. Fungus Rhizopus reproduces by spore formation.
ripens to become a fruit with a thick wall
During the growth of Rhizopus, small rounded,
called the pericarp.
bulb-like structures develop at the top of the erect
hyphae. Such structures are called sporangia. Inside 24. (i) (1) When the bryophyllum leaf falls on the wet
each sporangium, nucleus divides several times. soil, the buds present in the notches along
Each nucleus gets surrounded by a little amount of the leaf margin develop into new plants.
cytoplasm to become spore. Large number of spores This is one of the example of vegetative
are formed inside each sporangium. After sometime propagation by leaves.
sporangium bursts and spores are released in the (2) When planaria accidently cut into many
air. When these spores land on food or soil, under pieces then its each piece grows into a
favourable conditions, they germinate into new complete organism. This is one of the
individuals. example of regeneration.
Long Answer Type Questions (3) The sporangia of Rhizopus contain cells
or spores that can eventually develop
23. (a) (i)
into new Rhizopus individuals when it
• Spores are reproductive structures that detach from bursts on maturation. Rhizopus reproduce
the parent and give rise to a new individual. asexually by the formation of the spores
• Sporangium / Sporangia (sporulation).
• Covered by thick walls to protect them from (ii) After fertilization, the fertilized egg (or zygote)
unfavourable conditions. divides several times to form an embryo within
• Rhizopus the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat around

48 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 it and is gradually converted into a seed. The (d) Ovule: After fertilization, the ovule develops into a
ovary of flower develops and becomes a fruit seed. The ovule contains the fertilized egg, which
(with seeds inside it). The other parts of flower develops into an embryo. The ovule undergoes
like sepals, petals, stamens, stigma and style dry changes in structure and becomes the seed coat,
up and fall off. Only the ovary is left behind. which protects the embryo and provides nutrients
So, at the place on plant where we had a flower for its growth and development.
originally, we now have a fruit (which is the ovary 27. (a) Three different categories of contraceptive methods
of the flower containing seeds). A fruit protects are:
its seeds. (i) Barrier methods, i.e., use of condoms, etc.
25. (a) The part/organ of the human female reproductive (ii) Oral contraceptive methods, i.e., use of oral pills
etc.
system where contraceptive devices such as loop
or copper-T are placed to prevent pregnancy is the (iii) Surgical methods, i.e., vasectomy and tubectomy.
uterus or womb. These devices are inserted into (b) Prenatal sex determination was banned in India
the uterus to inhibit fertilization and implantation in 1994. This was done to prevent sex selective
abortion. It is being used to kill the normal female
of a fertilized egg.
fetus. This killing of the unborn girl child is called
(b) The part/organ of the human female reproductive female foeticide which is reducing the number of
system that is blocked to prevent the transfer of girls drastically in some societies of our country.
eggs is the fallopian tubes. These tubes connect Due to reckless female foeticide, male-female sex
the ovaries to the uterus, and they are blocked ratio is declining at an alarming rate. Its benefit in
or sealed off in certain contraceptive methods or the long run is that the female-male ratio could be
sterilization procedures to prevent the eggs from maintained for a healthy society.
reaching the uterus for fertilization. (c) Bacterial diseases due to unsafe sex are gonorrhoea
(c) The part/organ of the human female reproductive and syphilis. Viral diseases due to unsafe sex are
system where the formation of germ cells as ova AIDS and genital herpes.
takes place is the ovaries. Ovaries are responsible 28. (i) Two common signs of sexual maturation in boys
for producing and releasing mature eggs, or ova, and girls are:
during the menstrual cycle. (a) Growth of pubic hair and extra hair in the armpits.
(d) The part/organ of the human female reproductive (b) Development of oily skin and pimples.
system from where the embryo gets nutrition from (ii) Female feticide is reducing the number of girls
the mother’s blood is the placenta. The placenta is drastically in our country, due to which male-
a temporary organ that develops during pregnancy female sex ratio is also declining.
and attaches to the uterine wall. It facilitates the (iii) Chemical contraceptive method changes the
exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products hormonal balance of the body.
between the mother’s blood and the developing (iv) The rate of birth and death in a given population
fetus. will determine the size of a population.
26. (a) Petals: After fertilization, the petals of the flower 29. (a) A-Ureter
may start to wither and fall off. This is because B-Seminal vesicle
their primary function of attracting pollinators has
C-Urethra
been fulfilled, and they are no longer needed for
D-Vas deferens
reproduction.
(b) Testes produce male sex hormone testosterone
(b) Zygote: After fertilization, the zygote is formed.
Hormone testosterone brings about the development
The zygote undergoes mitotic divisions and
of secondary sexual characters during puberty in
develops into an embryo. It is the beginning of a boys like growth of facial hair, deepening of
new plant’s life cycle. voice, build up of muscle mass and also regulates
(c) Ovary: After fertilization, the ovary develops formation of sperms.
into a fruit. The ovary wall thickens and matures, (c) Seminal vesicles (B) release its contents into the
protecting the developing seeds inside. The fruit ejaculatory duct during ejaculation. Urethra (C)
helps in the dispersal of seeds and ensures the carries sperms from the vas deferens through the
survival of the next generation. penis.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 49

30. (a) The age at which the sex hormones begin to be (v) Rhizopus - Spore formation and Fragmentation
produce and the boy and girl becomes sexually (b) Three advantages of vegetative propagation are:
mature, i.e., able to reproduce is called puberty. • Genetic uniformity: Vegetative propagation
(b) (i) Testes: The two testes in male are the produces offspring that are genetically identical
sites where male gametes, i.e., sperms are to the parent plant. This ensures that desirable
formed. Testes also produce the male sex traits, such as high yield or disease resistance, are
hormone called testosterone. preserved in the offspring.
(ii) Seminal vesicles: Seminal vesicles are one • Faster propagation: Vegetative propagation
pair of sac-like structures near the base of allows for rapid multiplication of plants compared
bladder. Seminal fluid is a watery alkaline to sexual reproduction, which requires the
fluid that contains nutrients (fructose) development of seeds and germination.
which serve as a source of energy for the • Preservation of unique characteristics: Some
sperm. Each seminal vesicle releases its plants have unique and desirable characteristics
contents into the ejaculatory duct during that cannot be reliably passed on through seeds.
ejaculation. Vegetative propagation allows for the preservation
(iii) Vas deferens: This is a straight tube, about and multiplication of these characteristics.
40 cm long, which carries the sperms to (c) Fertilisation cannot take place in flowers if
the seminal vesicles, where mucus and a pollination does not occur because pollination is
watery alkaline fluid containing fructose, the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
mix with the sperms. the stigma of a flower. The pollen grains contain
(iv) Urethra: It is a long tube that arises from the male gametes (sperm cells), while the stigma
urinary bladder. Urethra carries urine from contains the female gametes (egg cells). Fertilisation
the bladder as well as sperms from the vas can only occur when the sperm cells reach the egg
deferens, through the penis. cells. Without pollination, there is no transfer of
(c) Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity pollen to the stigma, and thus, the sperm and egg
because sperm formation requires a lower cells cannot meet for fertilisation to take place.
temperature than normal body temperature. The 32. Diagram showing fertilisation in a flower is as
temperature of the testes in the scrotum is about follows:
2°C lower than normal body temperature. This
temperature is ideal for sperm formation and
development. Male germ cell
(d) The sperms present in the testes of man are
introduced into the vagina of the woman through Pollen tube
penis during copulation. Millions of sperms are
released into the vagina at one time. The sperms
are highly active and mobile. They travel from here
upward through the uterus at the top of fallopian
tube within five minutes. Female germ cell
31. (a) The modes of asexual reproduction in each of the
following organisms are:
(i) Hydra - Budding Fertilisation, in plants, occurs when the male
(ii) Planaria - Fragmentation and Regeneration gamete present in pollen grain fuses with the
(iii) Amoeba - Binary Fission female gamete (or egg) present in ovule. When
a pollen grain falls on the stigma of the carpel, it
(iv) Spirogyra - Fragmentation and Asexual
bursts open and grows a pollen tube downwards
spore formation

50 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 through the style towards the female gamete in the 35. (a) The sectional view of human female reproductive
ovary. Male gametes move down the pollen tube. system is as follows:
The pollen tube enters the ovule in the ovary. The (ii) Fallopian tube
tip of pollen tube bursts and male gametes comes (or Oviduct)
out of pollen tube. In ovary, the male gamete of
pollen combines with the female gamete or egg (i) Ovary
present in ovule to form a fertilised egg. After
fertilisation, (i) ovule develops into seed (ii) ovary
develops into fruit.
33. (a) (i) Planaria - Regeneration
• Regeneration of organism from its cut body parts
occurs by the process of growth and development.
• Regeneration is an asexual mode of reproduction (b) Gonorrhoea and syphilis are two bacterial diseases
common in lower plants and animals. which are transmitted sexually.
(ii) Hydra - Budding (c) Contraceptive devices are those devices which are
• In budding, a small part of the body of the parent used to prevent pregnancy. It includes diaphragm,
organism grows out as a bud which on detaching condom and intrauterine devices. Contraceptive
from a new organism. methods are adopted:
(iii) Rhizopus - Spores (i) to avoid unwanted birth.
Spores are usually produced in sporangia. Spore (ii) to keep the population of a country under control.
formation is a common method of an asexual 36. The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther
reproduction in bacteria and most of the fungi. of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or
(b) The leaves of a Bryophyllum have special type of another flower of the same species is known as
buds in their margins. These buds may get detached pollination. Pollination may be of two major types-
from the leaves fall to ground and then grow to (i) self pollination and (ii) cross pollination.
produce new Bryophyllum plants. The buds can • Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
also drop to the ground together with the leaf and from the anther to the stigma of the same flower, or
then grow to produce new plants. to the stigma of another flower of the same plant.
This pollination generally takes place in bisexual
(c) Advantages of vegetative propagation are:
flowers because they have both male and female
• The new plants produced by artificial vegetative gametes in them.
propagation are exactly like the parent plants.
• Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
• Many plants can be grown from one plant by from the anther of a flower of one plant to the
vegetative propagation. stigma of a flower of another plant of the same
34. (a) The given diagram is the sectional view of human species. This occurs in unisexual as well as bisexual
female reproductive system. The labelled parts are: flowers. Two agents of pollination are wind and
1. Funnel of fallopian tube or oviduct water. Pollination results in the deposition of
related pollen grains over the receptive stigma of
2. Ovary
the carpel. Pollen grains after landing on stigma,
3. Uterus or womb absorb water, swell and then germinate to produce
4. Cervix pollen tubes.
5. Vagina Many pollen tubes grow into the stigma, but only
(b) Contraception is the avoidance of pregnancy. Three one passes through the style and then moves
advantages of adopting contraceptive methods towards the ovary. Two non- motile male gametes
are: are formed inside the tube during its growth
through the style. After reaching the ovary, pollen
(i) They prevent frequent or unwanted pregnancies. tube enters the ovule through the micropyle. The
(ii) They prevent the transfer of sexually transmitted tip of the tube finally pierces the micropylar end of
infections. the embryo sac. After penetration, the tip of pollen
(iii) They help to regulate the population growth. tube ruptures releasing two male gametes into the

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 51

 embryo sac. The mature embryo sac consists of an Organisms with suitable variations will have better
egg apparatus (one haploid egg and two synergids), chances of survival. Depending on the nature
two polar nuclei and three antipodal cells. During of variation, different individuals would have
the act of fertilisation, one male gamete fuses with different kind of advantages.
the egg to form the diploid zygote. (b) In sexually reproducing organisms each cell has
37. (a) The male organ is testis. It secretes the hormone two copies of each chromosome, one each from
testosterone and regulates the formation of sperms. the male and female parent. During gamete
It brings about changes in the appearance of boys
formation, one chromosome from each pair goes
at the time of puberty.
to a gamete.
(b) Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct.
Hence, the gametes have half the number of
(c) The developing embryo gets nourishment from the
mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue, chromosomes, but one chromosome of each pair.
called placenta. The placenta provides a large When two gametes combine, they restore the
surface area for the passage of glucose and oxygen normal number of chromosome in the progeny.
from the mother’s blood to the embryo. 39. Methods developed to prevent pregnancy are:
38. (a) Variation is occurrence of differences between (i) Barrier method, i.e., use of condoms, diaphragm,
organisms. etc.
Variations are created in a population in different
(ii) Oral contraceptive method, i.e., use of oral pills.
ways:
(i) There may be minor changes/errors during DNA (iii) Surgical method, i.e., vasectomy and tubectomy.
copying mechanism which happens before any cell Out of these methods, chemical method is not
division. These variations may go on accumulating meant for males.
from previous generations, ultimately leading to Use of these techniques help to keep control over
visible changes. number of children in a family, which directly
(ii) In sexually reproducing organisms, the traits of affects prosperity of a family. One of the most
two individuals combine and give rise to new common reason for deterioration of women’s
combination in the progeny. This also leads to
health is frequent conception. Controlled childbirth
variation.
(iii) Thus combining variations from two or more will directly affect women health and this will
individuals would thus create new combinations indirectly affect the prosperity of family and
of variations. nation.

52 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 4
CHAPTER

Short Notes

Genetics: The study of heredity and variations.

Heredity: Heredity refers to the transmission of characters from one generation to the next generation.
Variations: The differences in characters of parents and offsprings.
There are two types of variations:
SOMATIC VARIATIONS GAMETIC VARIATIONS
They occur in the somatic cell of the body. They occur in the germ cells of the body.
They are not inherited or transmitted to the next generation. They are inherited to the next generation.

Importance of Variations:
1. It is the basis of heredity.
2. It forms the basis of evolution.
3. It increases the chances of survival of organism according to the changing environment.
Causes of Variations:
‰ The most common causes of variations are mutation, recombination and random mating.
‰ Recombination or crossing over is one of the important cause for variation.
‰ Recombination is the exchange of chromosome segments at the time of gamete formation.
Contribution of Mendel in Genetics:
‰ G.J. Mendel started his work on Pisum sativum (garden pea).
‰ He was known as the Father of genetics.
‰ He had chosen seven pairs of contrasting characters.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 53

The reasons for choosing garden pea for the experiment were as follows:
‰ Short life cycle.
‰ A large number of seeds produced.
‰ Self-pollination
‰ Several contrasting characters can be found in the pea plant.

Mendel’s Law of Inheritance:

‰ Law of Dominance: If two alleles at a locus differ, then one, the dominant allele, determines the organism’s appearance;
the other, the recessive allele, has no noticeable effect on the organism’s appearance.
‰ Law of Segregation: The two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up
in different gametes.
‰ Law of Independent Assortment: Each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete
formation.
Monohybrid Cross:
When one pair of contrasting characters is taken to cross two pea plants, it is known as a monohybrid cross.
Pure Pure
Tall Plants Dwarf Plants
TT tt Parents

T Cross t Gametes
pollination
Genotype F1generation All Tall Plants (phenotype)
Tt

Self pollination

Gemetes T t
Male/Female
T TT Tt
t Tt tt
Conclusion:
‰ Phenotypic ratio - Tall : Dwarf (3 : 1)
‰ Genotype ratio - Pure Tall : Hybrid Tall : Pure Dwarf (1 : 2 : 1)

Dihybrid Cross:
When two pairs of contrasting characters are taken to cross two plants, it is known as a dihybrid cross.

54 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
CONCLUSION:
The phenotypic ratio was found to be 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
9 : round yellow
3 : round green
3 : wrinkled yellow
1 : wrinkled green
But the genotypic ratio was found to be 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1.

Sex Determination
‰ Sex determination is used to determine the sex of the offspring.
‰ Environmental and genetic factors determine the sex of the offspring.
‰ In turtles, gender is determined by environmental factors such as temperature.
‰ In human beings, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these, 22 pairs of chromosomes are known as autosomes
whereas the “23rd” pair of chromosomes are known as sex chromosomes or “allosomes”. The sex of the offspring is
determined by the chromosome inherited from the father.
Sex determination in human being
Male Female
XY XX Parents

Sperms Sperms
X, Y X, X Gametes

XX XY

Male Female Zygote

50% 50% Off spring

Evolution
‰ It is the sequence of gradual, irreversible changes which took place in the primitive organisms over millions of years
to form new present-day species.
‰ Variations that resulted in formation of new species occurred basically due to errors in DNA copying as well as due to
sexual reproduction.
‰ Later on, Charles Darwin came and gave the “theory of natural selection” or “Darwinism”. According to his theory,
evolution occurs through natural selection.
1. Theory of Lamarckism: This theory is also known as the “Theory of inheritance of acquired characters”. Lamarckism
is based on the following postulates:
1. Living organisms tend to increase in size.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 55

 2. New needs lead to the formation of new organs.
3. Continued use of a particular organ makes it more developed and disuse of an organ leads to its degeneration.
4. New characters are acquired by individuals during their lifetime.
Theory of Darwin: Darwin's theory was also known as the “Theory of Natural selection”.

Postulates of Darwin's Theory:

1. Speciation (formation of species): Useful variations from generation to generation gives rise to the formation of new
species.
2. The struggle of existence due to the multiplication of organisms and limited food and space, there exists competition
among the organisms.
3. Survival of the fittest or Natural selection: Nature selects those characteristics or organisms that are useful and are best
adapted to the prevailing conditions. For example, “industrial melanism observed in peppered moths in Britain”

Speciation
The origin of new species from already existing species is known as speciation. Speciation can take place through:
1. Gene flow can lead to speciation. It is a transfer of genetic variations from one population to another.
2. Random change in allelic frequency known as genetic drift which can also lead to speciation.
3. Natural selection is another reason through which speciation can take place.
4. Geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers can also lead to speciation. This is known as geographical isolation.

Evolution by Stages:
‰ Complex organs like eye has evolved from rudimentary organs, (e.g., rudimentary eye in flatworm might be useful
enough to give only a fitness advantage and the structure of eye in different organisms is different indicating them to
have different evolutionary origins) not by a single DNA change but created bit-by-bit over generations.
‰ A change that is useful for one organism can become useful later for quite a different function (e.g., Feathers might start
as providing insulation in cold weather. But later, they might be useful for flight as in birds.
‰ Some heavy birds and reptiles also have feathers but they do not fly.
‰ Some very dissimilar looking structures evolve from a common ancestral design, e.g., wild cabbage was cultivated as a
food plant and many different vegetables were generated by selection over last two thousand years,
(a) Selection of very small distances between the leaves gave rise to cabbage we eat.
(b) Selection for arrested flower development gave rise to broccoli.
(c) Selection for sterile flowers gave rise to cauliflower.
(d) Selection for swollen parts gave rise to kohlrabi.
(e) Selection for larger leaves gave rise to leafy vegetable kale.
‰ It suggests that, if these selections were not done then there would have been only wild cabbage.
‰ Evolution of wild cabbage
Kohlarbi Wild Cabbage Kale

Cauliflower Broccoli Cabbage Red cabbage

56 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
Homologous Organs:
These are the organs evolved from the same ancestors but they have different functions. For example, the forelimb of a
horse and the wings of a bat.
The Flippers of the whale, the human hand are other examples of homologous organs.

Human Cat Whale Bat

Analogous Organs:
These are the organs that arise from different ancestors but have the same function. For example, wings of bats, wings
of birds, wings of insects etc.

Bat wing Bird wing

‰ Paleontological (fossil) evidence was also given for evolution. The dead remains of the organisms are known as fossils.
For example, Archaeopteryx possesses features of both reptiles and birds. This concludes that birds have evolved from
reptiles. There are two methods for finding the age of the fossils: one is carbon dating and the other is by digging. In the
digging method, the deeper the fossil is, the older it is.
‰ Biogenetic law states that stages of development of an animal embryo are the same as adult animal stages.
‰ Vestigial organs are rudimentary in nature. They have lost their function through evolution. For example, appendix in
humans, muscles of ears, wisdom tooth etc.

Molecular Phylogeny
It is also evidence for evolution. According to this, changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic events of evolution.
Organisms that are related to each other most distantly will have greater differences in their DNA.

Human Evolution
Excavating fossils, time dating and determination of DNA sequences are used to study human evolutionary relationships.
The study of human evolution indicates that all of us belong to a single species that evolved in Africa and then spread
across the world in stages.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 57

58 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 Previous Year Questions
6. A cross between pea plant with white flowers (w)
Multiple Choice Questions and pea plant with violet flowers (VV) resulted in
1. Consider the following statements: [CBSE 2024] F2 progeny in which ratio of violet (VV) and white
(ww) flowers will be: [CBSE 2023]
(i) The sex of a child is determined by what it inherits
from the mother. (a) 1 : 1 (b) 2 : 1
(ii) The sex of a child is determined by what it inherits (c) 3 : 1 (d) 1 : 3
from the father. 7. Consider the following two statements:
(iii) The probability of having a male child is more than
(i) The trait that expresses itself in F1 generation.
that of a female child.
(iv) The sex of a child is determined at the time of (ii) The trait that keeps on passing from one generation
fertilisation when male and female gametes fuse to another.
to form a zygote. The appropriate terms for the statements (i) and (ii)
The correct statements are: respectively are  [CBSE 2023]
(a) (i) and (iii) (b) (ii) and (iv) (a) Recessive trait; Dominant trait
(c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (i), (iii) and (iv) (b) Dominant trait; Recessive trait
2. In an experiment to study independent inheritance (c) Dominant trait; Inherited trait
of two separate traits: shape and colour of seeds, (d) Recessive trait; Inherited trait
the ratio of the different combinations in F2 progeny 8. Assertion (A): In humans, if gene (B) is responsible
would be: [CBSE 2024]
for black eyes and gene (b) is responsible for brown
(a) 1 : 3 (b) 1 : 2 : 1 eyes, then the colour of eyes of the progeny having
(c) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (d) 9 : 1 : 1 : 3 gene combination Bb, bb or BB will be black only.
3. A cross made between two pea plants produces 50% Reason (R): The black colour of the eyes is a
tall and 50% short pea plants. The gene combination dominant trait. [CBSE 2023]
of the parental pea plants must be [CBSE 2024]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
(a) Tt and Tt (b) TT and Tt
Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion
(c) Tt and tt (d) TT and tt
(A).
4. A cross between two tall pea plants resulted in (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
offsprings having a few dwarf plants. The gene- Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion
combination of the parental plants must be (A).
 [CBSE 2024]
(c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(a) Tt and Tt (b) Tt and tt
(d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.
(c) TT and tt (d) TT and Tt
9. Assertion (A): Human population show a great deal
5. Assertion (A): Human female has a perfect pair of
of variations in traits.
sex chromosome.
Reason (R): Sex chromosome contributed by the Reason (R): All variations in a species have equal;

human male in the zygote decides the sex of a child. chances of surviving in the environment in which
 [CBSE 2024] they live.  [CBSE 2023]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A). Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of
Assertion (A). Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false. (c) Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true. (d) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 59

 Very Short Answer Type Questions Short Answer Type Questions
10. (a) List any two pairs of visible contrasting characters 17. The most obvious outcome of the reproductive
of garden pea plants used by Mendel for his process is the generation of individuals of similar
experiments stating the dominant and recessive design, but in sexual reproduction they may not be
characters in each pair. exactly alike. The resemblances as well as differences
OR are marked. The rules of heredity determine the
(b) In human beings, the probability of getting a male process by which traits and characteristics are
or a female child is 50%. Explain with the help of reliably inherited. Many experiments have been
a flow diagram only.  [CBSE 2024] done to study the rules of inheritance.[CBSE 2024]
11. The survival of a species is promoted through (i) Why an offspring of human being is not a true copy
creation of variations. Illustrate with an example. of his parents in sexual reproduction?
 [CBSE 2024]
(ii) While performing experiments on inheritance in
12. List two differences between dominant traits and plants, what is the difference between F1 and F2
recessive traits. What percentage of pea plants in the generation?
F2 generation were with yellow seeds in Mendel's (iii) Why do we say that variations are useful for the
cross between the pea plants having yellow (YY)
survival of a species over time?
and green coloured (yy) seeds? [CBSE 2024]
18. In some families, either rural or urban, females are
13. Mendel worked out the rules of heredity by working
on garden pea using a number of visible contrasting tortured for giving birth to a female child. They do
characters. He conducted several experiments by not seem to understand the scientific reason behind
making a cross with one or two pairs of contrasting the birth of a boy or a girl. Infact the mother is
characters of pea plant. On the basis of his not responsible for the sex of the child and it has
observations he gave some interpretations which been genetically proved that the sex of a newborn
helped to study the mechanism of inheritance. is determined by what the child inherits from the
 [CBSE 2024] father.
(a) When Mendel crossed pea plants with pure tall and (a) State the basis on which the sex of a newborn baby
pure short characteristics to produce F₁ progeny, is determined in humans.
which two observations were made by him in F₁ (b) Why is the pair of sex chromosomes called a
plants?
mismatched pair in males?
(b) Write one difference between dominant and
(c) How is the original number of chromosomes
recessive trait.
present in the parents restored in the progeny?
(c) (A) I n a cross with two pairs of contrasting
characters OR
RRYY × rryy (c) Explain by giving two examples of the organisms
(Round Yellow) (Wrinkled Green) in which the sex is not genetically determined.
Mendel observed 4 types of combinations in  [CBSE 2023]
F2 generation. By which method did he obtain 19. Sex chromosomes in human males and females are
F2 generation? Write the ratio of the parental XY and X X respectively. Statistical probability
combinations obtained and what conclusions were of getting either a male or a female child is 50%.
drawn from this experiment. Justify this statement giving reason. [CBSE 2022]
OR 20. (i) In a cross between violet flowered plants and white
(c) (B) Justify the statement: flowered plants, state the characteristics of the
"It is possible that a trait is inherited but may not plants obtained in the F1 progeny.
be expressed." (ii) If the plants of F1 progeny are self-pollinated,
14. What is variation? List two main reasons that may then what would be observed in the plants of F1
lead to variation in a population. [CBSE 2022] progeny?
15. What is heredity? [CBSE 2021] (iii) If 100 plants are produced in F1 progeny, then
how many plants will show the recessive trait in
16. How many pairs of chromosomes are present in
human beings? [CBSE 2020] F2 generation? [CBSE 2022]

60 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
21. A cross was made between green-stemmed tomato 24. Mendel blended his knowledge of Science and
plants denoted by (GG) and purple-stemmed tomato Mathematics to keep the count of the individual
plants denoted as (gg) to obtain F1 progeny. exhibiting a particular trait in each generation. He
(a) What colour of the stem would you expect in their observed a number of contrasting visible characters
F1 progeny and why? controlled in pea plants in a field. He conducted
(b) Give the percentage of purple-stemmed plants if many experiments to arrive at the laws of inheritance.
F1 plants are allowed to self-pollinate to produce (a) What do the F1 progeny of tall plants with round
F2 progeny. seeds and short plants with wrinkled seeds look
(c) Write the ratio between GG and gg plants in the like?
F2 progeny [CBSE 2022] (b) Name the recessive traits in above case.
22 Sex of an individual is determined by different (c) Mention the type of the new combinations of plants
factors in various species. Some animals rely obtained in F2 progeny along with the ir ratio, if
entirely on the environmental cues, while in some F1 progeny w as allowed to self pollinate.
other animals the individuals scan change their sex
during their life time indicating that sex of some OR
species is not genetically determined. However, in (c) If 1600 plants were obtained in F2 progeny, write
human beings, the sex of an individual is largely the number of plants having traits:
determined genetically. (i) Tall with round seeds
(a) In what way are the sex chromosomes ‘X’ and ‘Y’ (ii) Short with wrinkled seeds
different in size? Name the mismatched pair of sex
chromosome in humans. Write the conclusion of the above experiment. 
(b) Write the number of pair/pairs of sex chromosomes  [CBSE 2022]
present in human beings. In which one of the
parent (male/female) perfect pair/pairs of sex Long Answer Type Questions
chromosomes are present?
(c) Citing two examples, justify the statement 25. Justify the statement "Sex of the children will be
"Sex of an individual is not always determined determined by what they inherit from their father".
genetically". [CBSE 2022]  [CBSE 2022]
23. The mechanism by which the sex of an individual 26. (a) Name the two types of gametes produced by men
is determined is called sex-determination. In human (b) Does a male child inherit X chromosome from his
beings, sex of a newborn is genetically determined, father? Justify
whereas in some others it is not. There are 46 (23 (c) How many types of gametes are produced by a
pairs) chromosomes in human beings. Out of these, human female? [CBSE 2022]
44 (22 pairs) control the body characters and 2
(one pair) are known as sex chromosomes. The sex 27. (a) Why did Mendel carry out an experiment to study
chromosomes are of two types - X chromosome inheritance of two traits in garden pea?
and Y chromosome. At the time of fertilisation, (b) What were his findings with respect to inheritance
depending upon which type of male gamete fuses of traits in F1 and F2 generation?
with the female gamete, the sex of the newborn (c) State the ratio obtained in the F2 generation in the
child is decided. above mentioned experiment. [CBSE 2020]
(a) Why is a pair of sex chromosomes in human beings
28. A green stemmed rose plant denoted by GG and
called a mismatched pair in terms of type and size?
a brown stemmed rose plant denoted by gg are
(b) If the gametes always have half the number of
allowed to undergo a cross with each other.
chromosomes, then how is the original number of
chromosomes restored in the organism? (a) List your observations regarding:
(c) Name two animals whose sex is not genetically (i) colour of stem in their F₁ progeny
determined. Explain the process of their sex (ii) percentage of brown stemmed plants in F2
determination. progeny if plants are self pollinated.
OR
(c) With the help of a flowchart only, show how sex (iii) ratio of GG and Gg in the F2 progeny.
is genetically determined in human beings.  (b) Based on the findings of this cross, what conclusion
 [CBSE 2022] can be drawn? [CBSE 2020]

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 61

 Therefore, the correct answer is (c) "Dominant trait;
Previous Years Questions Inherited trait."
Multiple Choice Questions 8. (d) The assertion (A) is false because the progeny
with the gene combination bb (brown eyes) would
1. (b) The sex of a child is determined by the father, as not have black eyes; only BB and Bb would.
the sperm can carry either an X or Y chromosome, However, the reason (R) is true because the black
while the mother's egg always carries an X color is indeed a dominant trait. Therefore, the
chromosome (statement ii). correct answer is (d), which states that (A) is false
The sex of a child is determined at the time of but (R) is true.
fertilization when the male and female gametes
9. (c) Variations get accumulated or discarded as
(sperm and egg) fuse to form a zygote (statement iv).
combined effect of environmental factors and
2. (c) The 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio occurs when two traits reproduction process.
are inherited independently, as in Mendel's dihybrid
cross experiment. It represents the combinations of Very Short Answer Type Questions
dominant and recessive traits for both seed shape 10. (a) 2 visible characters of garden pea plants are:
and color in the F2 generation. ™ Tallness (dominant), Dwarfness (recessive)
3. (c) In the cross Tt (tall) and tt (short), 50% of the ™ Yellow seeds (dominant), green seeds (recessive)
offspring inherit Tt (tall) and 50% inherit tt (short).
OR
This results in a 1 : 1 ratio of tall to short plants,
explaining why option (c) is the correct answer. (b) Parents X X XY
4. (a) The parental plants must be Tt (heterozygous
tall) and Tt (also heterozygous tall) because this
Gametes X Ovum X Y Sperm
combination can produce offspring with both tall
(TT and Tt) and dwarf (tt) plants. In this case, the
expected ratio would be 3 tall to 1 dwarf, which
explains the presence of dwarf plants among the Progeny X X XY
offspring. 11. A population of bacteria living in temperate waters
5. (b) The answer is (b) because both the assertion that can withstand heat due to the rise in temperature
and reason are true, but they explain different due to global warming and will survive better in
things. The human female has two X chromosomes a heat wave than the non-variant bacteria having
(a perfect pair), and while it's true that the male's no capacity to tolerate heat wave. Thus, suitable
sperm decides the sex of the child, this fact is not variations promote survival.
directly explaining the assertion about the female's
12.
sex chromosomes.
6. (a) In this cross, the parent with violet flowers (VV) Dominant Trait Recessive trait
is homozygous dominant, while the white flower
(i) When both domi- (i) When both dominant
parent is homozygous recessive (ww). When they
nant and recessive and recessive trait are
are crossed, all offspring in the F1 generation will
have violet flowers (Vw). If F1 plants are crossed traits are inherited, inherited, the reces-
with each other, the F2 generation will have a 1 : 1 the dominant trait sive trait does not get
ratio of violet (Vw) to white (ww) flowers, making gets expressed expressed
option (a) the correct answer. (ii) A single copy of (ii) Both the copies of
7. (c) In the given statements, the trait that expresses dominant trait is a trait should be
itself in the F1 generation is called a "dominant trait," enough to get it recessive to get it
while the trait that can be passed down through expressed. expressed.
generations, even if it doesn't show up in every
generation, is referred to as an "inherited trait." 75% yellow seeds.

62 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 13. (a) All plants Tall shorter than X chromosome. Therefore a pair of sex
Gene combination: Tt chromosomes in is called mismatched pair in terms
of type and size males.
(b) It is a recessive trait/it cannot be expressed in
present in dominant trait. (c) Gametes contain half the number of chromosomes
of parent. But, when the two gametes (male and
(c) Tall: Short 3 : 1 female) fuse to form the zygote, the normal diploid
Conclusion: Tall trait is dominant and short trait is condition is restored. Hence, the formation of
recessive gametes by meiosis and fusion of male and female
gamete help to maintain the number of chromosomes
14. Variation is the degree of differences in the progeny
in organism.
(off springs) and between the progeny and parents.
Two main reasons of variations are mutations and OR
genetic recombination during sexual reproduction. (c) Two animals in which sex is not determined
15. The inheritance of characters (or traits) from the genetically are turtle and crocodile. The type of sex
parents to their off springs is called heredity. in them is determined by environmental factors.
In turtles, the temperature of egg incubation has a
16. In human beings. 23 pairs of chromosomes are significant effect on the sex of developing embryos.
present in each cell. Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs of Males are predominant below 28°C, females above
chromosomes carry genes which control somatic 33°C and equa number of the two sexes between
traits, these chromosomes are called autosomes. The 28-33°C. In crocodiles, high temperature induces
23rd pair is called sex chromosomes. maleness and low temperature femaleness.
Short Answer Type Questions 19. Human female (XX) produces all gametes (ova) with
X-chromosomes, while human male (XY) produces
17. (i) In sexual reproduction, offspring of human
50% gametes (sperms) with X-chromosome while
being is not a true copy of his parents because
50% gametes with Y-chromosome. If sperm
it inherits half of its genetic material from each
having X chromosome fertilises the ovum with X
parent. During the formation of gametes (sperm
chromosome then a female child will be produced,
and egg cells), the genetic material undergoes
otherwise a male child will be produced.
recombination that leads to shuffling or mixing
of genetic material from both parents, resulting in Parents X X XY
offspring with unique combination of genes.
(ii) F1 generation is the first filial generation of the
Gametes X Ovum X Y Sperm
offspring from the parents whereas F2 generation
is the second filial generation of the offspring,
generated through inbreeding of F1 generation.
F1 generation can be distinctly different from the Progeny X X XY
parental type whereas F2 generation always exhibit
some parental genotypes. Sex of the child (offspring) is determined by the
(iii) Variations allow genetic diversity that is important type of sperm that fuses with ovum at the time
for the development of new traits and increasing of fertilisation. Therefore, there is 50% chance of
adaptability towards changes in the environment. a male child being born and a 50% chance of a
It makes the organisms better adapted for survival female child being born
under changing conditions. 20. (i) In the F1 progeny, the plants obtained will have
18. (a) Sex of child is determined by what it inherits violet flowers.
from the father. A child who inherits X chromosome (ii) If the plants of F1 progeny are self-pollinated,
from her father will be a girl and one who inherits the plants obtained in the F2 progeny will show a
a Y chromosome from father will be a boy. phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1, with 75% of the plants
having violet flowers and 25% having white
(b) Human beings have 22 pairs of autosomes
flowers in F2 generation.
and one pair of sex chromosomes. The females
possess two homomorphic sex chromosomes, (iii) If 100 plants are produced in the F1 progeny,
named XX while males contain two heteromorphic approximately 25 plants will show the recessive
sex chromosomes, i.e., XY. The Y chromosome is trait of white flowers.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 63

21. (a) F1 progeny will have green stemmed tomato effect on the sex of developing embryos. Males are
plants as green is dominant over purple stemmed predominant below 28°C, females above 33°C and
tomato plants. equal number of the two sexes between 28-33°C. In
(b) If F1 plants are self pollinated, then the percentage crocodiles, high temperature induces maleness and
of purple stemmed plant in F2 progeny will be 25%. low temperature induces femaleness.
OR
F2 progenies:
(c) Flow chart of sex determination in human beings
g is as follows
G
Parents X X XY
GG (Green Gg (Green
G
Stemmed) Stemmed)
Gametes X Ovum X Y Sperm
Gg (Green gg (Purlple
g
Stemmed) Stemmed)

Phenotypic: 3 : 1 Progenies X X XY
ratio Green stemmed : Purple stemmed 24. (a) The F1 progeny will be tall plant with round seeds.
(c) Ratio of GG and gg plant in F2 generation will (b) Recessive traits are short plant and wrinkled seed.
be 1 : 1. (c) The new combinations will be tall plant with
22. (a) X chromosome is morphologically distinct wrinkled seeds and short plant with round seeds.
from Y chromosome. Y chromosome is smaller The ratio will be 9 : 3 : 3 : 1:: Tall plant with round
than X chromosome. Hence, they are dissimilar or seed: Tall plant with wrinkled seeds: Short plant
heteromorphic. Men have mismatched pair of sex with round seed: Short plant with wrinkled seed.
chromosome in humans in which one is normal size OR
X while other is a short one called Y. (c) (i) The F2 ratio will be 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 :: Tall plant
(b) Human beings have 22 pair of autosomal with round seed: Tall plant with wrinkled
chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosome. seeds: Short plant with round seed: Short
Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes plant with wrinkled seed.
both called X.
Tall plant with round seeds
(c) Sex of the individual is not always determined = 9/16 × 1600 = 900
genetically. In some organisms, gender may be
(ii) Short plant with wrinkled seed
determined by environmental factors. For example
snails, turtles and lizards sex is determined by the = 1/16 × 1600 = 100
temperature at which fertilised egg are kept.
23. (a) Human beings have 22 pairs of autosomes an
Long Answer Type Questions
one pair of sex chromosomes. The females possess
25. The statement "Sex of the children will be
tw homomorphic sex chromosomes, called XX
determined by what they inherit from their father"
while male have a mismatched pair in which one is
is based on the principle of genetic inheritance. The
a normal sized while the other is a short-one called
Y. determination of an individual's sex is influenced by
the combination of sex chromosomes inherited from
(b) Gametes contain half the number of chromosome both parents.
But, when the gametes fuse to form the zygote, the
normal diploid condition is restored. Hence, the In humans, females have two X chromosomes (XX)
formation of gametes by meiosis helps to maintain while males have one X and one Y chromosome
the number of chromosomes in organism. (c) Two (XY). The father contributes either an X or a Y
animals in which sex is not determined genetically chromosome to the offspring, while the mother
are turtle and crocodile. The type of sex in them always contributes an X chromosome. Therefore,
is determined by environmental factors. In turtles, it is the father's genetic contribution that ultimately
the temperature of egg incubation has a significant determines the sex of the child.

64 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 During fertilization, if the father's sperm carries an RY rY Ry ry
X chromosome, the resulting combination of XX RRYY RrYY RRYy RrYy
RY Round yellow Round yellow Round yellow Round yellow
chromosomes will develop into a female child. On
RrYY rrYY RyYy rrYy
the other hand, if the father's sperm carries a Y rY Round yellow Wrinkled yellow Wrinkled yellow Wrinkled yellow
chromosome, the combination of XY chromosomes RRYy RrYy RRyy Rryy
will lead to the development of a male child. Ry Round yellow Round yellow Round yellow Round yellow
RrYy rrYy Rryy rryy
26. (a) The two types of gametes produced by men are ry
Round yellow Wrinkled yellow Round Green Wrinkled yellow
sperm cells (spermatozoa) containing X or Y sex
In F1 generation, all plants are with round yellow
chromosomes. Sperm cells carry either an X or a
seeds. But in F2 generation, we find all types of
Y sex chromosome, determining the sex of the
plants: Round yellow, Round green, Wrinkled
offspring upon fertilization with a female's egg. yellow, Wrinkled green.
(b) No, a male child does not inherit an X (c) F2 generation ratio: Round-yellow = 9 : Round-green
chromosome from his father. In humans, sex = 3: Wrinkled-yellow = 3: Wrinkled-green = 1.
determination is based on the X and Y chromosomes. 28. (a) (i) Colour of stem in F1 progeny:
Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while
Colour of the stem in F1 progeny: All green
males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
The colour in the F1 progeny is green stemmed as
When a child is conceived, they inherit one sex
green stem colour is dominant.
chromosome from each of their parents. The mother P1
always passes on an X chromosome, while the (Parent generation) GG gg
father can pass on either an X or Y chromosome. g g
Gametes G G
If the father passes on an X chromosome, the child
will be female (XX), and if the father passes on a Y F1 generation Gg Gg Gg Gg
chromosome, the child will be male (XY).
(c) A human female typically produces one type (ii) F1 progeny on self pollination:
of gamete, which is the egg or ovum containing X Selfing of F1 generation
chromosome. P1
(Parent generation) GG Gg
27. (a) Mendel carried out crosses with two traits to
Gametes G g G g
see the interaction and basis of inheritance between
them. In a dihybrid cross given by Mendel, it was
F2 generation GG Gg Gg gg
observed that when two pairs of characters were
considered each trait expressed independent of the F2 generation Green stemmed: Brown
other. stemmed or 25% of F2 progeny are brown
stemmed rose plant.
(b) For Example, a cross between round yellow and
(iii) Ratio of GG and Gg in F2 progeny:
wrinkled green parents.
Genotype of F2 progeny - GG:Gg
RRYY rryy
1 : 2
Parent Round yellow Wrinkled yellow
(b) This is a monohybrid cross. This shows that out of
contrasting traits only one dominant trait appears in
Gametes RY ry F1 generation and the trait which does not express
is recessive. On selfing the F1 plants, both the
RrYy traits appear in next generation but in a definite
F1 generation Round yellow proportion.

How Do Organisms Reproduce? 65

 5
CHAPTER
Our Environment

Short Notes

1. Ecosystem and its component: Ecosystem is a self-reliant unit of living things and their non-living environment. Thus,
an ecosystem consists of biotic components comprising living organisms and abiotic components comprising physical
factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals etc.

Components of Ecosystem
Each and every ecosystem consists of several components to sustain it for long duration. It requires matter such as water,
oxygen, mineral, and carbon dioxide; different types of organisms (bacteria, plants, animals) and continuous recycling of
energy.
These requirements are met by two important components present in ecosystem; biotic components and abiotic compo-
nents.
1. Abiotic (non-living) components

These includes the non-living (physical and chemical) factors of the environment. Abiotic factors include.:
(a) Inorganic substances: Inorganic substances, for example, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, phosphorus, etc.
and their compounds (calcium oxide, carbon dioxide, etc.)
(b) Physical environment: For example, Air, water and soil (land). It also includes edaphic factor, for example, soil,
substrate, topography, minerals, pH, etc.
(c) Climate factors: For example light, temperature, humidity, wind, rainfall, water, etc.
2. Biotic components: The biotic community of an ecosystem comprises three types of organisms:
(a)
Producers: These organisms can prepare their own food from simple inorganic substances like carbon dioxide
and water by using sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll (photosynthetic pigment) by the process called
photosynthesis.
E.g. Green plants and certain bacteria.
(b) Consumers: These organisms are dependent on producers for their food, directly or indirectly. All the animals
are consumers.
Consumers can be further categorized into three groups:
(i) Herbivores: Those animals which eat only plants are called herbivores. E.g. Buffalo, Goat, Sheep, Horse, Deer,
Camel, Grasshopper.
Since herbivores obtain their food directly from producers (plants) therefore herbivores are primary consumers.
(ii) Carnivores: Those animals which eat the meat or flesh of other animals are called carnivores. E.g., Lion, Tiger,
Frog, Vulture.
Those carnivores which feed upon herbivores (primary consumers) are called secondary consumers.
Those carnivores (top carnivores) which feed upon the primary consumers (small carnivores) or secondary
consumers are called tertiary consumers. E.g., lion, tiger, hawk

66 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 (iii) Omnivores: Those animals which eat plants as well as animals, i.e., eat plant food the meat or flesh of other
animals are called omnivores.
E.g. Man, Dog, Crow, Sparrow, Bear and Ant.
(c) Decomposers: The microorganisms which break down the complex organic compounds found in dead and
decaying organisms like dry plants and dead animals and their waste products like faeces, urine, etc., into simpler
substances are called decomposers.
E.g. Bacteria and Fungi.
Importance of decomposers
1. They acts as cleaning agents of the environment by decomposing the dead bodies of animals and plants.
2. They play an important role in bio-geochemical or nutrient cycles by helping in recycling the material in biosphere.
3. They maintain soil fertility.
4. In the absence of decomposers, the earth would have been a heap of dead organisms.
3. Food chain and food web:
(i) A series of organisms feeding on one another constitute a food chain.
(ii) The autotrophs or the producers are at the first trophic level. The herbivores or the primary consumers come
at the second, small carnivores or the secondary consumers at the third and larger carnivores or the tertiary
consumers form the fourth trophic level.
(iii) The biotic components of the ecosystem are linked to each other through food chain.
In a typical food chain, producers are present at the bottom and their role is to provide food for the rest of the
community by utilizing sunlight as energy. Other organisms belong to the consumers and finally decomposers
are placed at the bottom to recycle the organic compound. In this way, an interactive relationship is formed
between the living organisms of an ecosystem.
™ Some examples of food chain are given below:
(i) Grass → Grasshopper → Rat → Snake
(Producer) (Herbivore) (Omnivore) (Carnivore)

(ii) Grass → Insect → Frog → Birds

(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore) (Top carnivores)

Food chain in nature (a) in forest, (b) in grassland and (c) in a pond
(iii) The biotic components of the ecosystem are linked to each other through food chain.
(iv) Each step of the food chain forms a trophic level.
There is a gradual decrease in the amount of energy transfer from one trophic level to the next trophic level in a
food chain.
(v) So only 10% of energy is transferred to next trophic level while 90% of energy is used by present trophic level

Our Environment 67
 in its life processes.
(vi) The various trophic levels are given below:
™ The plant or the producers constitute the first trophic level.
™ The herbivores or primary consumers form the second trophic level.
™ Carnivores or secondary consumers make up the third trophic level.
™ Large carnivores or the tertiary consumers which feed upon the small carnivores constitute the fourth
trophic level.

tertiary
consumers

Secondary
Consumers

Primary
Consumers

Producers

Tropic Levels
Typical examples of food chains in different ecosystems
Type of Primary Primary Consumers Secondary Secondary Tertiary Carnivores
Ecosystem Producers consumers Carnivores
(Primary
Carnivores)
Forest Trees Phytophagous insects Lizards, birds Predatory birds Lions, Tiger
Ecosystem Herbivorous mammals Foxes Wolves
Aquatic Ecosystem Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Small fishes Large fishes
Grassland Grasses Insects Frogs Snake Snakes Predatory birds
Ecosystem Rat and mice Carnivore Predatory birds
Grazing cattle Mammals
Desert Ecosystem Shrubs, bushes Rats and mice Snakes Predatory birds
Grass and some trees
(vii) When a number of food chains are interlinked together, it is called a food web. It provides stability to the food
chain.
(viii) In a food web, one organism may occupy a position in more than one food chain. An organism can obtain its food
from different sources and in turn, may be eaten up by different types of organisms.

68 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 (ix) The flow of energy is unidirectional.
(x) Several pesticides and other harmful chemicals which enters the food chain. The toxin concentration increases
successively in the organism's tissues across the food chain. This phenomenon is known as biological magnification.
Grass → Deer → Lion

(10ppm)  (200ppm)  (5000ppm)

DDT  DDT   DDT
(xi) Due to biological magnification, wheat, rices, vegetables, fruits, and even meats contain varying amounts of
pesticide residue.
3. HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
(A) Ozone layer and its depletion:
(i) Ozone shields the Earth's surface from UV radiation from the sun. This radiation is highly damaging to
organisms by causing skin cancer, cataract in eyes, weaken immune system, in human beings, destruction of
plants.
(ii) The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in the 1980s. This decrease has been linked to
synthetic chemicals like CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.
(iii) In, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC
production.
(B) Managing the garbage we produce.

Solid waste refers to everything that goes out in trash. It includes wastes from homes, schools, offices, cattle sheds,
industries, agricultural fields, etc. It also includes peelings of fruits and vegetables, kitchen waste, ash, paper, cow
dung, human excreta, glass, plastics, leather and rubber articles, brick, sand, worn out clothes and metal objects, etc.
Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable
(i) The solid waste we generate may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
(ii) Substances that can be broken down by biological process are called biodegradable; the substances that are not
broken down in this manner are called non-biodegradable substances.
(iii) Many human-made materials like plastics will not be broken down by the enzymatic action of microbes. So, these
non-biodegradable substances persist for a long time.
(iv) Domestic waste products, sewage, agricultural residue, paper, and cloth are biodegradable, but plastics, polythene
bags, and aluminum foil are non-biodegradable substances.

Our Environment 69
 Previous Year Questions

(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Multiplie Choice Type Questions Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion
(A).
1. Assertion (A): Accumulation of harmful chemicals
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true,
is maximum in the organisms at the highest trophic
but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of
level of a food chain.
Assertion (A).
Reason (R): Harmful chemicals are sprayed on the (c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
crops to protect them from diseases and pests.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason are true and Reason
5. Which one of the following is not a natural
is the correct explanation of the Assertion (A).
ecosystem? [CBSE 2024]
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but
(a) Pond ecosystem (b) Grassland ecosystem
Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of the
(c) Forest ecosystem (d) Cropland ecosystem
Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false. 6. Assertion (A): The waste we generate daily
may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true. Reason (R): The waste generated, if not disposed off
2. Consider the following statements about ozone: properly may cause serious environmental problems.
 [CBSE 2024]  [CBSE 2024]
(A) Ozone is poisonous gas. (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
(B) Ozone shields the earth’s surface from the infrared Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion
radiation from the sun. (A).
(C) Ozone is a product of UV radiations acting on (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true,
oxygen molecule. but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of
Assertion (A).
(D) At the lower level of the earth’s atmosphere, ozone
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
performs most essential function.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
The correct statements are
7. Identify the food chain in which the organisms of the
(a) (A) and (B) (b) (A) and (C) second trophic level are missing: [CBSE 2024]
(c) (B) and (C) (d) (B) and (D) (a) Grass, goat, lion
3. Some wastes are given below: [CBSE 2024] (b) Zooplankton, Phytoplankton, small fish, large fish
(i) Garden waste (c) Tiger, grass, snake, frog
(ii) Ball point pen refills (d) Grasshopper, grass, snake, frog, eagle
(iii) Empty medicine bottles made of glass 8. Use of several pesticides which results in excessive
(iv) Peels of fruits and vegetables accumulation of pesticides in rivers or ponds is a
(v) Old cotton shirt matter of deep concern. Justify this statement.
 [CBSE 2023]
The non-biodegradable wastes among these are:
9. (i) Why are crop fields considered as artificial
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii) ecosystems?
(c) (i), (iv) and (v) (d) (i), (iii) and (iv) (ii) Write a common food chain of four steps operating
4. Assertion (A): Oxygen is essential for all aerobic in a terrestrial ecosystem. [CBSE 2022 C]
forms of life. 10. What is ozone? How is it formed in the upper layers
Reason (R): Free oxygen atoms combine with of the earth’s atmosphere? How does ozone affect
molecular oxygen to form ozone. [CBSE 2024] our ecosystem? [CBSE 2022]

70 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
11. (a) What is meant by garbage? List two classes into
which garbage is classified. Short Answer Type Questions
(b) What do we actually mean when we say that “enzymes
22. Use of pesticides to protect our crops affects
are specific in their action”? [CBSE 2022] organisms at various trophic levels especially human
12. What are consumers? Name the four categories beings. Name the phenomenon involved and explain
under which the consumers are further classified. how does it happen. [CBSE 2024]
 [CBSE 2021 C]
13. How is ozone layer formed? State its importance to all Long Answer Type Questions
life forms on earth. Why the amount of ozone in the
atmosphere dropped sharply in the 1980s?[CBSE 2020] 23. (A) Plants -> Deer -> Lion. [CBSE 2024]
14. (a) Write two harmful effects of using plastic bags on In the given food chain, what will be the impact of
the environment. Suggest alternatives to the usage removing all the organisms of the second trophic
level on the first and third trophic levels? Will the
of plastic bags. impact be the same for the organisms of the third
(b) List any two practices that can be followed to trophic level in the above food chain if they were
dispose off the waste produced in our homes. present in a food web? Justify.
 [CBSE 2020] OR
(B) A gas 'X' which is a deadly poison is found at the
higher levels of the atmosphere and performs an
Very Short Type Questions essential function. Name the gas and write the
function performed by this gas in the atmosphere.
15. Differentiate between food chain and food web. In Which chemical is linked to the decrease in the
a food chain consisting of deer, grass and tiger, if level of this gas? What measures have been taken
by an international organization to check the
the population of deer decreases, what will happen depletion of the layer containing this gas?
to the population of organisms belonging to the first
and third trophic levels? [CBSE 2024] 24. What is the difference between biodegradable and
non-biodegradable substances? List two methods
16. What are decomposers? List two consequences of of safe disposal of biodegradable domestic waste.
their absence in an ecosystem. [CBSE 2024]  [CBSE 2023]
17. How is ozone formed in the higher levels of the 25. Kulhads (disposable cups made of day) and
atmosphere? “Damage to the ozone layer is a cause disposable paper cups both a re used as an alternative
of concern.” Justify this statement. [CBSE 2023] For disposable plastic cups. Which one of these two
18. “Although gardens are created by man but they can be considered as a better alternative to plastic
are considered to be an ecosystem.” Justify this cups and why? [CBSE 2022]
statement. [CBSE 2023] 26. What are human-made ecosystems? Give an example.
19. Name the term used for the materials which cannot Can a human-made ecosystem become a self-
be broken down by biological processes. Give two sustaining ecosystem? Give reason to justify your
ways by which they harm various components of an answer. [CBSE 2022]
ecosystem. [CBSE 2024] 27. (a) Name the group of organisms which form in the
first trophic level of all food chains. Why are they
20. (i) List two human-made ecosystems. called so?
(ii) “We do not clean a pond in the same manner as (b) Why are the human beings most adversely affected
we do in an aquarium.” Give reason to justify this by biomagnification?
statement. [CBSE Term II, 2021-22] (c) State one ill-effect of the absence of decomposers
from a natural ecosystem. [CBSE 2022]
21. In the following food chain, only 2J of energy was
28. (a) We do not clean ponds or lakes, but an aquarium
available to the peacocks. How much energy would needs to be cleaned regularly. Why?
have been present in Grass? Justify your answer.
(b) Why is ozone layer getting depleted at the higher
Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Peacock
levels of the atmosphere? Mention one harmful
 [CBSE Term II, 2021-22]
effect caused by its depletion. [2022]

Our Environment 71
 break down naturally) or non-biodegradable (which
Previous Year Questions cannot), and improper disposal of waste can indeed
lead to serious environmental issues. However, the
Multiple Choice Questions reason does not explain why waste is categorized
1. (b) Harmful chemicals do accumulate in organisms as biodegradable or non-biodegradable, so it’s not a
at the highest trophic level due to a process called direct explanation of the assertion.
biomagnification, and these chemicals are often 7. (c) In a food chain, the second trophic level usually
sprayed on crops to protect them. However, the reason consists of primary consumers that eat producers
does not directly explain why the accumulation is (like plants). In option (c), tiger, grass, snake, frog,
highest at the top of the food chain, so it’s not a there are no primary consumers (like a herbivore)
correct explanation of the assertion. between the grass (producer) and the snake. Instead,
2. (b) Ozone can be harmful at ground level, making it the snake directly feeds on frogs, which means the
a poisonous gas. Statement (C) is also correct since second trophic level is missing.
ozone is formed when ultraviolet (UV) radiation 8. The use of several pesticides results in accumulation
interacts with oxygen molecules. However, statement of pesticides in rivers and ponds. These chemicals
(B) is incorrect because ozone protects the Earth from are either washed down into the soil or into the
UV radiation, not infrared radiation, and statement water bodies. From the soil, these are absorbed by
(D) is misleading because ozone’s essential functions the plants along with water and minerals, and from
are primarily in the upper atmosphere, not at lower the water bodies these are taken up by aquatic plants
levels. and animals and enters the food chain. As these
3. (b) Non-biodegradable wastes are those that do not chemicals are not degradable, these get accumulated
break down naturally in the environment. In the given progressively at each trophic level. As human beings
options, ballpoint pen refills (ii) and empty medicine occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum
bottles made of glass (iii) are non-biodegradable concentration of these chemicals get accumulated in
because they can persist in the environment for a our bodies i.e., biological magnification. Our food
long time. The other items like garden waste, fruit grains such as wheat and rice, vegetables and fruits,
and vegetable peels, and old cotton shirts decompose and even meat, contain varying amounts of pesticide
naturally and are considered biodegradable. residues cannot always be removed by washing or
4. (b) Assertion (A) correctly states that oxygen is other means and causes health hazards.
essential for aerobic life forms, while Reason (R) 9. (i) Crop fields are the artificial ecosystems because
explains a process involving oxygen and ozone in crop fields, both biotic (living) and abiotic
formation, which is also true. However, Reason (R) (nonliving) components are manipulated by human
does not explain why oxygen is essential for life, so beings. Humans can change edaphic factors by
the correct answer is (b): both are true, but Reason adding fertilisers, water, etc. Biotic components
(R) does not explain Assertion (A). may be changed using biocides or adding useful
5. (d) A natural ecosystem is one that occurs naturally organisms like earthworms etc.
without human interference. Among the options (ii) A food chain consists of various organism at
given, a cropland ecosystem (d) is not natural because various trophic levels. In terrestrial ecosystem, a
it is created and managed by humans for farming common food chain is
purposes. In contrast, pond, grassland, and forest Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake
ecosystems develop naturally in the environment. 10. Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms
6. (b) The answer is (b) because both statements are of oxygen. It is formed in the stratosphere layer of
true: waste can be either biodegradable (which can atmosphere when high energy UV rays act on O2

72 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 molecule splitting it into free oxygen (O) atoms. carnivores (tertiary consumers). E.g., Tigers, lions
These atoms then combine with molecular oxygen and eagles/hawks etc.
(O2) to form ozone (O3). 13. When high energy ultraviolet radiations react with
UV
O 2 → O+O oxygen present in stratosphere (the higher level of
UV
O + O 2 → O3 atmosphere) it splits into its constituent atoms. Since
(Ozone) these atoms produced are very reactive, they react
with molecular oxygen to form ozone .
Ozone shields the surface of the earth from radiations UV radiation
from the sun. The depletion of ozone layer will lead O 2  From sun
→ O + O
to global warming and some serious health issues (Oxygen (Oxygen (Oxygen
such as damage of skin cells that leads to skin
molecule) atom) atom)
cancer, snow blindness or inflammation of cornea,
increased fatality of young animals, mutations and O2 + O → O3

reduced immunity.
(Oxygen (Oxygen (Ozone)
11. (a) Garbage is the waste material especially of
domestic refuse. The two classes into which garbage molecule) atom)
is classified are Ozone shields the surface of the earth from UV
(i) Biodegradable radiations from the sun. The depletion of ozone layer
(ii) Non-biodegradable. will lead to global warming and some serious health
(b) Enzymes are specific in their action. For example, issues such as damage of skin cells that leads to skin
enzyme maltase acts on sugar maltose but not on cancer, snow blindness or inflammation of cornea,
lactose or sucrose. Different enzymes may act increased fatality of young animals, mutations and
on the same substrate but give rise to different reduced immunity. In 1980s, the production of
products. Similarly an enzyme may act on different CFCs increased which releases active chlorine in
substrates producing different end products. the atmosphere. The active chlorine then reacts with
ozone molecules present there to convert them to
12. Consumers are the organisms which are unable to
oxygen. This results in thinning of ozone layer. CFCs
synthesise their own food. Therefore, they utilise
are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.
materials and energy stored by the producers or eat
That is why, amount of ozone in the atmosphere
other organisms. They are known as the heterotrophs.
dropped sharply.
The consumers are of following categories:
14. (a) Two harmful effects of using plastic bags on the
(i) Primary or first-order consumers: These include
environment:
the animals which eat plants or plant products.
They are called herbivores or primary (first order) (i) Plastic bags are non-biodegradable substances
consumers. E.g., Cattle, deer, goat, rabbit, hare, which are not acted upon by microbes. So, they
rats, mice, grasshoppers etc. cannot be decomposed and therefore persist in
the environment for a long time causing harm
(ii) Secondary or second order consumers: These
to the soil fertility and quality.
include the animals which depend on primary
consumers for their food. They are called (ii) Plastic bags choke drains which result
primary carnivores or secondary (second order) in waterlogging, that allows breeding of
consumers. Secondary consumers can be mosquitoes and hence leads to various
carnivores or omnivores. E.g., Cats, dogs, foxes, diseases. Jute bags and cloth bags are the
small fish, etc. alternatives to the polyethene bags.
(iii) Tertiary or third order consumers: These are (b) Practices that can be followed to dispose off the
large carnivores (or top carnivores) which feed waste produced in our homes:
on primary and secondary consumers. These are (i) Separation of biodegradable and non-
termed as secondary carnivores or tertiary (third biodegradable wastes.
order) consumers. Common examples include (ii) The biodegradable waste can be converted to
shark and crocodile, wolves, lion, etc. manure.
(iv) Quaternary or fourth order consumers: These are (iii) Non-biodegradable waste should be disposed
even larger carnivores which feed on secondary off at suitable places from where municipal

Our Environment 73
 authorities can pick them up and dispose 20. (i) The two human made ecosystems are aquarium
properly and scientifically. and garden.
(iv) Use discarded bottles and jars to store food (ii) We do not clean pond as we do in an aquarium
items. because the waste generated in a pond is acted
upon by the decomposers which convert them into
Very Short Type Questions simple soluble substances, whereas, in aquarium,
15. the waste gets mixed with water and left untreated
Food chain Food web due to absence of decomposers.

It is a series It is a network of interconnected 21. In the given food chain, 20,000 J of energy must
have been present in grass. This is because, as per
of organisms food chains / series of branching
the 10% law of energy transfer, only of energy is
feeding on lines which provides a number
transferred to the next trophic level.
one another at of feeding connections amongst
20,000 J 10% 2000 J 10% 200 J
various levels different organisms.
Grass Grasshopper Frog
• Population of grass first trophic level will increase. 10% 20 J 10% 2J
• Population of tiger/third trophic level will decrease. Snake Peacock
16. Decomposers are the microorganisms that break-
down the complex organic substances into simple Short Answer Type Questions
inorganic substances.
22. Phenomenon - Biological Magnification/
Consequences: Biomagnification:
(i) No replenishment of soil • Pesticides are washed down into the soil and water
(ii) Foul smell bodies.
(iii) Breeding of flies
• From the soil pesticides are absorbed by crop plants
(iv) Accumulation of dead plants and animals in the
along with water and minerals and enter the food
environment.
chain.
(v) No recycling of nutrients
• These chemicals are non-biodegradable and get
17. Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms accumulated progressively at each trophic level.
of oxygen. It is formed in the stratosphere layer of
atmosphere when high energy UV rays act on O2 • As human beings occupy the top level in any food
molecule splitting it into free oxygen (O) atoms. chain, the maximum concentration of these chemicals
These atoms then combine with molecular oxygen gets accumulated in our bodies.
(O2) to form ozone (O3).
Long Answer Type Questions
18. In a garden, various plants like grasses, trees, flower
bearing plants such as jasmine, sunflower, rose, and 23. (A)
animals like insects, frogs and birds are found. All • Number of plants/organisms of first trophic level
these living organisms interact with each other and will increase.
their growth, reproduction and other activities are • Number of lions/ organisms of third trophic level
affected by the abiotic components such as light, will decrease.
water, wind, soil, minerals, etc. of ecosystem. Thus, • No
a garden is considered to be an ecosystem.
• As the organisms of that level will find alternative
19. foods and will not starve to death / food web is
• Non-biodegradable substances more stable where other animals as prey may be
available.
• Two ways:
OR
(i) They are inert and persist in the environment for
• Gas 'X' is Ozone.
long time and cause pollution.
• Ozone shields the surface of the earth from ultra-
(ii) Cause Biological magnification violet (UV) radiations from the sun.
(iii) Affect the fertility of soil • CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)

74 Class-X BIOLOGY PW
 • Succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC • Making of kulhad on a large scale to serve tea
production at 1986 levels / Manufacturing of CFC passengers in the train was leading to the loss of
free refrigerators this top fertile soil.
24. Differences between biodegradable and non- 26. Human-made ecosystems, also known as artificial
biodegradable substances are as follows: ecosystems, are environments created or heavily
Biodegradable Non-biodegradable modified by humans to mimic natural ecosystems.
Substance Substance These ecosystems are managed and controlled
It decomposes naturally It does not decompose by humans to support specific purposes, such as
in the environment naturally. agriculture, recreation, or habitation.
by the action of Examples of Human-Made Ecosystems:
microorganisms. 1. Aquariums: Tanks or controlled water environments
It is environment It is harmful to the where aquatic life is maintained artificially.
friendly. environment and causes 2. Agricultural Fields: Farmlands where crops are
pollution. cultivated for food production.
It is made up of natural It is made up of 3. Zoos: Areas where animals are kept and cared for
ingredients. synthetic materials. outside their natural habitats.
It can be converted into It can be either reused 4. Urban Parks: Green spaces within cities created
manure or recycled. or recycled. for recreational purposes.
Examples: Waste paper, Examples: Plastic bags, Human-made ecosystems are environments created
wood crumbles, etc. cans, disposable bottles, or significantly altered by humans to serve specific
etc. purposes
Domestic waste can be safely disposed off by An example of a human-made ecosystem is an
composting. In composting, biodegradable domestic agricultural field, where natural landscapes are
wastes, such as left-over food, fruit, vegetable peels, converted into areas for growing crops
etc., can be buried in pit, dug into ground. They are While human-made ecosystems can develop some
converted into compost and used as manure. self-regulating features, they are not as self-sufficient
In landfill a huge pit is made in an open low lying as natural ecosystems like forests or wetlands
area and wastes are dumped into the pits. Once the
They often require continuous management and
pits are full, they are covered with soil and left for
decomposition. intervention to maintain their productivity and
stability
25. Kulhad:
27. (a) Producers form the first trophic level of all food
• Kulhad is a cup that is made using clay or soil. chains. They are called producers because they
• This is usually used for serving tea/coffee. are autotrophic organisms which alone are able
• This was brought in use to replace the plastic cup in to manufacture organic food from inorganic raw
trains. materials by the process of photosynthesis. They
• Plastic is a nonbiodegradable harmful substance capture sun’s energy and convert it into chemical
that does not decompose in nature and affects the energy. The chemical energy is used in combining
ecosystem or environment negatively. raw materials into organic food. This food is used
• Kulhads are made of biodegradable soil, therefore, up by themselves and rest enters the food chains
this was used to replace the plastic and protect the as food for consumers.
environment and health of humans. (b) Human beings are most adversely affected
Discontinuation of kulhads: by biomagnification because they occupy the
highest trophic level in any food chain. As in
• Since kulhads are made using clay, it is a practice of
biomagnification, successive concentration of
harming the environment too.
non-biodegradable substances increases in the
• The clay is fertile soil and kulhads were discontinued trophic level of food chains, so, it leads to most
to avoid its reduction. toxicity at highest trophic level. Hence, maximum

Our Environment 75
 concentration of chemicals get accumulated most simple soluble substances, whereas, in aquarium,
in their body. the waste gets mixed with water and left untreated
(c) Absence of decomposers will lead to the due to absence of decomposers.
accumulation of dead remains and waste products (b) The ozone layer is getting depleted at the higher levels
of organisms in our natural ecosystem. The of the atmosphere due to use of chlorofluorocarbons
decomposers breakdown complex organic (CFCs) which are used in refrigerator. Other ozone
substances into simple inorganic substances, so, depleting substances include carbon tetrachloride,
that it can go into the soil and can be used up by hydrofluorocarbons used in fire extinguisher, air i
plants. conditioners, etc. Due to the ozone layer depletion,
humans will be directly exposed to the ultraviolet
28. (a) We do not clean pond as we do in an aquarium
radiations of sun. This will result in serious health
because the waste generated in a pond is acted issues like skin cancer, sunburns, quick ageing,
upon by the decomposers which convert them into mutations and weak immune system.

76 Class-X BIOLOGY PW