298 Section 3

From Fig. 15.84, current I = E/(r + RL ) E

current, I =
r + RL
= 30/(1.5 + 1.5) = 10 A
For maximum power, RL = r = 2.4 Ω
2 2
Power P = I RL = (10) (1.5) = 150 W = maximum
12
power dissipated Thus current, I = = 2.5 A
2.4 + 2.4
Power, P, dissipated in load RL ,
Problem 24. Find the value of the load resistor P = I2 RL = (2.5)2 (2.4) = 15 W
RL shown in Fig. 15.85 that gives maximum power
dissipation and determine the value of this power.

Now try the following Practice Exercises

Practice Exercise 99 Maximum power

transfer theorem (Answers on page 562)

Figure 15.85 1. A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage of

20 V and an internal resistance of 2 Ω. Deter-
mine the value of the load resistance that gives
Using the procedure for Thévenin’s theorem: maximum power dissipation. Find the value
of this power.
(i) Resistance RL is removed from the circuit as
shown in Fig. 15.86(a) 2. Determine the value of the load resistance
RL shown in Fig. 15.87 that gives maximum
power dissipation and find the value of the
power.

Figure 15.87

3. A d.c. source having an open-circuit voltage

Figure 15.86 of 42 V and an internal resistance of 3 Ω is
connected to a load of resistance RL . Deter-
mine the maximum power dissipated by the
(ii) The p.d. across AB is the same as the p.d. across load.
the 12 Ω resistor. Hence 4. A voltage source comprising six 2 V cells,
( ) each having an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω,
12
E= (15) = 12 V is connected to a load resistance R. Deter-
12 + 3
mine the maximum power transferred to the
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. gives the circuit of load.
Fig. 15.86(b), from which, resistance, 5. The maximum power dissipated in a 4 Ω load
is 100 W when connected to a d.c. voltage V
12 × 3 36
r= = = 2.4 Ω and internal resistance r. Calculate (a) the cur-
12 + 3 15 rent in the load, (b) internal resistance r and
(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit supplying ter- (c) voltage V
minals AB is shown in Fig. 15.86(c), from which,
 d.c. circuit theory 299

Practice Exercise 100 Short answer 3. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.90, the inter-
questions on d.c. circuit theory (Answers nal resistance r is given by:
within pages 275 to 298)
I V−E
(a) (b)
1. Name two laws and three theorems which V−E I
may be used to find unknown currents and I E−V
(c) (d)
p.d.s in electrical circuits. E−V I
2. State Kirchhoff’s current law.
3. State Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
4. State, in your own words, the superposition
theorem.
5. State, in your own words, Thévenin’s theo-
rem. Figure 15.90

6. State, in your own words, Norton’s theorem.

4. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.91, volt-
7. State the maximum power transfer theorem
age V is:
for a d.c. circuit.
(a) 12 V (b) 2 V (c) 10 V (d) 0 V

Practice Exercise 101 Multi-choice

questions on d.c. circuit theory (Answers on
page 563)
1. Which of the following statements is true:
For the junction in the network shown in
Fig. 15.88:
(a) I5 − I4 = I3 − I2 + I1
(b) I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5 Figure 15.91
(c) I2 + I3 + I5 = I1 + I4
(d) I1 − I2 − I3 − I4 + I5 = 0 5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.91, current
I1 is:
(a) 2 A (b) 14.4 A
(c) 0.5 A (d) 0 A

6. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.91, current

I2 is:
Figure 15.88
(a) 2 A (b) 14.4 A
(c) 0.5 A (d) 0 A
2. Which of the following statements is true?
For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.89: 7. The equivalent resistance across terminals
(a) E1 + E2 + E3 = Ir1 + Ir2 + I3 r3 AB of Fig. 15.92 is:
(b) E2 + E3 − E1 − I(r1 + r2 + r3 ) = 0 (a) 9.31 Ω (b) 7.24 Ω
(c) I(r1 + r2 + r3 ) = E1 − E2 − E3 (c) 10.0 Ω (d) 6.75 Ω
(d) E2 + E3 − E1 = Ir1 + Ir2 + Ir3

Figure 15.92
Figure 15.89
300 Section 3

8. With reference to Fig. 15.93, which of the (a) 0V (b) 20 V

following statements is correct? (c) 4V (d) 16 V
(a) VPQ = 2 V
(b) VPQ = 15 V
(c) When a load is connected between P
and Q, current would flow from Q to P
(d) VPQ = 20 V
Figure 15.95

R 12. The maximum power transferred by the

3V 11 V source in Fig. 15.96 is:
(a) 5 W (b) 200 W
P Q
15 V (c) 40 W (d) 50 W
2V 4V
I
S
E 5 20 V
Figure 15.93
RL
r52V
9. In Fig. 15.93, if the 15 V battery is replaced
by a short-circuit, the equivalent resistance
across terminals PQ is: Figure 15.96
(a) 20 Ω (b) 4.20 Ω
(c) 4.13 Ω (d) 4.29 Ω 13. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.97, voltage
V is:
10. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.94, max- (a) 0 V (b) 20 V
imum power transfer from the source is (c) 4V (d) 16 V
required. For this to be so, which of the
following statements is true? I1 I2

(a) R2 = 10 Ω (b) R2 = 30 Ω
(c) R2 = 7.5 Ω (d) R2 = 15 Ω
20 V

Source
4V V

1V
r5
10 V R1 5 30 V R2

Figure 15.97
E5
12 V
14. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.97, current
Figure 15.94
I1 is:
(a) 25 A (b) 4 A
11. The open-circuit voltage E across terminals (c) 0 A (d) 20 A
XY of Fig. 15.95 is:
 d.c. circuit theory 301

15. For the circuit shown in Fig. 15.97, current 16. The current flowing in the branches of a
I2 is: d.c. circuit may be determined using:
(a) 25 A (b) 4 A (a) Kirchhoff’s laws
(c) 0 A (d) 20 A (b) Lenz’s law
(c) Faraday’s laws
(d) Fleming’s left-hand rule

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 94 to 99 in this chapter,
go to the website:
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 Alternating voltages and currents 323

As the ripple voltage increases and the load current

increases, the induced e.m.f. in the inductor will oppose 15. A sinusoidal current is given by
the increase. As the ripple voltage falls and the load i = Im sin(ωt ± α). What do the symbols
current falls, the induced e.m.f. will try to maintain the Im , ω and α represent?
current flow. 16. How is switching obtained when converting
The voltage across points BB in Fig. 16.20 and the cur- a.c. to d.c.?
rent in the inductance are almost ripple-free. A further 17. Draw an appropriate circuit diagram suitable
capacitor, C2 , completes the process. for half-wave rectifications and explain its
operation.
For a practical laboratory experiment on the use of 18. Explain, with a diagram, how full-wave rec-
an oscilloscope with a bridge rectifier circuit, see page tification is obtained using a centre-tapped
327 transformer.
19. Explain, with a diagram, how full-wave rec-
Now try the following Practice Exercises tification is obtained using a bridge rectifier
circuit.
Practice Exercise 106 Short answer 20. Explain a simple method of smoothing the
questions on alternating voltages and output of a rectifier.
currents (Answers within pages 308 to 323)
1. Briefly explain the principle of operation of
the simple alternator. Practice Exercise 107 Multi-choice
questions on alternating voltages and
2. What is meant by (a) waveform, (b) cycle. currents (Answers on page 563)
3. What is the difference between an alternating
and a unidirectional waveform? 1. The value of an alternating current at any
given instant is:
4. The time to complete one cycle of a wave- (a) a maximum value
form is called the . . . . . . (b) a peak value
5. What is frequency? Name its unit. (c) an instantaneous value
6. The mains supply voltage has a special shape (d) an r.m.s. value
of waveform called a . . . . . . 2. An alternating current completes 100 cycles
7. Define peak value. in 0.1 s. Its frequency is:
8. What is meant by the r.m.s. value? (a) 20 Hz (b) 100 Hz
(c) 0.002 Hz (d) 1 kHz
9. The domestic mains electricity voltage in the
UK is . . . . . . 3. In Fig. 16.21, at the instant shown, the gener-
ated e.m.f. will be:
10. What is the mean value of a sinusoidal alter-
nating e.m.f. which has a maximum value of
100 V?
11. The effective value of a sinusoidal waveform
is . . . . . . × maximum value.
12. What is a phasor quantity?
13. Complete the statement:
Form factor = . . . . . . ÷ . . . . . ., and for a sine
wave, form factor = . . . . . .
14. Complete the statement: Figure 16.21
Peak factor = . . . . . . ÷ . . . . . ., and for a sine
wave, peak factor = . . . . . . (a) zero
(b) an r.m.s. value
324 Section 3

(c) an average value (a) the peak factor is 1.414

(d) a maximum value (b) the r.m.s. value is 0.707 × peak value
(c) the average value is 0.637 × r.m.s. value
4. The supply of electrical energy for a consumer (d) the form factor is 1.11
is usually by a.c. because:
(a) transmission and distribution are more 9. An a.c. supply is 70.7 V, 50 Hz. Which of the
easily effected following statements is false?
(b) it is most suitable for variable speed (a) The periodic time is 20 ms
motors (b) The peak value of the voltage is 70.7 V
(c) the volt drop in cables is minimal (c) The r.m.s. value of the voltage is 70.7 V
(d) cable power losses are negligible (d) The peak value of the voltage is 100 V
5. Which of the following statements is false? 10. An alternating voltage is given by
(a) It is cheaper to use a.c. than d.c. v = 100 sin(50πt − 0.30) V.
(b) Distribution of a.c. is more convenient Which of the following statements is true?
than with d.c. since voltages may be read-
ily altered using transformers (a) The r.m.s. voltage is 100 V
(c) An alternator is an a.c. generator (b) The periodic time is 20 ms
(d) A rectifier changes d.c. to a.c. (c) The frequency is 25 Hz
(d) The voltage is leading v = 100 sin 50πt by
6. An alternating voltage of maximum value 0.30 radians
100 V is applied to a lamp. Which of the fol-
11. The number of complete cycles of an alter-
lowing direct voltages, if applied to the lamp,
nating current occurring in one second is
would cause the lamp to light with the same
known as:
brilliance?
(a) 100 V (b) 63.7 V (a) the maximum value of the alternating cur-
(c) 70.7 V (d) 141.4 V rent
(b) the frequency of the alternating current
7. The value normally stated when referring to (c) the peak value of the alternating current
alternating currents and voltages is the: (d) the r.m.s. or effective value
(a) instantaneous value
12. A rectifier conducts:
(b) r.m.s. value
(c) average value (a) direct currents in one direction
(d) peak value (b) alternating currents in one direction
(c) direct currents in both directions
8. State which of the following is false. For a sine (d) alternating currents in both directions
wave:

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 102 to 105 in this chapter,
go to the website:
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 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 351

true power 100

(a) Power factor = , i.e. 0.5 = 5. A transformer has a rated output of 100 kVA
apparent power 100 × I
hence current, at a power factor of 0.6. Determine the rated
power output and the corresponding reactive
100 power.
I= =2A
(0.5)(100) 6. A substation is supplying 200 kVA and
(b) Power factor = 0.5 = cos ϕ hence phase angle, 150 kvar. Calculate the corresponding power
ϕ = cos−1 0.5 = 60◦ leading and power factor.

(c) Power P = I2 R hence resistance, 7. A load takes 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8

lagging. Calculate the apparent power and
P 100 the reactive power.
R= 2
= 2 = 25 Ω
I 2
8. A coil of resistance 400 Ω and induc-
V 100 tance 0.20 H is connected to a 75 V, 400 Hz
(d) Impedance Z = = = 50 Ω
I 2 supply. Calculate the power dissipated in
the coil.
√
(e) Capacitive reactance, XC = Z2 − R2 9. An 80 Ω resistor and a 6 µF capacitor are
√ connected in series across a 150 V, 200 Hz
= 502 − 252 = 43.30 Ω
supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
XC = 1/2πfC (b) the current flowing and (c) the power
dissipated in the circuit.
1 1
Hence capacitance C = = F 10. The power taken by a series circuit contain-
2πfXC 2π(60)(43.30)
ing resistance and inductance is 240 W when
= 61.26 µF connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. If the
current flowing is 2 A find the values of the
resistance and inductance.
Now try the following Practice Exercises 11. The power taken by a C–R series circuit
when connected to a 105 V, 2.5 kHz supply
Practice Exercise 113 Power in a.c. circuits is 0.9 kW and the current is 15 A. Calcu-
(Answers on page 564) late (a) the resistance, (b) the impedance,
(c) the reactance, (d) the capacitance, (e) the
1. A voltage v = 200 sin ωt volts is applied power factor and (f ) the phase angle between
across a pure resistance of 1.5 kΩ. Find the voltage and current.
power dissipated in the resistor.
12. A circuit consisting of a resistor in series
2. A 50 µF capacitor is connected to a 100 V,
with an inductance takes 210 W at a power
200 Hz supply. Determine the true power and
factor of 0.6 from a 50 V, 100 Hz supply. Find
the apparent power.
(a) the current flowing, (b) the circuit phase
3. A motor takes a current of 10 A when sup- angle, (c) the resistance, (d) the impedance
plied from a 250 V a.c. supply. Assuming a and (e) the inductance.
power factor of 0.75 lagging, find the power
consumed. Find also the cost of running the 13. A 200 V, 60 Hz supply is applied to a
motor for 1 week continuously if 1 kWh of capacitive circuit. The current flowing is
electricity costs 12.20 p. 2 A and the power dissipated is 150 W.
Calculate the values of the resistance and
4. A motor takes a current of 12 A when sup- capacitance.
plied from a 240 V a.c. supply. Assuming
a power factor of 0.70 lagging, find the power
consumed.
352 Section 3

Practice Exercise 114 Short answer 15. State two formulae which may be used to
questions on single-phase a.c. circuits calculate power in an a.c. circuit.
(Answers within pages 333 to 351)
16. Show graphically that for a purely inductive
1. Complete the following statements: or purely capacitive a.c. circuit the average
(a) In a purely resistive a.c. circuit the power is zero.
current is . . . . . . with the voltage. 17. Define ‘power factor’.
(b) In a purely inductive a.c. circuit the
current . . . . . . the voltage by . . . . . . 18. Define (a) apparent power, (b) reactive
degrees. power.
(c) In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit the 19. Define (a) bandwidth, (b) selectivity.
current . . . . . . the voltage by . . . . . .
degrees.
2. Draw phasor diagrams to represent (a) a
purely resistive a.c. circuit, (b) a purely Practice Exercise 115 Multi-choice
inductive a.c. circuit, (c) a purely capacitive questions on single-phase a.c. circuits
a.c. circuit. (Answers on page 564)

3. What is inductive reactance? State the sym- 1. An inductance of 10 mH connected across a

bol and formula for determining inductive 100 V, 50 Hz supply has an inductive reac-
reactance. tance of
(a) 10π Ω (b) 1000π Ω
4. What is capacitive reactance? State the sym- (c) π Ω (d) π H
bol and formula for determining capacitive
reactance. 2. When the frequency of an a.c. circuit
containing resistance and inductance is
5. Draw phasor diagrams to represent (a) a increased, the current
coil (having both inductance and resistance)
(a) decreases (b) increases
and (b) a series capacitive circuit containing
(c) stays the same
resistance.
6. What does ‘impedance’ mean when referring 3. In question 2, the phase angle of the circuit
to an a.c. circuit? (a) decreases (b) increases
7. Draw an impedance triangle for an R–L cir- (c) stays the same
cuit. Derive from the triangle an expression 4. When the frequency of an a.c. circuit
for (a) impedance and (b) phase angle. containing resistance and capacitance is
8. Draw an impedance triangle for an R–C cir- decreased, the current
cuit. From the triangle derive an expression (a) decreases (b) increases
for (a) impedance and (b) phase angle. (c) stays the same
9. What is series resonance? 5. In question 4, the phase angle of the circuit
10. Derive a formula for resonant frequency fr in (a) decreases (b) increases
terms of L and C. (c) stays the same
11. What does the Q-factor in a series circuit 6. A capacitor of 1 µF is connected to a 50 Hz
mean? supply. The capacitive reactance is
12. State three formulae used to calculate the 10
Q-factor of a series circuit at resonance. (a) 50 MΩ (b) kΩ
π
13. State an advantage of a high Q-factor in a π 10
series high-frequency circuit. (c) 4
Ω (d) Ω
10 π
14. State a disadvantage of a high Q-factor in a
series power circuit.
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 353

7. In a series a.c. circuit the voltage across 14. In an R–L–C series a.c. circuit a current of
a pure inductance is 12 V and the voltage 5 A flows when the supply voltage is 100 V.
across a pure resistance is 5 V. The supply The phase angle between current and volt-
voltage is age is 60◦ lagging. Which of the following
(a) 13 V (b) 17 V statements is false?
(c) 7 V (d) 2.4 V (a) The circuit is effectively inductive
8. Inductive reactance results in a current that (b) The apparent power is 500 VA
(a) leads the voltage by 90◦ (c) The equivalent circuit reactance is 20 Ω
(b) is in phase with the voltage (d) The true power is 250 W
(c) leads the voltage by π rad 15. A series a.c. circuit comprising a coil of
(d) lags the voltage by π/2 rad inductance 100 mH and resistance 1 Ω and a
10 µF capacitor is connected across a 10 V
9. Which of the following statements is false?
supply. At resonance the p.d. across the
(a) Impedance is at a minimum at resonance capacitor is
in an a.c. circuit
(a) 10 kV (b) 1 kV
(b) The product of r.m.s. current and voltage
(c) 100 V (d) 10 V
gives the apparent power in an a.c. circuit
(c) Current is at a maximum at resonance in 16. The amplitude of the current I flowing in the
an a.c. circuit circuit of Fig. 17.26 is:
Apparent power
(d) gives power factor (a) 21 A (b) 16.8 A
True power
(c) 28 A (d) 12 A
10. The impedance of a coil, which has a resis-
tance of X ohms and an inductance of Y hen-
rys, connected across a supply of frequency I
K Hz, is
(a) 2πKY (b) X + Y
√ √ R54V
(c) X2 + Y2 (d) X2 + (2πKY)2
11. In question 10, the phase angle between the 84 V
current and the applied voltage is given by
Y 2πKY
(a) tan−1 (b) tan−1 XL 5 3 V
X X
( )
−1 X 2πKY
(c) tan (d) tan
2πKY X
12. When a capacitor is connected to an a.c.
Figure 17.26
supply, the current
(a) leads the voltage by 180◦
(b) is in phase with the voltage 17. If the supply frequency is increased at res-
(c) leads the voltage by π/2 rad onance in a series R–L–C circuit and the
values of L, C and R are constant, the circuit
(d) lags the voltage by 90◦
will become:
13. When the frequency of an a.c. circuit (a) capacitive (b) resistive
containing resistance and capacitance is (c) inductive (d) resonant
increased, the impedance
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) stays the same
354 Section 3

18. For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.27, the value 19. A series R–L–C circuit has a resistance of
of Q-factor is: 8 Ω, an inductance of 100 mH and a capac-
(a) 50 (b) 100 itance of 5 µF. If the current flowing is 2 A,
(c) 5 × 10−4 (d) 40 the impedance at resonance is:

(a) 160 Ω (b) 16 Ω

400 mH
4V
10 mF (c) 8 mΩ (d) 8Ω

V 5 10 V

Figure 17.27

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 108 to 113 in this chapter,
go to the website:
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376 Section 3

6. State the condition for resonance for a two- 4. The supply current.
branch circuit containing capacitance C in
5. The supply phase angle.
parallel with a coil of inductance L and resis-
tance R. 6. The circuit impedance.
7. Develop a formula for the resonant fre- 7. The power consumed by the circuit.
quency in an LR–C parallel circuit, in terms
of resistance R, inductance L and capaci- 8. The power factor of the circuit.
tance C. 9. A two-branch parallel circuit consists of
8. What does Q-factor of a parallel circuit a 15 mH inductance in one branch and a
mean? 50 µF capacitor in the other across a 120 V,
1/π kHz supply. The supply current is:
9. Develop a formula for the current at reso-
nance in an LR–C parallel circuit in terms π
(a) 8 A leading by rad
of resistance R, inductance L, capacitance C 2
(b) 16 A lagging by 90◦
and supply voltage V.
(c) 8 A lagging by 90◦
10. What is dynamic resistance? State a formula π
for dynamic resistance. (d) 16 A leading by rad
2
11. Explain a simple method of improving the 10. The following statements, taken correct to 2
power factor of an inductive circuit. significant figures, refer to the circuit shown
12. Why is it advantageous to improve power in Fig. 18.22. Which are false?
factor? (a) The impedance of the R–L branch is 5 Ω
(b) ILR = 50 A
(c) IC = 20 A
(d) L = 0.80 H
Practice Exercise 123 Multi-choice
questions on single-phase parallel a.c. circuits (e) C = 16 µF
(Answers on page 565) (f) The ‘in-phase’ component of the supply
current is 30 A
A two-branch parallel circuit containing a 10 Ω (g) The ‘quadrature’ component of the sup-
resistance in one branch and a 100 µF capacitor in ply current is 40 A
the other has a 120 V, 2/3π kHz supply connected
(h) I = 36 A
across it. Determine the quantities stated in ques-
(i) Circuit phase = 33◦ 41′ leading
tions 1 to 8, selecting the correct answer from the
(j) Circuit impedance = 6.9 Ω
following list:
(k) Circuit power factor = 0.83 lagging
(a) 24 A (b) 6 Ω (l) Power consumed = 9.0 kW
(c) 7.5 kΩ (d) 12 A R = 3Ω XL = 4 Ω
(e) tan−1 34 leading (f) 0.8 leading
(g) 7.5 Ω (h) tan−1 34 leading ILR IC XC = 12.5 Ω

(i) 16 A (j)tan−1 53 lagging

(k) 1.44 kW (l) 0.6 leading I
(m) 12.5 Ω (n) 2.4 kW 5
(o) tan−1 43 lagging (p) 0.6 lagging V = 250V,
2π
= kHz
(q) 0.8 lagging (r) 1.92 kW
(s) 20 A Figure 18.22

1. The current flowing in the resistance. 11. Which of the following statements is false?
2. The capacitive reactance of the capacitor. (a) The supply current is a minimum at res-
onance in a parallel circuit
3. The current flowing in the capacitor.
 Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits 377

(b) The Q-factor at resonance in a parallel

circuit is the voltage magnification
(c) Improving power factor reduces the cur- 4V V
rent flowing through a system X C 5 3V
(d) The circuit impedance is a maximum at
resonance in a parallel circuit
Figure 18.23
12. An LR–C parallel circuit has the follow-
ing component values: R = 10 Ω, L = 10 mH, 14. In the circuit shown in Fig. 18.24, the mag-
C = 10 µF and V = 100 V. Which of the fol- nitude of the supply current I is:
lowing statements is false? (a) 17A (b) 7A
(a) The resonant frequency fr is 1.5/π kHz (c) 15A (d) 23A
(b) The current at resonance is 1 A
(c) The dynamic resistance is 100 Ω
(d) The circuit Q-factor at resonance is 30
13. The magnitude of the impedance of the cir-
cuit shown in Fig. 18.23 is:
(a) 7 Ω (b) 5 Ω
(c) 2.4 Ω (d) 1.71 Ω Figure 18.24

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 116 to 121 in this chapter,
go to the website:
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 Operational amplifiers 431

Ramp
generator
(D/A convertor)

V1 2
AND m.s.b 4-bit
Binary
gate digital
counter l.s.b
V2 1 output
Voltage
Analogue input comparator
voltage
Pulse
Reset
generator
(clock)

Figure 21.24

V2

21.11 Analogue to digital (A/D)

conversion (a) V1
t
In a digital voltmeter, its input is in analogue form
and the reading is displayed digitally. This is an 1
example where an analogue to digital converter is (b) Comparator
needed. output
A block diagram for a four-bit counter type A/D con- 0
t
version circuit is shown in Fig. 21.24. An op amp is
again used, in this case as a voltage comparator (see
Section 21.7). The analogue input voltage V2 , shown in (c) Pulse
Fig. 21.25(a) as a steady d.c. voltage, is applied to the generator
non-inverting (+) input, whilst a sawtooth voltage V1
supplies the inverting (−) input. t
The output from the comparator is applied to one input
of an AND gate and is a 1 (i.e. ‘high’) until V1 equals
or exceeds V2 , when it then goes to 0 (i.e. ‘low’) as (d) AND
gate
shown in Fig. 21.25(b). The other input of the AND output
gate is fed by a steady train of pulses from a pulse gen-
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000

(e) Binary t
erator, as shown in Fig. 21.25(c). When both inputs to output
the AND gate are ‘high’, the gate ‘opens’ and gives
a ‘high’ output, i.e. a pulse, as shown in Fig. 21.25(d). Figure 21.25
The time taken by V1 to reach V2 is proportional to the
analogue voltage if the ramp is linear. The output pulses Now try the following Practice Exercises
from the AND gate are recorded by a binary counter
and, as shown in Fig. 21.25(e), are the digital equiva- Practice Exercise 135 Short answer
lent of the analogue input voltage V2 . In practice, the questions on operational amplifiers
ramp generator is a D/A converter which takes its digi- (Answers within pages 418 to 431)
tal input from the binary counter, shown by the broken
1. List three main properties of an op amp.
lines in Fig. 21.24. As the counter advances through
its normal binary sequence, a staircase waveform with 2. Sketch a typical voltage characteristic show-
equal steps (i.e. a ramp) is built up at the output of ing how the output voltage varies with the
the D/A converter (as shown by the first few steps input voltage for an op amp.
in Fig. 21.23).
432 Section 3

3. What effect does negative feedback have (a) −10 V (b) 1 mV

when applied to an op amp. (c) 10 V (d) 1 kV
4. Sketch a typical gain/bandwidth characteristic 2. Which of the following statements relating to
for an op amp. operational amplifiers is true?
5. With reference to an op amp, explain the (a) It has a high open-loop voltage gain
parameters input bias current, input offset cur- at low frequency, a low input impedance
rent and input offset voltage. and low output impedance
6. Define common-mode rejection ratio. (b) It has a high open-loop voltage gain at
low frequency, a high input impedance
7. Explain the principle of operation of an and low output impedance
op amp inverting amplifier.
(c) It has a low open-loop voltage gain at low
8. In an inverting amplifier, the closed-loop gain frequency, a high input impedance and
A is given by: A = . . . . . . low output impedance
9. Explain the principle of operation of an (d) It has a high open-loop voltage gain
op amp non-inverting amplifier. at low frequency, a low input impedance
and high output impedance
10. In a non-inverting amplifier, the closed-loop
gain A is given by: A = . . . . . . 3. A differential amplifier has a voltage gain of
120 × 103 and a common-mode rejection ratio
11. Explain the principle of operation of an
of 100 dB. The common-mode gain of the
op amp voltage-follower (or buffer).
operational amplifier is:
12. Explain the principle of operation of an
(a) 1.2 × 103 (b) 1.2
op amp summing amplifier.
(c) 1.2 × 1010 (d) 1.2 × 10−5
13. In a summing amplifier having three inputs,
the output voltage Vo is given by: Vo = . . . . . . 4. The output voltage, Vo , in the amplifier shown
in Fig. 21.26 is:
14. Explain the principle of operation of an
op amp voltage comparator. (a) −0.2 V (b) +1.8 V
(c) +0.2 V (d) −1.8 V
15. Explain the principle of operation of an 3kΩ
op amp integrator.
1k Ω
16. In an op amp integrator, the output voltage Vo 2
is given by: Vo = . . . . . .
1
17. Explain the principle of operation of an Vi 5 0.6 V
Vo
op amp differential amplifier.
18. Explain the principle of operation of a binary
weighted resistor digital to analogue converter
using a four-bit input. Figure 21.26
19. Explain the principle of operation of a four-bit
5. The 3 kΩ resistor in Fig. 21.26 is replaced by
counter type analogue to digital converter.
one of value 0.1 MΩ. If the op amp has an
input bias current of 80 nA, the output offset
Practice Exercise 136 Multi-choice voltage is:
questions on operational amplifiers (a) 79.2 µV (b) 8 µV
(Answers on page 566) (c) 8 mV (d) 80.2 nV
1. A differential amplifier has an open-loop volt-
age gain of 100. The input signals are 2.5 V and
2.4 V. The output voltage of the amplifier is:
 Operational amplifiers 433

6. In the op amp shown in Fig. 21.27, the voltage 8. A steady voltage of −1.0 V is applied to an
gain is: op amp integrator having component values
(a) −3 (b) +4 of R = 100 kΩ and C = 10 µf. The value of the
(c) +3 (d) −4 output voltage 10 ms after applying the input
15 k Ω
voltage is:
(a) +10 mV (b) −1 mV
(c) −10 mV (d) +1 mV
2
9. In the differential amplifier shown in
1 Fig. 21.29, the output voltage, Vo , is:
Output (a) +1.28 mV (b) 1.92 mV
Input voltage
voltage 5kΩ (c) −1.28 mV (d) +5 µV
80 k V

5kV
0.1 V 2
Vo
Figure 21.27 0.02 V 1
5kV
7. For the op amp shown in Fig. 21.28, the output 80 k V
voltage, Vo , is:
(a) −1.2 V (b) +5 V
(c) +2 V (d) −5 V
Figure 21.29

10 k V 10. Which of the following statements is false?

2kV
0.8 V (a) A digital computer requires a D/A con-
2
Vo
verter
0.4 V
4kV 1 (b) When negative feedback is used in an op
amp, a constant and predictable voltage
gain results
(c) A digital voltmeter requires a D/A
Figure 21.28 converter
(d) The value of frequency at which the
open-loop gain has fallen to unity is
called the transition frequency

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 133 and 134 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird