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SMART URBAN MOBILITY
This page intentionally left blank
SMART URBAN
MOBILITY
TRANSPORT PLANNING IN THE AGE
OF BIG DATA AND DIGITAL TWINS
Ivana Cavar Semanjski
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Industrial Systems Engineering and Product Design,
Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Notices
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understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
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use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-820717-8

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 Contents

Preface vii 4. Small and big data for mobility studies

1. Introduction 4.1 Objectives of the chapter 79

4.2 Word cloud 79
1.1 Objectives of the chapter 1 4.3 Introduction 79
1.2 Word cloud 1 4.4 Traditional data collection approaches 81
1.3 Introduction 1 4.5 Big data for mobility studies 84
1.4 Background 1 References 116
1.5 Why smart mobility and why now? 3
1.6 Audiences 3 5. Data analytics
1.7 Chapter structure 5
References 7 5.1 Objectives of the chapter 121
5.2 Word cloud 121
2. Introduction to smart mobility 5.3 Data analytics introduction 121
5.4 Data analytics workflow 122
2.1 Objectives of the chapter 9 5.5 Machine learning 134
2.2 Word cloud 9 5.6 Data anonymization 165
2.3 Mobility 9 References 168
2.4 Smart city 12
2.5 Smart mobility 20 6. Transport planning and big data
References 22
6.1 Objectives of the chapter 171
3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility 6.2 Word cloud 171
6.3 Four-step transportation planning model 171
3.1 Objectives of the chapter 25 6.4 Literature review of big data advances for four-step
3.2 Word cloud 25 transport planning model 175
3.3 Urban population trends 25 References 201
3.4 Multimodality 29
3.5 Connected mobility 38 7. Data-driven mobility management
3.6 ConnectedX 49
3.7 Electric vehicles 59 7.1 Objectives of the chapter 205
3.8 Shared mobility 62 7.2 Word cloud 205
3.9 Mobility as a service 67 7.3 Introduction 205
3.10 Governance 69 7.4 Big data-driven mobility system monitoring 206
3.11 Smart mobility innovations 71 7.5 Analytics-based mobility management decision
3.12 Change management 72 making support 208
3.13 State of the affairs 74 7.6 Example: incentivization of mobility
References 75 behavior 209

v
vi Contents

7.7 Example: mobility management 9. Summary

as a service 215
References 220 9.1 Objectives of the chapter 239
9.2 Word cloud 239
8. Digital twin 9.3 About the book 239
9.4 Features 240
8.1 Objectives of the chapter 223 9.5 Summary of chapters 240
8.2 Word cloud 223 9.6 Some smart mobility lessons learned 243
8.3 Digital twin 223
8.4 Example: electric vehicle’s digital shadow 234
8.5 Example: urban air mobility 235
List of acronyms 247
References 237 Index 251
 Preface

Traditionally, transport studies have mainly systematic overview of big data sources and
relied on surveys, or so-called small data, to un- techniques, as well as data-driven advances
derstand travel behavior and mobility dynamics. and identified limitations, together with a num-
Recent availability of various location-based ber of examples and good practices, hopefully
techniques, such as Global Navigation Satellite to provide a point of reference to all those who
Systems (GNSS) or Call Record Details (CDR), are interested in exploring the topic further.
has created new opportunities to better under- With this, the author would also like to thank
stand mobility needs and patterns. However, to to a large number of people who have provided
bridge between traditional techniques, new pos- impact, influence, and support in creation of this
sibilities, and mobility planning or decision- book. To my parents, Mate and Mirjana for un-
making needs, plenty challenges still need to be conditional support and understanding, to my
addressed. The author believes that there is husband Silvio for all the kindness, encourage-
much to be gained in the meaningful application ment, and constructive discussions that fueled
of big data analytics to smart city and smart this creative process, to Dragana and Dario,
mobility context and hopes that this book will and to Toni and Petar for all the joy that they
be instrumental in facilitating this fusion for the have brought and much needed focus on impor-
good of urban mobility and increased quality tant things. Also, to the whole Ghent Univer-
of life. sity’s ISyE team, for fruitful collaboration and
The book addresses current challenges that shared research curiosity, as well as knowledge,
arise in urban mobility context, provides and inspiration that they have broth.

vii
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 C H A P T E R

1
Introduction
1.1 Objectives of the chapter 1.4 Background

What is the background of this book? The beginning of 2020s finds connected multi-
What topics are addressed in this book? modal mobility in the forefront of urban trans-
Why is it relevant now? formation. Cities grow larger, and based on the
Who is the intended audience of this book? United Nations (UN) estimates, it is expected
What intended audiences can expect to that Europe’s population in urban areas will in-
achieve reading this book? crease from today’s 74% to about 83.7% in 2050
(United Nations, 2018). At the same time, cities
increasingly face problems caused by transport
1.2 Word cloud and traffic. European Environment Agency re-
ports that congestion costs nearly 2% of the Eu-
Fig. 1.1 illustrates a word cloud with an over-
ropean Union’s (EU) Gross Domestic Product
view of the content of this chapter.
annually while 85% of the EU’s urban popula-
tion is exposed to fine particulate matter PM2.5
at levels deemed harmful to health (European
1.3 Introduction Environment Agency, 2016). To face this chal-
lenge, cities increasingly strive to implement
This book explores the data-driven paradigm- SUMPs (Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans) aim-
shift in urban mobility planning and how ing to increase the quality of life in their areas
well-established practices that are not likely to be and encourage economic growth. Cities
abandoned by transport planners, and strong data currently generate 80% (World Bank, 2020) of
analytics efforts, mainly invested by computer sci- all economic growth; hence, their advances reso-
entist, can be better aligned to fit transport plan- nate strongly through a wider area.
ning practices and mobility management needs. On the other hand, over the past decades,
Hence, the book will explore the boundaries and there has been strong development in the
interface between major subject areas as urban, domain of sensing technologies. It comes as no
mobility and smart city planning, and data science surprise that today most of us carry mobile
and analytics. This chapter sets the scene for the phones with integrated various sensors (e.g.,
reminder of the book, gives more details regarding Global Navigation Satellite System sensors,
the background, intended audiences, and explains accelerometer, microphone, etc.) or interact
how the content will be tacked. with different sensors while doing our daily

Smart Urban Mobility

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2 1. Introduction

FIGURE 1.1 Introduction chapter word cloud.

activities (e.g., bank card payments, inductive privilege to have the opportunity to write this
loops on roads, etc.). All such interaction and ac- book and communicate about many of these ad-
tivities produce torrents of data as a by-product vances. Much of the book’s content is derived
of their operations, and some estimations indi- from a series of research and innovation activ-
cate that this equals to an average of 1 GB of con- ities that I had privilege to be involved in over
tent per individual daily (Semanjski et al., 2016). the past decades, as either a researcher, project
This huge data stream is often being referred to manager, or expert evaluation for funding
as big data and, among many things, is affecting bodies as the European commission. These activ-
the way we shape our urban space into smart cit- ities afforded a unique opportunity to collabo-
ies and our mobility into smart mobility. rate with different domains and experts linked
These circumstances create exciting time to be with both urban planning, decision making,
urban mobility professional. Increased urban and data science from both private and public
mobility complexity, rapidly rising data science sector. In my modest oppinion, much of the suc-
capabilities, and mobility-related data availabil- cess related to the data-driven mobility innova-
ity all together create stimulating landscape for tion is closely linked with good understanding
innovations and new possibilities, and it is a of the balance between capabilities and
 1.6 Audiences 3
limitations of big data applications as well as analytics will minister as a platform for gaining a
mobility planning practices. Hence, good under- better understanding of urban mobility interac-
standing of data availability and limitations as tions and increased efficiency that caters to
well as mobility and urban planning needs is more liveable cities.
crucial. This brings us to the motivation to write
this book, that is to support bridging between
mobility planning and data sciences domains 1.6 Audiences
as key driving forces behind the smart mobility
developments. There is a twofold motivation behind high-
lighting the intended audience for the book.
Firstly, it empowers the author with a clear
1.5 Why smart mobility and why now? vision of the intended target readership to steer
the selection and presentation of the content. Sec-
Both urban and mobility planning cater to hu- ondly, it provides understanding to the readers
man needs. Understanding human behavior regarding the value that can be attained by
seems to be a core element in achieving liveable reading the content of the book. The book in-
cities and big data availability provides us with a tends to address the following readers:
possibility to gain insights into this behavior at • Transport planners and practitioners;
levels and volumes that were not possible ever • City officials and policy makers;
before. This provides significant opportunities • University professors and students;
to improved decision making at all levels. The • Business analysts, data scientist, data
book is my modest attempt to share experience engineers, and developers;
gained through fusion of a background in trans- • Smart city and smart mobility advocates,
port and traffic sciences with a big data analytics consultants, and implementers;
passion. These two branches are entwined • Citizen scientists and members of citizens’
throughout all of my professional experience, participation initiatives;
and this path has been full of revelations and • Multidisciplinary urban planning and
new insights into how data analytics can benefit mobility projects managers.
urban mobility. The aim of this book is to build
awareness, interest, and understanding within The subsequent section describes each of
the smart mobility community, motivating re- these readership groups and explains the value
searchers, and practitioners to become familiar they can obtain from reading the book.
with and endeavor into new big data-driven
possibilities for smart mobility. And while the
1.6.1 Transport planners and
term big data itself might seem as omnipresent
lately, there are significant opportunities and
practitioners
added value that can be achieved by integrating This group includes urban mobility planners
big data potential into mobility practice. The and practitioners as traffic engineers, public
frequent use of the term can also indicate that a transport operators, fright planners, and execu-
larger community has at least an awareness of tive leaders in mobility. The book aims to pro-
the evolving domain, although this awareness vide this readership group with general
might not always be built on a solid foundation. understanding of big data, sensing techniques
This is an additional motivation for writing this and analytics and how they can be applied in a
book at this particular moment. The hope is practical and benificial way to urban mobility
that this common interest in big data and related domain. To achieve this, book gives an overview
4 1. Introduction

of the main big data sources used for this pur- 1.6.4 Business analysts, data scientist,
pose and the related best practices. This over- data engineers, and developers
view is shaped in an easy to understand way
for those who have no technical or computer sci- Business analysts, data scientist, data engi-
ence background, but still clearly highlighting neers, developers, and other data and analytics
the important aspects of each of the data sources professionals are likely to be involved in the
that can greatly affect the applicability and the development of data-driven solutions for smart
outcomes of mobility measures and campaigns. mobility and/or application of existing market
This is also complemented with the practical ex- solutions to mobility problems. The book aims
amples, best practices, and lessons learned. to assist them in understanding the needs of
transport planners and smart mobility decisions
makers in order to derive clearly focused and
1.6.2 City officials and policy makers enriching research questions as well as to pro-
vide an overview of how their expertise and so-
This group includes city officials, city mayors, lutions can be applied in a practical and useful
and other policy makers and executive leaders way to smart mobility domain. To achieve this,
charged with implementing smart city and smart the book also offers an introduction to the trans-
mobility vision. The book aims in providing this port planning information needs and the state-
group with understanding of big data-driven po- of-the-art research literature overview of current
tential and its added value, as well as existing advances in this domain.
limitations, when it comes to supporting the
smart mobility planning and policy making. It
provides illustrative examples of best practices 1.6.5 Multidisciplinary urban planning
and hands on advices based on the lessons and mobility projects managers
learned by their peers.
Managing smart city and smart mobility pro-
jects integrates knowledge, skills, tools, and tech-
1.6.3 University professors and students niques to project activities to meet the project
requirements. It also means managing multidis-
University professors and students stand at ciplinary teams including various sectors (indus-
the frontier of mobility-related research. This try, administration, research, end-users .). The
topic rarely comes isolated; hence, this book book aims to provide this group with a trough
aims to support the readership group across understanding of how big data and analytics
related domains as transport and traffic sciences can be applied to mobility in a practical way. It
and engineering, computer sciences, urban plan- assists in building common vocabulary and un-
ners, social geographers, social sciences, derstanding of existing challenges among multi-
Geographic Information System scientist, engi- disciplinary team members to facilitate their
neers, Information and communication technol- collaboration and bridging among their
ogy, and telecommunication by providing the expertises.
state-of-the-art overview on big data applica-
tions in smart mobility. It is hoped that system-
atic overview and insight into practical needs
1.6.6 Citizen scientists and members of
and applications of smart mobility professionals
as well as future smart mobility prospects will
citizens’ participation initiatives
spur the research curiosity and inspire innova- Recent years have been colored with a num-
tive research lines and efforts. ber of co-creation activities in mobility domain.
 1.7 Chapter structure 5
Very often, these activities involve citizen scien- pockets that might become available in our
tists (nonprofessional scientist involved in scien- schedules; time on a train commute, while wait-
tific research) and/or citizen initiatives ing for the boarding in the airport, those several
(participatory involvement of citizens to influ- minutes before falling asleep or a quarter to sit in
ence their local institutions) that aim to support the sun at the park before the next course starts.
shaping of liveable smart cities. For this reader- The subchapters are created to be readable in not
ship group, the book aims to provide up-to- more than 15 min of time. This makes easier to
date and useful resources on the world of big follow the content and round up ideas until
data and analytics within smart city and smart next opportunity to read comes.
mobility context. It is hoped that an explanation Overall, the book contains nine chapters. Each
of how latest data analytic techniques and tech- chapter has a similar structure. It starts with
nologies can be applied to liveable cities will three basic elements: introduction, objectives of
facilitate communication and understanding the chapter, and the word cloud. The word cloud
among the initiatives and professionals to a presents the words used most often within the
mutual benefit. chapter, with the size of the font proportional
to the frequency of their mentioning in the chap-
ter. This way it provides you with a quick and
1.6.7 Smart city and smart mobility simple visual overview of the chapters’ content.
advocates, consultants, and implementers Chapter’s objectives highlight the key topics
This readership group includes wide spec- and questions that will be tackled in that chapter,
trum of smart city enthusiast and advocates while short introduction sets the scene for the
that contribute to the landscape and shaping of content.
new ideas and smart mobility applications. The
book provides this group with information on
current advances and best practices and assists 1.7.1 Topics/chapters
in building the understanding regarding the
As already mentioned, the book incorporates
multidisciplinary vocabulary and existing chal-
nine chapters. Each chapter addresses a range
lenges within smart city and smart mobility
of subjects related to understanding smart
domains.
mobility and data analytics challenges and fol-
lows a similar structure. The content of the sub-
sequent chapters is summarized in the following
1.7 Chapter structure sections.
Whether you are student, professional trying
to balance private life with work or manager
trying to find couple of minutes between the pro- 1.7.1.1 Chapter 2: Introduction to smart
jects to grow, finding time to read the full book in mobility
one breath seems to be challenging task in to- This chapter sets the scene for the reminder of
day’s world. Hence, I have divided each chapter the book by introducing the key terminology
into several subchapters; smaller junks of con- and building the understanding related to the
tent dedicated to a specific topic or a question. scope of the smart cities and smart mobility
The idea behind this division is to make the con- that will be tackled in more detail trough the
tent readable and digestible in small time following chapters.
6 1. Introduction

1.7.1.2 Chapter 3: The new challenge of number of illustrative and practical examples
smart urban mobility of their applications in the smart mobility
This chapter explores the paradigm-shift in context. The chapter is also intended to provide
urban mobility planning and motivation behind the requisite background to the reader for
this shift. It introduces key challenges of modern reading the chapters that follow.
urban mobility as connected mobility, multi-
1.7.1.5 Chapter 6: Four step transport
modal mobility, and mobility-related gover-
planning model and big data
nance challenges.
The chapter moves the story forward by giv-
1.7.1.3 Chapter 4: Small and big data for ing a short insight into the way transport plan-
mobility studies ning is done and has been done for decades. It
The chapter small and big data for mobility introduces the general transport planning frame-
studies sets the scene and presents the connec- work and main transport planning and fore-
tion between the traditionally used data sources casting models. It gives a more detailed
for mobility planning and big data potential. To description of one of the best known transport
do so, the chapter contains definitions of these planning models, the four-step transport plan-
terms, description of the data collection ap- ning model and includes subchapters dedicated
proaches, data examples, lists the main charac- to each step of the four-step transport planning
teristic of each data source relevant for the model (trip generation, trip distribution, mode
transport planning and highlights the advan- choice, and route assignment).
tages and disadvantages of each of them. This in- For each of these steps, the overview of the
cludes, but is not limited to: state-of-the-art literature and the best results is
given (based on each big data set introduced
(i) survey-based mobility data collection, in the previous chapter). The idea behind this
(ii) global navigation satellite systems (as GPS, overview is to give a systematic reference, to
Galileo .) mobility data collection, both the researchers and the practitioners, on
(iii) smartphone-based mobility data collected, where are we at this point, what are the plau-
(iv) Call details records (CDR)-based mobility sible applications of big data for smart mobility,
data collection, what are the open questions that are crucial for
(v) other big data sources for mobility studies fruitful implementation of big data-driven in-
(e.g., Internet of Things (IoT), public sights into smart mobility and transport plan-
transport ticketing data). ning. To researchers, this is a point of
reference on where to focus their research in or-
1.7.1.4 Chapter 5: Data analytics der to support smart mobility developments
Chapter on data analytics introduces key data and for the transport planners and practi-
analytics concepts linked with the small and big tioners, it is a reference point to the existing ad-
data and their applications in the smart city and vances and barriers related to the big data
smart mobility contexts. integrations.
The chapter provides a comprehensive and
systematic overview of data analytics funda- 1.7.1.6 Chapter 7: Data driven mobility
mentals with a focus on machine learning tech- management
niques. It presents several selected methods in As the previous chapter is more related to
detail, as support vector machines, k-nearest strategic and longitudinal transport planning,
neighbors, k-means, decision tree, neural net- this chapter tackles the big data potential for
works, and cross-validation, and provides a operational smart mobility management in
 References 7
smart cities. It concerns questions such as data 1.7.1.8 Chapter 9: Summary
availability and real-time data analytics, data The book concludes with Chapter 9, which
quality, and privacy, and open and commercial provides an overview of essential elements
data use in the unified framework. It gives an covered within the book. It distils the key infor-
overview and lessons learned based on two ex- mation provided in the book to define advice
amples, one related to the provision of incentives for a wide range of smart mobility professionals,
to support mobility behavior changes and one providing concise summary of actions to
related to the development of data-driven consider after digesting the content of the book.
mobility management as a service framework. It is followed with the list of acronyms that
gives a brief overview of key acronyms and ter-
1.7.1.7 Chapter 8: Digital twin minology used throughout book.
This chapter tackles the breakthrough
methods for transport planning and mobility References
managements as a digital twin of urban area
European Environment Agency, 2016. Air quality in Europe
concept. It gives stratified overview of the digi-
report. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen,
tal twin, its components, and architecture. It Denmark.
discusses the role of the digital twin in the Semanjski, I., Bellens, R., Gautama, S., Witlox, F., 2016. Inte-
smart city context, either as a smart mobility grating big data into a sustainable mobility policy 2.0
tool or as a general tool for smart city assets planning support system. Sustainability 11 (1142), 8.
life cycle monitoring, maintenance, and/or United Nations, 2018. World urbanization prospects: The
2018 revision. United Nations, Department of Economic
management. The chapter includes examples and Social Affairs, Population Division, New York, USA.
of digital twin applications in the smart World Bank, 2020. Urban development report. World Bank,
mobility context. Washington, USA.
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 C H A P T E R

2
Introduction to smart mobility
2.1 Objectives of the chapter Etymologically, the word mobility comes
from the Latin word m
obilis indicating that some-
What is mobility? thing is movable or loose. In the 18th century, the
What is urban mobility? term mobility came into wider utilization, partic-
What is smart city? ularly in the military context when it was used to
What is sustainable city? indicate the ability of a military unit to move or
What is quality of life? be transported to a new position. This trend
What are the smart city domains? continued in the upcoming centuries and in the
What is smart mobility? 19th century the term mobility can also be found
in the physics domain (to describe the degree to
which particles of a liquid or gas are in move-
2.2 Word cloud ment) and sociology (to depict people’s ability
to move between different social levels or profes-
Fig. 2.1 presents a word cloud with an over- sional occupations) (Sorokin, 1998).
view of the content of this chapter. Nowadays, the term mobility is so entwined
into our everyday lives that some consider it a
key component of the world today (Peter,
2.3 Mobility 2017), and it is preeminently used in two main
contexts: spatial and social. In the social context,
At the beginning of this book, it seems partic- it refers to the same usage that originates from
ularly important to have a clear common under- the 19th century (to describe movement between
standing of the key terms that will be used different social levels or professional occupa-
through the book. It also helps readers coming tions), and in the spatial context, it refers to a
from different backgrounds to gain understand- movement between two spatial coordinates,
ing about the scope of the book and context in hence capturing well the terminology both
which specific topics will be considered and dis- from the military and the physic domains.
cussed further on. The intention is to have as ho- However, in the scope of this book, we will
listic as possible terminology definitions that are focus only on the spatial mobility context. In
then put in the context of particular uses, or in more detail, we will consider mobility from a
our case, the mobility context. Having said this, traffic and transport perspective as movement
it seems natural to start from the mobility defini- (change of spatial coordinates over time) of transport
tion itself. entities (humans, freight, information) by means of

Smart Urban Mobility

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10 2. Introduction to smart mobility

FIGURE 2.1 Introduction to smart mobility word cloud.

transport modes utilizing the transport infrastructure infrastructure over the predefined rules, then
over the predefined rules and the context linked with mobility can be seen as a wider term in its scope.
this activity. Please note that in this aspect we Mobility (Fig. 2.3) encapsulates both the traffic
do not consider, for example, pipelines as trans- and transport, but with the addition of a wider
port and/or transport infrastructure. As in this context. This means that mobility does not look
case, the moving object (e.g., water, gas, oil .) merely at the movement, but alongside tries to
does not utilize the infrastructure over the prede- understand a wider context of this movement,
fined rules but rather moves freely following the like understanding the purpose and the
basic physical laws. Hence, a little to nothing will reasoning behind the need for the movement of
be said about the pipelines within this book. the entities, understanding the consequences
As the presented mobility definition seems (e.g., pollution), accessibility to the linked infra-
rather long, it is worthwhile having a look at structure and services and interaction with the
the specific segments of the definition. If we overall, build and nonbuild, environment.
consider traffic and transport (Fig. 2.2) to be a Considering the transport entity mentioned in
movement of transport entities by means of the definition, the three categories, humans,
transport modes utilizing the transport freight, and information, seem quite intuitive.
 2.3 Mobility 11

FIGURE 2.2 Transport and traffic.

They all use transport modes (for instance, prospects of this book, our interest mainly lies
freight uses containers, humans trains, informa- with humans. Why? Because, both freight and
tion data packages) to move across the transport information are being transported to satisfy the
network (infrastructure) with the in advance needs of people, either for goods or information.
known and accepted rules (e.g., for the utiliza- Hence, understanding human behavior and hu-
tion of the limited network capacity, resolving man needs are at the heart of any mobility plan-
conflicting flows at the network nodes as inter- ning. This brings us back to the notion that
sections, etc.). mobility concerns a wider context than just a
All three categories of the transport entities technique and technology associated with the
are relevant for this book and will be captured movement itself, but rather considers the full
throughout its content, although the information context of this movement’s intricately tied cau-
will be viewed from the big data analytics salities such as human needs.
perspective and not from the data network opti- Some of the key working definitions that will
mization and/or design point of view. Neverthe- be used in this book related to mobility are indi-
less, it seems worthily noting that from the cated in the following section.
12 2. Introduction to smart mobility

2.3.2 Urban mobility

Urban mobility is a form of mobility that
takes place in urban areas. This means that the
whole movement or a trip, or at least a part of
it, unfolds in an urban setting. Spatially, we
can consider intraurban (mobility where both
trip’s start and end locations are situated in the
same urban settlement), suburban (where trip
either starts in urban area and ends in subur-
ban/rural setting or vice versa), and interurban
mobility (where trip starts in one urban setting
and ends in another urban domain). Here, joint
characteristics of all of these trips are that at least
part of them takes place in an urban settlement
(Fig. 2.4).

FIGURE 2.3 Mobility. 2.4 Smart city

2.3.1 Terminology/definitions
Quite prevalent lately in public discourse one
Mobility: movement of transport entities by can find the term smart tied with the term city or
means of transport modes utilizing the transport urban environment. Most often, this happens in
infrastructure over the predefined rules and the the context of the coined term smart city.
context associated with this activity. This interest in the evolving domain has pos-
Movement or transport: change of spatial co- itive implications in opening up the public dis-
ordinates over time, but without changing the cussion about the emerging concept and
characteristics of the entity. evidencing that a wider array of people has at
Transport entities: content that is being least some awareness of its existence. A number
moved: humans, freight, and/or information. of concerns like opinions that this awareness
Transport modes: the means or the way in does not necessarily translate in a good and
which transport entities are being moved/ widespread understanding of the smart city
transported. concept and that the concept itself remains rather
Transport infrastructure: the basic static ob- abstract for many (McQueen, 2017) can also be
jects necessary for the operation of transport. heard. There are several justified reasons for
Traffic: stream of transport entities moving these concerns, including the fact that the
over the transport infrastructure (e.g., private concept of smart city refers to still relatively
cars on a public road or the messages or signals young and largely unexplored interdisciplinary
transmitted through a communications system). field that in many of its domains resides still at
Small terminology note: transportation is the highly conceptual level without possibility to
same as transport, it is just that one term is directly reflect in objectively measurable indices.
used more in American English (transportation) However, smart cities are inevitably linked
and another in British English (transport). In this with smart mobility, and for this reason, it seems
book, we will use British English terminology, particularly relevant to go beyond the pure
hence the term transport. mentioning of the term in this book toward
 2.4 Smart city 13

FIGURE 2.4 Urban mobility.

14 2. Introduction to smart mobility

reaching a working definition that will be uti- technologies in everyday urban living that re-
lized further on in its content. sults in innovative transport systems, infrastruc-
Thus, when we have a look at the evolution of tures, logistics, and green and efficient energy
the smart city term, literature reports that it first systems, while Angelidou (2014) stresses the
appeared in 1994 (Dameri & Cocchia, 2013). role of ICT to achieve prosperity, effectiveness,
Although this looks relatively far away, the and competitiveness. Next to this, Su et al.
term was not widely accepted from the moment (2011) share strongly technologically focused
of its first appearance, and it took almost point of view and define the smart city as a
25 years until it came into wider use among re- pure combined product of the Digital City and
searchers and practitioners. In more details, the Internet of Things concepts. More recently,
this happened in 2010, as this year EU launched McQueen (2017) portrays a smart city as “appli-
its smart city initiative and a number of projects cation of advanced technologies to the needs, is-
dealing with the smart cities pioneered the same sues, problems and objectives of people living in
year. urban environment.”
In parallel, several attempts to reach the defi- And here, we come to another component
nition of the smart city concept took place. that is often being moved to the forefront when
Among first, Hall (2000) tried to define a smart it comes to the realization of the smart city
city as “a city that monitors and integrates condi- concept, in addition to the new technologies,
tions of all of its critical infrastructures, including and that is the role of a human capital (Hollands,
roads, bridges, tunnels, rails, subways, airports, 2008; Nam & Pardo, 2011; Neirotti, 2014). This
seaports, communications, water, power, even “human capital tread” can be followed through
major buildings, can better optimize its re- a number of smart city concept definition
sources, plan its preventive maintenance activ- attempt. For example, Caragliu et al. (2011)
ities, and monitor security aspects while describe a smart city as a place where “invest-
maximizing services to its citizens” (Hall, ments in human and social capital and tradi-
2000). This link between the smart city concept tional (transport) and modern (ICT)
and the monitoring perspective was also communication infrastructure fuel sustainable
captured in Marsal-Llacuna et al. (2015) who economic growth and a high quality of life,
see smart city initiatives as rooted in “the previ- with a wise management of natural resources,
ous experiences of measuring environmentally through participatory governance.” Dameri
friendly and liveable cities, embracing the con- sees smart city as “a well-defined geographical
cepts of sustainability and quality of life but area, in which high technologies such as ICT, lo-
with the important and significant addition of gistic, energy production, and so on,
technological and informational components.” cooperate to create benefits for citizens in terms
One can notice that next to the monitoring of well-being, inclusion and participation, envi-
perspective, Marsal-Llacuna et al. (2015) also ronmental quality, intelligent development”
highlighted the role of ICT as a relevant element governed by “a well-defined pool of subjects,
associated with the monitoring process. And able to state the rules and policy for the city gov-
indeed an extensive body of literature that em- ernment and development” (Dameri, 2013). Next
phasizes the use of modern technologies as a to this, several authors emphasize the impor-
key component tied with the smart city concept tance of urban services in the smart city context
can be found (Gonz alez & Rossi, 2011; Hsieh (Belanche et al., 2016; Correia & W€ unstel,
et al., 2011; Jucevicius et al., 2014; Paroutis 2011), including the European Commission (Eu-
et al., 2014). For example, Lombardi et al. ropean Comission, 2020) that defines a smart city
(2012) accentuate the application of modern as a “place where traditional networks and
 2.4 Smart city 15
services are made more efficient with the use of city’s joint vision, on boarding other stake-
digital and telecommunication technologies for holders into this transformative process. Or in
the benefit of its inhabitants and business.” other words, there is no technological solution
Finally, several efforts were also invested into that will achieve the smart city vision goals by it-
developing differentiation between the smart self, without integrating the people oriented
city concept and the associated concepts as digi- perspective.
tal and sustainable cities. Among others, Dameri This bring us to the working definition of
and Cocchia (2013) systematically explore the smart city that we will use in this book: a smart
relationship between the smart and the digital city is a responsive city where stakeholders share
cities while Ahvenniemi et al. (2017) take a a common vision and strive to achieve more sus-
deeper look at the interaction between the sus- tainable city with higher quality of life (QoL) by
tainable and smart cities. the use of the most suitable and efficient means,
Even brief literature review reveals that there often involving the use of innovative technology.
is a divergence in the smart city concept defini- And while innovative technologies span out the
tions among various stakeholders. This should range of new opportunities to achieve the desired
not come as surprise as it seems rather natural goals, they should not be seen as the only option on
that stakeholders as practitioners and researcher this journey toward the smart city vision realiza-
may place different emphasis and focus on the tion. Sometimes the most efficient solution for a
aspects that fall within their area of interest, given community and the desired goal can be truly
hence tending to view and define smart city a low-tech solution. An example of this could be
concept from their own perspective. However, placing a physical barrier to close the area for the
this sometimes does not bring us closer to the private car traffic and create a pedestrian zone,
clarification of the subject but rather dilutes opposite to placing cameras or some other poten-
from the achievement of a holistic definition. tially costly technological solution that would limit
Nonetheless, even a brief literature review the private car traffic acces to this area. This can
makes apparent that two relevant mainstreams also be a part of the smart city concept and smart
can be identified throughout the smart city defi- city vision and, for some, it can reasonably be the
nition efforts. The first one being the ICT and most suitable and efficient mean for various rea-
technology-oriented point of view on a matter sons as privacy related issues and/or unfavorable
and second one being the people-oriented cost benefit ratio for a given context.
perspective. Hence, one could say that the true “smart-
Having said this, and based on a personal ness” in the smart city vision comes from people
experience, achieving a smart city concept reali- and the way in which they utilize this given
zation seems to be a more of a process than a so- spectrum of the new possibilities and solutions
lution. And to have a meaningful transformation rather than from the new technologies imple-
process toward the smart city concept realiza- mentations per se. Hopefully, this book can at
tion, it seems crucial to have a coherent and least a little bit support these efforts by sharing
aligned understanding of what smart city means a light and building an understanding about
to the community and the involved stake- the new emerging data sources and data-
holders. Hence, regardless of what one finds as driven possibilities, as well as associated needs
a final aim of this process on a local level, and linked limitations in the smart city context.
weather that is an increase in green-blue areas One can also notice that this people-oriented
ratio in the city domain, less energy consump- perspective seems to be more rooted in the smart
tion, more sustainable community, or something city concept realizations across Europe, than the
else, it inevitably starts with the citizens and the ICT and technology-oriented vision that seems
16 2. Introduction to smart mobility

to be prevailing in some other areas. For this a balance among the aspects of environment
reason, and for the reason of personal experi- and society, we refer to such cities as liveable
ence, majority of the examples presented in this cities.
book will come from the European cities’ The notion of a viable city, in the sense of “the
experiences. ability to survive and develop,” requires other
two aspects to be, and remain, in balance with
each other. The first one being the, above
mentioned, physical, and biological environ-
2.4.1 Sustainable city ment in and around cities that generate resources
As a lot has been said in the literature lately and amenities for the city’s population. The sec-
about the sustainability (Ahvenniemi et al., ond one concerns the ability of the city to create
2017) and the term seems to be widely accepted, the economic viability of its services and welfare
we will not go deep into the definition develop- for its inhabitants and businesses, as well as to
ment. However, as sustainable city is an impor- maintain it through time. While it is conceivable
tant element of the smart city definition, we that significant economic prosperity and welfare
will briefly summarize the key principles. can be experienced over limited time period
Sustainable system is a system that can be while undermining the surrounding, and over-
continued at the same pace or level of activity all, biophysical ecosystem, over the long term
without harming its efficiency and the people the city’s prosperity is inevitably entwined to
affected by it. In principle, sustainability lies on environmental sustainability. In other words,
the three balanced pillars, economy, environ- the city’s infrastructures and ecosystems estab-
ment, and people, which are closely related to lish the boundary constraints that affect the abil-
the ideas of liveable, viable, and fair cities. These ity of city’s populations to flourish. However, on
three concepts, liveable, viable, and fair cities, the other hand, the pressures that city’s dwellers
are often set as guiding principles for planning exert on environment mold those constraints
and policy when sustainability is placed on the themselves intricately (Ruth & Coelho, 2007).
agenda and for this reason we will shortly reflect Hence, for a city to be considered a viable one
on the notion of liveable, viable, and fair cities. the aspects of economy and environment need
The notion of a liveable city, in the sense of to be in balance with each other.
“suitable to live in,” requires continuous balance The notion of a fair city, in the sense of “the
between two aspects. The first one concerns the equitable community” requires the remaining
society or in more detail the characteristics of two aspects to be, and remain, in balance with
the population and their needs for goods and each other. The first one concerns the society
services as housing, energy, water, food, health, and their needs for goods and services as hous-
education, entertainment, social engagement, ing, energy, water, food, health, education, enter-
etc. A second aspect comprises the build and tainment, and beyond. A second aspect
nonbuild city’s environment. This includes ele- comprises the economic prosperity and the capa-
ments as the built infrastructures, but also the bility to produce goods and services for the soci-
ecosystems that provide the needed goods and ety as well as to ensure economic viability. As it is
services on which city’s livelihoods depend. At not possible to create successful economies in so-
the very least, this stems from the green-blue cieties that fail, it is equally not possible to have
spaces in and around cities, as forests and water successful communities without the capability
bodies, that provide valuable contributions to to provide for the city’s requirements. Hence, a
life conditions as, for example, local climate balance between how much one can contribute
regulation and air quality. Hence, when there is to the community and how much one needs in
 2.4 Smart city 17
order to be able to have a decent life in a commu-
nity needs to be achieved. This concerns ques-
tions as optimization of goods and services use,
prioritization of their allocation and fostering of
their equitable distribution. It reflects in, among
others, a chance to have a good life and be able
to contribute to society regardless of where one
starts, opportunities for education and access to
jobs, sharing of risks, inclusion, and equal oppor-
tunities regardless of aspects as age or gender.
Hence, when the economy and society aspects
are in balance with each other, the city is consid-
ered to be a fair or equitable one.
The notion of liveable and viable cities is often
promoted under the hat of an environmental sus-
tainability as it portrays the sustainability that is
based on the environment pillar. Following the
same logic, the notion of viable and fair cities is FIGURE 2.5 Sustainable city.
viewed as economic sustainability while liveable
and fair cities are seen as aspects of social sustain- deals with the interaction among different ele-
ability. While cities with very different economic ments (economy, society and environment),
and social profiles, and different cultural norms, QoL is more subjective and concerns the internal
may place different emphasis when it comes to perception of human being on its life and interac-
sustainability, a truly sustainable city needs to tion with its surrounding.
be all, liveable, viable, and fair. In this aspect, QoL is seen as a general well-
Hence, sustainable city is a city where social, being of individuals and societies and concerns
environmental, and economic aspects are in bal- the expectations that individual or society have
ance, meaning that a city can achieve and main- toward the life, whereas these expectations are
tain its liveability, viability, and fairness at the guided by the personal values, goals, and
same pace of development or activity without socio-cultural context in which an individual
harming its efficiency, people or the environ- lives (Fig. 2.6). The QoL can be perceived
ment within the city and/or affected by the through a prism of different domains of a per-
city (Fig. 2.5). sonal life, including, among others, physical
As seen in the previous section, many smart health, family, education, employment, wealth,
city definitions attempt integrate separately safety, security, freedom, religious beliefs, and
terms as liveability and/or viability. However, the environment (Rapley, 2003).
as these terms are a lower level terms in their There have been several attempts to try to
scope than the sustainability, they are compre- measure or quantify the QoL (Felce & Perry,
hended within the proposed smart city definition. 1995), either through singular perspectives of
distinct domains or by devising comprehensive
measures. In this context, the opinion that there
is a necessity to incorporate the subjective views
2.4.2 Quality of life of the individual’s directly into such estimation
Another important element of the smart city seems to be prevailing (Jenkinson, 2020). One
definition is the QoL. Whereas sustainability of such measurements, which is often considered
18 2. Introduction to smart mobility

On an illustrative example, if a segment of

one’s expectations toward their personal heath
is seen through the prism of his/her expected
weight being, for example, 50 kg while their
actual weight is 80 kg. Then one can bridge this
gap, or increase their level of satisfaction, by
either losing their weight (moving the compo-
nent of individual’s actual life closer to the
expected vision) or by “lowering the expecta-
tions” toward their desired body image and
desiring to have 80 kg, 70 kg or some other value
closer to their actual weight. Each movement of
these borders (actual and expected) closer to
each other should have the same effect in the
terms of life satisfaction and increased QoL and
the actual optimum of the selected measure de-
pends on one’s context (their health conditions,
height, gender, age, etc.).
FIGURE 2.6 Quality of life.
Smart city sees an increased QoL as one of its
in the context of the QoL, is the life satisfaction, main goals and there is a lot that can be done
where the life satisfaction represents a gap be- regarding the use of the most efficient means,
tween ones perception of its actual life and the often involving the use of innovative technology,
desired QoL (Anand, 2016). to increase it. These activities can range from
Collaterally this gap can be a positive one moving the actual way of living in the city closer
(actual life is seen as better than the expected to the desired one or by affecting the vision of the
one, in which case the life satisfaction is high) expected personal life to meet potential bounds
and negative one (actual life is seen as underach- given the local and global context.
ieving when compared to the expected one, in An example of the first approach can be
which case the life satisfaction is low) (Fig. 2.7). implementation of improvements and solutions
One can notice that there are two principal that would increase the efficiency of the city ser-
paths to bridge the potential negative gap or to vices as transport system (e.g., reduce the travel
increase the life satisfaction. The first one con- time between the two locations to meet the
cerns bringing the vision of the expected per- desired quality of service). On the other hand,
sonal life closer to the one’s actual life, or by an example of “lowering expectations” can be
“lowering the expectations.” The second one re- awakening or encouragement of sustainability
fers to moving the components of individual’s vision so that individual decreases the need for
actual life (physical health, family, education, personal indulgence to ensure cumulative sus-
employment, wealth, safety, security, freedom, tainability at the level of the society. For
religious beliefs, and the environment) closer to example, affecting ones’ vision of the desired
the expected vision. The third path is then a com- transport mode for commuting (e.g., private
bination of these two principal paths. car) toward the use of more sustainable option
 2.4 Smart city 19

FIGURE 2.7 Life satisfaction.

that still meets their needs as electric car, bike, or about the urban environment complexity, from
collective transport like train. the perspective of smart mobility, will be said
in the following chapter (see Chapter 3), while
sensing and data analytics will be discussed in
2.4.3 Role of the new technologies in sequential chapters (see Chapters 4 and 5). This
smart city will pave the way for the smart city and smart
mobility decision-support considerations in the
As already mentioned, ICT and innovative
reminder of the book.
technologies are seen as impeding element to
many smart city processes and solutions. In
more details, they provide a new spectrum of
2.4.4 Responsive city
possibilities closely related with the:
Responsive city is another term associated
(i) advanced sensing (or monitoring)
with the smart city vision. Responsive city is
opportunities;
closely associated with the capability of the city
(ii) insights extraction from emerging data
(its services, environment, people and business)
sources;
to react appropriately to a given stimulus or
(iii) improved decision making based on the
change in the system. This includes changes as
new knowledge and
implementation of new policies, disturbances,
(iv) increased responsiveness.
and/or unforeseen situations as natural disas-
In the context of smart cities, the decision ters. Hence, responsive city is a resilient city
making process encapsulates both the more that can react appropriately and efficiently to
informed decision making process at the city planned and unforeseen stimuluses and/or
level as well as those performed by the citizens changes.
in their daily lives and/or business in their daily Smart city developments have a big potential
activities. to foster city responsiveness, either by timely
However, for complex systems as urban envi- sensing or analytics-based notification of the
ronment, there is often no simple transition from occurring change, improved communication
sensing to the decision making and from the de- and dissemination of appropriate messages to
cision making to actual effective responsiveness the target audiences, improved two-way
(action and reaction of the city components). communication among city, its citizens and busi-
The in-between step(s) strongly depend on data ness, improved and more informed decision
analytics and knowledge/information/insights making as well as decreasing the reaction time
discovery capabilities. For this reason, more and overcoming occurring barriers. More about
20 2. Introduction to smart mobility

these elements of the responsive city will be dis- responsive infrastructural solutions, land use ad-
cussed in the following sections of the book and vances, etc.
illustrated across number of smart city and smart The mobility domain of the smart cities is
mobility examples. often referred to as smart mobility, and whereas
this topic will be discussed throughout the con-
tent of this book, next section gives a brief intro-
duction and presents the working definition of
2.4.5 Smart city domains the smart mobility that will be integrated in the
Smart city is a holistic concept, but more prac- reminder of this book (Fig. 2.8).
tically, it is reflected in the smart city domains or
dimensions. These are practical fields where the
concept so far showed the strongest transforma-
tive impact. 2.5 Smart mobility
These smart city domains are
Having a look at the available smart city def-
• Mobility;
initions, one can notice a strong role of mobility
• Infrastructure;
in contributing to the smart city vision. This
• Ecosystem;
aspect of smart city vision is often referred to
• Economic activity;
as smart mobility. When having a look at the
• Urban services;
literature, one can notice far less efforts to define
• Living.
smart mobility, but still some worthwhile at-
Living focuses on already discussed aspects of tempts were made.
personal life in the city as improved QoL and its Similar to the smart city concept definitions,
domains, while urban services include a wide the view on smart mobility is also placed in
spectrum of city related services like govern- two camps. One focused on the role of ICT and
ment, education, health, safety and security, technologies (Jeekel, 2017; Manders et al., 2018;
waste management, etc. Some examples of the van Audenhove, 2014) and another focused on
smart city urban services domain are advances citizens and their needs. Among the first, Batty,
and innovations in the health care sector, use of et al. shared a vision where smart mobility
analytics to develop insight-driven policies, concept is not just limited to the diffusion of
track performance and outcomes, enable constit- ICT, but it looks at people and community needs
uent engagement, and improvements in govern- (Batty, 2012). Docherty et al. (2018) emphasized
ment efficiency and advances in virtual learning the differentiation between “digital” and
opportunities, among others. “smart,” arguing that with the smart mobility
The dimension of economic activity incorpo- vision these should not be seen as synonyms as
rates competitiveness of business and economic “urban mobility becomes smart when smart ac-
welfare of its citizens, leveraging the proximity tors take advantage of smart technology in the
of a high number of citizens with diverse skills context of smart regulations, policies, plans and
and profiles as well as the availability of innova- interactions.” They link smart mobility closely
tions. Domains of infrastructure and ecosystem with the use of big data to make short and
include the build and nonbuild environment ele- long-term predictions based on the resulting in-
ments. Some of the examples include, construc- formation, and take actions to improve travel
tion of smart buildings, utilization of green experience and mobility system operations while
energy, reduction of negative externalities of reducing the consumption of resources and the
daily activities within the city, connected and impact on the environment.
 2.5 Smart mobility 21

FIGURE 2.8 Smart city ecosystem.

A number of authors also see smart mobility were primarily developed for the road traffic,
as closely related to intelligent mobility (Papa particularly at the highways and motorways
& Lauwers, 2015) or intelligent transport sys- (e.g., motorways traffic monitoring and manage-
tems (ITS). In this context, Chun and Lee (2015) ment, use of variable message signs, etc.). This
define a smart mobility as “a concept of compre- later endeavored into other transport modes do-
hensive and smarter future traffic service in com- mains (waterways, railways, etc.), equivalently
bination with smart technology. A smart again at the long distance routes. Later on, ITS
mobility society is realized by means of the cur- shyly entered the urban mobility arena, mainly
rent intelligent traffic systems”. This seems in the domain of traffic control improvements
intriguing as smart mobility links with the exist- and applications. There are several reasons for
ing ITSs. However, they are not equivalents. these developments. Firstly, highways and mo-
Anand et al. defined the ITS as a system torways represent long road network segments
“which arose as an application of the informa- with barley few traffic flows interactions (e.g.,
tion technologies (communications, sensors, arti- intercepting roads); hence, monitoring and man-
ficial vision, control systems, data storage aging these is rather simpler option than moni-
management, etc.) to surface transportation net- toring and managing of urban mobility flows.
works” (Anand, 2017). The ITS mainly concerns Second simplification comes from the mere fact
the use of information technologies, and it was that a limited number of transport modes is
developed before the availability of big data permitted to enter the highways and motorways
came into the picture. This is a first differentia- (mainly private cars, heavy and light good vehi-
tion between the two terms. The second one cles), this limits the number of interactions
comes from the utilization of the ITS tools which among different transport modes and retains
22 2. Introduction to smart mobility

the complexity of the traffic flow. Therefore, it Batty, M., 2012. Smart cities of the future. The European
makes sense that the early adoptions of new Physical Journal Special Topics 214 (1), 481e518.
Belanche, D., Casal o, L.V., Or us, C., 2016. City attachment
technologies were developed and integrated and use of urban services: Benefits for smart cities. Cities
into somewhat simplified environment, looking 50, 75e81.
from the urban mobility perspective. This experi- Caragliu, A., Del Bo, C., Nijkamp, P., 2011. Smart cities in
ence is valuable and comes handy when looking Europe. Journal of Urban Technology 18 (2), 65e82.
at the smart mobility concept, which links with Chun, B.T., Lee, S.H., 2015. Review on ITS in smart city.
Advanced Science and Technology Letters 98, 52e54.
the smart city vision, hence is predominantly Correia, L.M., W€ unstel, K., 2011. Smart cities applications
focused on the urban mobility complexity, and requirements, White Paper. Net, Brussels, Belgium.
which will be discussed in more details in the Dameri, R.P., 2013. Searching for smart city definition: A
following chapter (see Chapter 3). comprehensive proposal. International Journal of Com-
So, what is a smart mobility? Smart mobility puters & Technology 11 (5), 2544e2551.
Dameri, R.P., Cocchia, A., 2013. Smart city and digital city:
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smart city. In more detail, it is a common, citi- Italy.
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stakeholders that aims to achieve more sustain- smart mobility. Transportation Research Part A: Policy
able urban mobility system, which improves and Practice 115, 114e125.
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the QoL of citizens, often by integrating big opment/topics/cities-and-urban-development/city-ini
data and innovative technologies. tiatives/smart-cities_en (Accessed 10 June 2020).
We will expand further on this basic terminol- Felce, D., Perry, J., 1995. Quality of life: Its definition and
ogy as we evolve trough the content of the book. measurement. Research in Developmental Disabilities 16
(1), 51e74.
But for now, it seemed particularly relevant to Gonzalez, J.A., Rossi, A., 2011. New trends for smart cities,
highlight some key terms and concepts in order open innovation mechanism in smart cities, Bruissels,
to have a clear understanding of the underlying Belgium: European commission with the ICT policy sup-
basis that we will build further on. This also port programme.
helps to set the foundations of the scope of the Hall, P., 2000. Creative cities and economic development. Ur-
ban Studies 37 (4), 639e649.
book and to have clear understanding among Hollands, R.G., 2008. Will the real smart city please stand up?
different readership groups of the basic concepts Intelligent, progressive or entrepreneurial? City 12 (3),
and the way in which they will be tacked 303e320.
throughout the content of the book. Hsieh, H.-N., Chou, C.-Y., Chen, C.-C., 2011. The evaluating
indices and promoting strategies for intelligent city in
Taiwan. IEEE, Hangzhou, China.
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Ahvenniemi, H., Huovila, A., Pinto-Sepp€a, I., Airaksinen, M., Exploring the relationship. Transportation Research Pro-
2017. What are the differences between sustainable and cedia 25, 4296e4310.
smart cities? Cities 60, 234e245. Jenkinson, C., 2020. Quality of life. In: Encyclopædia
Anand, P., 2016. Happiness explained. Oxford University Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, London, UK.
Press, Oxford, UK. Jucevicius, R., Patasien_e, I., Patasius, M., 2014. Digital dimen-
Anand, P., 2017. Intelligent transportation systems. In: sion of smart city: Critical analysis. Procedia-Social and
Romer, B. (Ed.), Intelligent vehicular networks and com- Behavioral Sciences 156 (26), 146e150.
munications, fundamentals, architectures and solutions. Lombardi, P., Giordano, S., Farouh, H., Wael, Y., 2012.
s.l. Elsevier, pp. 1e242. Modelling the smart city performance, Innovation. The
Angelidou, M., 2014. Smart city policies: A spatial approach. European Journal of Social Science Research 25 (2),
Cities 41, S3eS11. 137e149.
van Audenhove, F., 2014. The future of urban mobility 2.0, s.l. Manders, T.N., Wieczorek, A.J., Verbong, P., 2018. Under-
Arthur D. Little and UITP. standing smart mobility experiments in the Dutch
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automobility system: Who is involved and what do they Paroutis, S., Bennett, M., Heracleous, L., 2014. A strategic
promise? Futures 96, 90e103. view on smart city technology: The case of IBM Smarter
Marsal-Llacuna, M.-L., Colomer-Llinas, J., Melendez- Cities during a recession. Paroutis, Sotirios, Mark Bennett,
Frigola, J., 2015. Lessons in urban monitoring taken and Loizos HeracleousTechnological Forecasting and So-
from sustainable and livable cities to better address the cial Change 89, 262e272.
Smart Cities initiative. Technological Forecasting and So- Peter, A., 2017. Mobility. Taylor & Francis, Milton Park,
cial Change 90, 611e622. United Kingdom.
McQueen, B., 2017. Big data analytics for connected vehicles Rapley, M., 2003. Quality of life research: A critical
and smart cities. Artech House, Boston, USA. introduction. Sage, Thousand Oaks, USA.
Nam, T., Pardo, T.A., 2011. Conceptualizing smart city with Ruth, M., Coelho, D., 2007. Understanding and managing the
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Papa, E., Lauwers, D., 2015. Smart mobility: Opportunity or Su, K., Li, J., Fu, H., 2011. Smart city and the applications.
threat to innovate places and cities. Ghent, Belgium, s.n. IEEE, Ningbo, China.
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 C H A P T E R

3
The new challenge of smart urban
mobility
3.1 Objectives of the chapter most noteworthy, the overall global population
has increased rapidly. This pronounced increase
What is the underlying complexity of urban is probably easiest to illustrate by having a look
mobility? at the timeline, where by the 1800s the overall
What is multimodality? global population has grown to 1 billion, fol-
What is connected mobility? lowed by a bit more than 200 years, during
What are automated and connected vehicles? which it has grew sevenfold, up to 7.7 billion,
What are connected infrastructure and con- as it is today (United Nations, 2019a, 2019b,
nected traveler? 2019c, 2019d).
What are electric vehicles? In parallel, the global median age has
What is shared mobility? increased by almost 50% moving from 21.5
What is MaaS? years, in 1970, to over 31 years, in 2020. Accord-
What is change management? ing to the United Nations, this trend is expected
What are living labs and what is co-creation? to continue, with the median age reaching 36
What is a quadruple helix? years by 2050 and 42 by 2100 (United Nations,
2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2019d). In this context, re-
gions like Latin America and the Caribbean,
3.2 Word cloud despite long known for their younger popula-
tion, are projected to see the most significant
Fig. 3.1 presents a word cloud with an over- shift from the current median age of 31 poised
view of the content of this chapter. to increase to 41, while Europe is anticipated to
have the oldest median age, 47 years, in 2050
(Carneiro Freire et al., 2019).
3.3 Urban population trends The later is strongly related to the increase in the
average life expectancy. Since the 1900s, the global
Several population-related trends gained sig- average life expectancy has more than doubled
nificant importance and are strongly affecting and is now above 70 years. However, there are
life in the cities today, as well as shaping what distinct characteristics across regions and nations
cities are to become in the future. Firstly, and related to life expectancy, that is ranging from the

Smart Urban Mobility

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820717-8.00011-7 25 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
26 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

FIGURE 3.1 The new challenge

of the smart urban mobility word
cloud.

Central African Republic, with the lowest life ex- as the population grows faster in urban areas
pectancy of 53 years in 2019, to 83 years in Japan. than in rural ones. On one hand, the number of
Furthermore, today almost a quarter (26%) of urban centers has almost doubled, from about
the world population is younger than 14 years, 6900 in 1975 to more than 13,100 in 2015. On
some 16% are between 15 and 24 years old, the other hand, their population size has also
half of the world population is in the working grown and is expected to continue growing, as
age bracket between 25 and 65, while 8% are the proportion of the world’s population living
older than 65. However, between 2020 and in urban areas has doubled from 2.8 billion in
2100, the number of people ages 80 and older 1975 to some 5.6 billion people in 2015. Even
is expected to increase from 146 million to 881 more, by 2100, approximately 85% of the popu-
million and it is projected that in 2073, for the lation is expected to live in cities, with the urban
first time in history, there will be more people population increasing eightfold from less than 1
ages 65 and older than under age 15 (United Na- billion in 1950 to 9 billion by 2100 (OECD, 2020).
tions, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2019d). Hence, while From an urban planning’s land use perspective,
the overall world population is growing, it is at it is also interesting to observe that about 60% of
the same time becoming older (both in relative cities (Schiavina et al., 2019) have seen an increase
and absolute numbers) while the life expectancy in land consumed per new resident as their urban
is getting higher (Fig. 3.2). surface area (built-up footprint) exceeded half a
Secondly, in the majority of countries, there is million square kilometers in 2015 (a 20% increase
an inequality in the regional population growth since 2000). However, urban areas have grown
 3.3 Urban population trends 27

FIGURE 3.2 World population by broad age group (in 1000 000s), 1950e2020 and forecast 2020e2100 (United Nations,
2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2019d).

with distinct characteristics across regions of the the implementation of smart city and smart
world. While in Asia, Africa, Latin America, mobility concepts and related agendas. While it
and the Caribbean, urban population increased remains challenging and uncertain to say how cit-
in relative terms more than urban built-up areas, ies will evolve, react to specific measures, what
in Europe and Northern America the inverse will be the attitudes and expectations of certain
occurred, meaning that more land is now being age groups, etc., as many of these are in a long
consumed to accommodate new urban residents term affected by a number of factors, some key
than previously (Fig. 3.3). population trends can be observed around the
When it comes to the sizes of urban areas, almost globe (Fig. 3.3). These trends can at least provide
60% of the world’s urban residents live in settle- some indications of what is there ahead of us,
ments with less than 1,000,000 inhabitants while allow us to plan better, and are, as such, an
45% live in settlements with fewer than 250,000 in- important source of information for planners of
habitants. There are about 500 urban centers that all aspects of urban living, including mobility.
are home to at least 1 million inhabitants and, Overall, it is expected that the urban popula-
among them, 29 megacities with more than 10 tion will grow and get older, and cities will
million residents (Carneiro Freire et al., 2019). By grow also, but their build-up footprint will be
2030, it is predicted that there will be 662 cities somewhat diverse across the globe as new urban
with at least 1 million inhabitants and 43 mega- residents in Europe and North America will
cities, most of which will be in developing regions consume more land than previously, which will
(United Nations Population Division, 2016). not be the case in rest of the World. This also
means that mobility solutions in the cities will
need to serve more travelers than they did so far
3.3.1 Key urban population-related
and that these travelers are likely to have different
challenges mobility needs due to aging (e.g., increased need
Understanding the key trends in urbanization for noncommuting trips), challenging the existing
likely to unfold over the coming years is crucial to capacities and infrastructures as well as
28 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

FIGURE 3.3 Key World population trends.

interaction with the surrounding environment. them in urban areas, hence decisions made at
Respectively, an increasing number of residents this point in time and ways to adopt smart
will be affected by the quality of life in the city mobility solutions will have a long-term effect
and mobility solutions and services available for on an increasing number of the urban residents.
 3.4 Multimodality 29

3.4 Multimodality include bikes and walking. The water transport

modes are divided into two general categories;
Initially, the focus of transport planning was those intended for inland waterways and those
oriented toward connecting larger urban areas for maritime transport and include ships and sub-
with each other. For these purposes, major roads, marines (which can navigate also under the
railways, and ports were built as cities were seen waterline). The air transport mode includes
as the origin and destination of human mobility aircraft where a primary distinction is between
patterns and needs. Major investments were those that are heavier than air (as airplanes, heli-
planned for long-distance infrastructure and cit- copters, etc.) and lighter than air (as balloons,
ies were seen merely as nodes that needed to be nonrigid airships (blimps), and dirigibles planes).
connected. It was not until industrialization, and Furthermore, they can be categorized into those
the emergence of private vehicles, that transport with the propulsion system (e.g., reciprocating
planning entered the cities’ arena. engines, jet engines, etc.) or without, and into
However today the situation is somewhat those that are manned or unmanned, as UAV (un-
different and urban areas are arguably the most manned aerial vehicles) (Fig. 3.4).
challenging mobility sphere due to the number All of the transport modes can be found in the
of people and freight that utilize the transport city, although some of them are typically placed
infrastructure and services, the number and in- at the borders of urban settlements (e.g., airports
tensity of trips made, as well as complexity of in- as end destinations for larger airplanes). In such
teractions in this system. One of these cases, often the longest part of the trip is made
complexities originates from the diversity of by larger (in size and capacity) transport modes,
transport modes present in the cities. and the part of the trip that interacts with the city’s
mobility system is called a “last mile”. Researchers
and mobility professionals dedicate special atten-
tion to the “last mile” trips due to their complex
3.4.1 What transport modes exist in the
interaction with the urban system components
city? and their impact on transport demand and over-
As mentioned earlier (see Chapter 1, Mobility), all competitiveness among the transport modes.
transport modes are the means or the way in which However, transport modes do not only
transport entities are being moved/transported. compete for the same urban mobility market
They are designed to either carry passengers, freight, but can also complement one another in aspects
or information, but most modes can carry a combi- such as cost, speed, service frequency, quality of
nation of the above-mentioned. In general, transport service, accessibility, etc. This complementarity
modes fall into three basic types, depending on the can be strengthened if:
medium that the more through/on; land, water,
(i) transport modes are foreseen to serve
and air transport modes, and within the scope of
different areas. A good example would be
this book we will focus on those that are used to
the one of the “last mile” trips where various
transport people and/or freight.
transport modes enable continuity within the
Land transport modes can be motorized on
overall transport system as they concern
nonmotorized. Main motorized land transport
different scales (for instance, airplane or train
modes are those that use roads as cars, motorcy-
modes for international and public transport
cles, buses, HGVs (heavy goods vehicles), and
modes for urban part of the trip),
LGVs (light good vehicles), and those that use
(ii) transport modes serve different transport
railways as trains, and trams, metro, LRT (light
entities in the same area. For instance,
rail transit). Main nonmotorized transport modes
30 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

FIGURE 3.4 Transport modes.

complementary use of LGV and public (iii) transport modes provide different levels of
transport to transport freight or service (LoS) in the same area. For example,
passengers. the use of a private car, train, or bike for
 3.4 Multimodality 31
commuting trips balances differently the trips involve a combination of several (at least
costs versus time aspects of mobility two) transport modes that are being used from
service. one’s trips origin to the trip destination. Such
trips are called multimodal trips (European
However, any interaction between different
Commission, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c) (Fig. 3.5).
transport modes requires specific attention when
The terms multimodal trip, and multimodal
it comes to mobility planning and urban planning
transport, are not always used in the same
in general. This concern, not only the network
manner across literature and/or by service pro-
planning and spatial planning as dedicated areas
viders. Therefore, in the following section, we
for pedestrians and motorized transport in the
provide a brief overview of different definitions
city, but also the shared network capacities as in-
and our motivation for utilizing the terms
tersections between public transport and private
mentioned above.
cars traffic, mixed flows of motorized and nonmo-
torized traffic, etc. Furthermore, the interaction
between different transport modes requires inter- 3.4.1.1 What is the difference between
connection points in the network. These points or multimodal and intermodal transport?
network nodes can be complex (involve the inter- There are two principal approaches when it
face between several transport modes as mobility comes to defining multimodal and intermodal
hubs) or simple (involving only two transport transport. One, the transport entity oriented
modes such as park&ride, parking locations, pub- and the other, contractor oriented.
lic transport stops, etc.). The transport entity-oriented approach seems
This is especially relevant for a growing num- to be more current in Europe and observes the
ber of multimodal trips in the urban environ- way in which the transport entity travels. If the
ment. In nature, unimodal trips (trips made by transport entity travels in a uniform, holistic
using a single transport mode) are rare. Exam- unit (e.g., container) that is then being trans-
ples of such trips include walking trips (e.g., to ported using multiple transport modes but
visit a nearby bakery or cinema), but most often without losing the integrity (e.g., opening and

FIGURE 3.5 Unimodal and multimodal trips.

32 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

repackaging of the container’s content), then this entities from an origin to a destination relies on
is called intermodal transport. An example of utilizing several (multi, from Latin multus mean-
intermodal transport would be a container that ing many) transport modes. For this reason, for
is traveling by ship to a port where it is then all the trips that use at least two transport modes,
transferred to a train and/or from train to truck we will refer to them as multimodal trips.
toward its final destination. The use of such ho-
listic transport entity units facilitates the manip- 3.4.1.2 What are sustainable transport
ulation and reduces the number of operations at modes?
the nodes that are specifically designed to Not all transport modes score equally when it
accommodate the interfacing of two or more comes to sustainability. This concerns social
transport modes of travel (e.g., intermodal (e.g., increased accessibility, reduced congestion,
terminals). increased safety, reduced incidents and acci-
Contrary to this, if the entity is not traveling in dents), environmental (e.g., energy intensity,
the holistic unit from its origin to its destination, reduced pollution, and emissions), and eco-
for instance, the container is being repacked at nomic (e.g., reduced cost, increased speed, ca-
the network nodes where the switch between pacity, flexibility, and reliability) impacts.
transport modes is being accommodated, then Those transport modes that satisfy transport de-
this is considered to be a multimodal transport mand in an efficient manner with minimal nega-
(Steadie Seifi et al., 2014). tive impact regarding the above-mentioned
The other approach, which is prevailing in social, environmental, and economic aspects
North America, defines multimodal and inter- are considered to be sustainable transport
modal transport by considering the contractor. modes. Fig. 3.6 provides a comparison,
From this perspective, intermodal transport is regarding the emissions, space use, capacity,
defined as the movements of transport entities and infrastructure-related costs, of some of the
from an origin to a destination relying on several most frequent transport modes that we can
modes of transport where each carrier is issuing find in the cities today.
its own ticket (passengers) or contract (freight)
In general, sustainable urban transport modes
(Slack, 1998). Respectively, multimodal transport
can be divided into three categories:
refers to the movements of passengers or freight
from an origin to a destination relying on several - active transport modes, such as walking and
modes of transport, but by using a single ticket cycling:
(passengers) or contract (freight) (Rodrigue, 2020). o require human activity as an energy source,
Although there are two principal approaches o usually slower, when compared with other
to their definitions, the concepts of multimodal- categories,
ity and intermodality seem to be well established o somewhat limited in capacity and traveling
in the freight transport context. However, their distance,
definitions are not always directly transferable o cost efficient and with low emissions.
to passenger transport. This comes from the - collective urban transport modes (e.g., public
mere nature of humans as transport entities, transport such as bus, tram and metro
which are holistic in their nature. For these rea- services, or train service):
sons, the terms multimodality and intermodality o capable of transporting large numbers of
seem to be often used interchangeably in the pas- people and achieving economies of scale,
senger transport context. Nonetheless, all the o spatially limited as they provide publicly
above definitions have one thread in common, accessible mobility over specific parts of a
and that is that the movement of transport city or lines,
 3.4 Multimodality 33

FIGURE 3.6 Comparison of the most frequent urban land transport modes. Based on Ministerio de energia, Chile. (2021). Con-
sumo vehicular. [Online] Available at: http://www.consumovehicular.cl/. (Accessed 23 January 2021); Ribeiro, S. et al. (2012). Chapter
9 - energy end-use: Transport. In: Global energy assessment - toward a sustainable future (pp. 575e648). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
34 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

o energy efficient, considering energy some cases, motorized individual means of

consumed per traveler, transport might be the most suitable and sustain-
o environmentally efficient, considering able option considering all aspects. However, in
emissions and pollution per traveler, such cases use of innovative mobility services,
o cost efficient per traveler, considering that such as shared mobility or on-demand public
the overall cost of the journey is, in some transport, as well as more sustainable vehicle
manner, shared among a large number of propulsion systems, such as electric vehicles,
passengers. are options worth exploring.
- motorized individual means of travel, such as Today, many cities and communities try to
private cars: encourage the use of more sustainable transport
o conveniency regarding trip coverage and modes in their local context. In general, these efforts
traveling times (for instance, moment of rely on ASI (Avoid, Shift, Improve) approach, con-
departure) as they are highly adjustable per sisting of sets of steps that are ideally executed in
individual traveler, sequential order. This encompasses:
o usage is highly related to the occurrence of
- reduction of transport demand by designing
road congestion,
the mobility system where unnecessary trips
o have a high impact on emissions and
can be avoided (avoid). One of such
pollution in cities, e.g., noise (see how this
examples is “close-by” mixed purpose land
relates to new propulsion systems as
use neighborhoods approach, where the idea
electric vehicles in the following sections),
is to place mixed content such as grocery
o have high space demand per vehicle (see
markets, libraries, shops, bakeries, parks,
how this relates with the new mobility
offices, restaurants, education, etc. entwined
services as shared mobility in the following
with residential buildings. This way, a
sections),
number of trip motives and daily needs (as
o have a high energy consumption per traveler.
grocery shopping, jogging, leaving kinds in a
As a rule of thumb, the above list represents kindergarten, etc.) can be satisfied in the
the order of sustainable urban transport modes vicinity of people’s homes, reducing the need
from those considered to be the most sustainable for the use of motorized transport modes.
to those that are considered to be the least sus- - promotion of more sustainable transport
tainable. However, in practice, for every commu- modes encourages a modal shift by
nity and a given need for mobility, the capitalizing on the comparative advantages
sustainability of the available transport modes of sustainable transport modes over those
can differ in their order. An example would be less sustainable in a comparable mobility
connectivity of a remote urban community context. The aim is to encourage individuals,
with an elderly population or mobility-poor and urban logistics operators, to shift to
community. In such cases, although emissions another, more sustainable, transport mode if
and cost-wise use of shared bikes would be an these comparative advantages are significant.
interesting option, it might not be efficient due Hence, many city authorities are actively
to the population characteristic (e.g., elderly trying to highlight comparative advantages
population with specific mobility needs). On as well as to provide additional incentives for
the other hand, a collective transport line might citizens to encourage their modal shift. Such
not be economically viable due to a low number measures can involve rewarding systems,
of passengers and reduced frequency that would gamification of mobility services for some
fail to satisfy the mobility demand. Hence, in groups of users, tax benefits, etc.
 3.4 Multimodality 35

FIGURE 3.7 Modal shift phases. Based on Rodrigue, J.-P. (2020). The Geography of transport systems. 5th ed. New York, USA:
Routledge.

This modal shift often takes place over three initiative or living labs. The significant
sequential phases (Fig. 3.7), including effects at this stage are not imminently
(Rodrigue, 2020): observable and due to low numbers are
o Inertia: during this phase, the modal shift often considered as a lack of modal shift.
starts a bit slow and is usually difficult to However, this is an important stage, that if
notice. This is mainly due to the existence of managed well can lead to a more
a strong level of inertia associated with significant modal shift.
familiarity, comfort, and investments o Modal shift: is the central phase during
related to the use of the initial mode of which the benefits of sustainable modes of
transport (for example, car ownership, transport become widely recognized. The
experience gained, time invested in trend of adopting new modes of transport
obtaining a driver’s license, etc.). At this during this phase changes drastically,
stage, various different exogenous factors, going from poor performance, during the
including incentives, regulations, and inertia phase, to exceeding performance
policies, combined with endogenous and becoming a widely accepted tendency.
factors such as personal motivation and The occurrence of rapidly growing
individuals’ attitudes toward numbers needs to be carefully
sustainability, play an important role in the contextualized, and infrastructure
decision of a limited number of, so-called, investments need to be carefully
early adopters to experiment with modal considered in this phase as a significant
shift, often as part of a publicly subsidized reduction in comparative advantage will
36 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

ultimately spark the end of the modal shift - efficient transport nodes distribution and
phase. An example of this includes cases level of service (e.g., prioritization of different
where the sustainable mobility option mobility options at signalized intersections),
becomes increasingly congested due to its - connectivity between different mobility
high acceptance, while initial modes of options as mobility hubs organization,
transport are becoming less congested and placement, and synchronization between
therefore more attractive, familiar, and mobility options (for instance,
easy-to-return options. synchronization of railways timetables with
o Maturity: is the final phase during which public transport options, spatial distribution
the comparative advantages of individual and placement of park and ride facilities, etc.),
modes of transport, such as congestion, - urban mobility policies, measures, and
become more stable and vary less over planning strategies, and above all,
time. At this stage, the mobility system has - the capability to meet the mobility needs of its
realized its potential for modal shift and a residents in an efficient and sustainable
new balance has been reached regarding manner.
the use of transport modes. This sets the
stage for the next step of the ASI approach.
- The final step of the ASI approach concerns
3.4.3 Example: transport mode
the improvement of transport mode’s
vehicles and fuel efficiency (for instance,
competitiveness in an urban area
the use of renewable energy sources) as The following example is situated in the ur-
well as the optimization of the operational ban area of the city of Leuven, Belgium, and il-
efficiency (e.g., for public transport and lustrates the competitiveness among transport
shared mobility). In this manner, the newly modes during afternoon peak hours. The city
achieved balance is further improved by of Leuven is the capital of the province of
advancing the characteristics of the vehicles Flemish-Brabant and is located about 25 km
and the services to reduce potential east of Brussels (capital of Belgium). The Brussels
negative impact to its minimum. international airport is situated between these
two cities and Leuven is connected to it by
road, rail, and bike highway networks. The
Leuven municipality itself comprises the historic
3.4.2 Key multimodal mobility-related city, surrounded by the very busy ring road, and
challenges the neighboring municipalities (Heverlee,
The presence of a variety of transport modes Kessel-Lo, a part of Korbeek-Lo, Wilsele, and
within the city area creates an opportunity to Wijgmaal), covering the total area of 57.51
make available several diverse mobility options square kilometers (Stad Leuven, 2016). Leuven
for its residents. However, to capitalize on this is home to almost 100,000 inhabitants and hosts
opportunity, aspects such as transport modes’ a university with more than 50,000 students.
complementarity and competitiveness need to All of this contributes to the creation of a very
be addressed. This relates to questions such as: dynamic urban atmosphere that results in a lot
of traffic and related traffic congestion.
- space utilization, sustainability, and efficiency Fig. 3.8 illustrates the reachability of the main
(for instance, shared infrastructure as road train station as observed in Leuven during the
space that is shared between private cars, public afternoon peak hour on weekdays, showing the
transport, freight transport, and cyclists), city center area (within the city ring) and a
 3.4 Multimodality 37

FIGURE 3.8 Transport modes competitiveness within the city of Leuven, Belgium.

location of the main train station situated in the which the train station, during the afternoon
north-eastern part of the city ring. The two peak hour, will be reached faster by car.
colored areas represent the results of the The map is a strong visualization component
observed transport mode, and their travel times, that was used by the city’s and province’s stake-
competitiveness during the afternoon peak holders to open up the discussion about the use
hours when it comes to the reachability of the of more sustainable mobility options in the city,
main train station. Mobile phone tracking data as it provided evidence-based view on the
used for the analytics underlying this illustration competitiveness between these two transport
were collected from 3400 people during a period modes.
of 6 months (Semanjski & Gautama, 2016a, It also provided one of the first insights on the
2016b). impact of the bike highway on the overall
The blue area on the map indicates the parts mobility system and accessibility of the city cen-
of the city from which the train station will be ter area. The bike highway was introduced in
reached faster by bike, during an average work- Leuven in 2015, and the leaning part of the
ing day and the afternoon peak hour, than by blue area (on the left side of the map) is directly
car. The yellow area illustrates the opposite, associated with the new infrastructure (bike
parts of the city and the surrounding area from highway) that was introduced to the city
38 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

mobility system. The bike highway stretches From the perspective of personal mobility, the
from the middle of the city center to the North focus is on the overall trip (from its origin to its
and bends toward the West (in the direction of destination) and this often involves the use of
the Brussels airport). The blue area that leans to- several transport modes during a single trip.
ward the West surrounding of the city, illustrates Hence, from the perspective of personal
the extended reachability of the train station, but mobility, connected mobility concerns the effi-
also the overall city area, for active transport cient use of a variety of mobility options and
mode as cycling. Furthermore, collected data transport modes in a single trip. Whereas, for
and resulting illustrations allowed decision example, public transport operator can be
makers to see the imminent effect and accep- perfectly satisfied with the efficiency at the spe-
tance of the new measures, relative usage of cific public transport line in terms of speed, ca-
the newly introduced connectivity in compari- pacity utilization, costs, etc., from the
son with other options on the same route, as perspective of traveler who uses this line during
well as the direct impact of the infrastructure in- his/her trip, this might not be the case if the
vestments on the city center reachability. seamless mobility is not achieved. An example
of this situation would be if one, after the use
of this public transport line, would need to
spend a long time waiting for a connecting pub-
3.5 Connected mobility lic transport line.
In this context, seamless mobility concerns
The question of connected mobility gained trip where, from the traveler perspective, there
significant attention in literature and practice is no noticeable barrier/disturbance during the
lately, particularly in the context of smart part of the journey or where the two parts of
mobility. There are two perspectives on con- the trip join into a single journey. The dimen-
nected mobility, the human-oriented and the sions of seamless mobility include:
technology-oriented one. Here, we will focus
on human-oriented perspective, whereas the • Cost efficiency:
technology-oriented perspective on connected o use of a single ticketing system: hence, there
mobility will be discussed in more detail in the is no need to stop to purchase or validate
following section (see Chapter 3, ConnectedX). the additional ticket.
In urban areas, several transport modes are • Time efficiency:
present. This often also means that several stake- o synchronized urban mobility: e.g., arrival
holders are involved in the mobility service pro- and departure moments of tram lines at the
visions and planning. For example, public rail stations are synchronized with the
transport providers might be interested in the arrival/departure moments of trains,
efficient organization of public transport such hence, there is no time wasted on waiting
as buses or subways. Traffic managers might when switching from one transport mode to
be interested in optimizing the road traffic, striv- another;
ing to have synchronized, and efficient traffic o time utilization: placement of desired
lights at key urban mobility corridors. However, facilities in (or close by) interchange
from the context of multimodal urban traffic, locations as shops, post offices, readers
their activities are mainly affecting a limited libraries, and/or other facilities that can
number of transport modes’ related to mobility, contribute to more efficient use of travelers’
and hence, a limited number or parts of the trips time and/or contribute to a more pleasant
when it comes to personal mobility. journey;
 3.5 Connected mobility 39
o efficient functioning of transport network the available mobility options (e.g., easy, effi-
without congestion and delays. cient, accessible, and affordable mobility ticket-
• Space efficiency: ing system), mobility system coverage,
o locations of interchange nodes among frequency, and synchronization among different
different transport modes are conveniently options as well as time utilization and efficiency
placed so that there is no need for undesired of the overall mobility that would result in a
in-between trips (e.g., long walk from smooth functioning network without congestion
parking place to train platforms); and delays. Furthermore, in some cities, there is
o pleasant and safe space: for instance, use of a space for improvements in terms of mobility
natural elements such as greenery and hubs/interchanges/facilities placement and
water areas along cycling routes and their offers, as well as regarding the safety, secu-
interchange locations, ensuring a safe rity, cleanliness, and comfort of these locations
environment, etc. and the overall system.
• Information efficiency: A strong role in enabling some of these im-
o access to information regarding mobility is provements lies in the possibility to capitalize
available seamlessly and at one location on efficient utilization and exchange of
across all user devices, for instance, pretrip, mobility-related data among different stake-
on-board, and posttrip information holders involved. And although a lot has been
concerning the overall mobility is accessible done lately related to the mobility data and its
and available in a single framework with standardization to support these efforts, plenty
the intuitive and timely presentation of of challenges still remain in this domain. As
information. these are important challenges associated with
• Integration efficiency: the data available in the smart mobility context
o personalization: travelers are able to plan and the possibility to improve the overall system
and adjust their journeys based on personal as well as to correctly assess associated efforts
preferences in a seamless manner across the and potential usefulness and applicability of
whole network, including also the new smart mobility possibilities, we will go a
provision of personalized pretrip, on-board, bit deeper into addressing them at this point.
and posttrip information (provision of the However, it should be noted that these chal-
right content at the right moment by lenges are associated with the mobility data
utilizing appropriate means). and provision of mobility information in a wider
context not necessarily linked only and limited to
the connected mobility challenge.
For one, data are not the same as information.
3.5.1 Key connected mobility-related
challenges 3.5.1.1 Data versus information
In the context of seamless mobility, the Word data originates from a Latin word da-
boundaries among private, shared, and public tum (also meaning a singular of data in English)
transport should be seamless from the travelers’ and from a philosophical perspective it stands a
perspective allowing them to choose among a simple unprocessed isolated thought fact. From
variety of sustainable, affordable, and flexible the data analytics perspective, data are symbols
options for travel between trips’ origin and desti- used for the facts and terms that describe the
nation points. However, in most cities, this is still properties of objects and their relationships in
not the case and space for improvements exist. space and time. Hence, in this context, data has
Among others, these include easiness of use for no meaning inside or outside of its existence or
40 3. The new challenge of smart urban mobility

about itself and it joins the meaning by which we global or general standard for the exchange of
describe the properties of objects. Furthermore, such data, and it becomes often challenging to
data can exist in any form, be it useable or not. include shared mobility services’ data into any
The word information comes from the Latin type of holistic mobility information service pro-
word informare and it means informing or noti- vision in a given area. Hence, mainly, due to the
fying. Information is the result of the analysis fact that there is no standard, even if there is a
and organization of data in a way that gives willingness to share such data, potential services
new knowledge to the recipient. Hence, data in and solutions developed based on them lack
a given context and combined within a structure scalability, as any data integration efforts are
make up the information that becomes knowl- not replicable and each shared mobility data
edge when it is interpreted or put into context source requires dedicated resources. This also
or when meaning is added to it. Making good applies to any associated metadata (data that
use of this knowledge is propriety of wisdom provides information about other data). In addi-
created based on the insights generated from tion, even if data on shared mobility in the desig-
the original data. Hence, it incorporates lessons nated geographical area are integrated, due to
learned and understanding of how to react/ their divergence in content and structure, addi-
respond appropriately to a given stimulus, tional preprocessing steps, such as units’ trans-
which is integral to the smart city definition, formations (e.g., coordinate system
also referred to as responsive city property. transformations, timestamp format uniformity,
etc.) will be needed, requiring additional efforts.
Furthermore, there is also no guarantee that all
3.5.1.2 Some of the key mobility data-
the shared mobility data providers gather the
related challenges
same data in their nature. For instance, even if
3.5.1.2.1 Data standardization one would integrate data from all the shared
Data standardization seems to be a complex mobility service providers in the area, and invest
challenge for several reasons. For one, mobility required efforts in transformations and data pre-
data sensing, storage, and exchange are still processing, one service provider could be gath-
quite recent developments, triggered, like in all ering/providing data on available vehicles’
domains, by the advances in telecommunica- locations updated at an hourly level, while
tions and ICT technology and storage capacities. another one could have available data regarding
These rapid advancements left a limited time for the vehicle’s energy consumption on a different
the discussion and the development of unified time scale. Such scenarios make it challenging
and globally accepted data standards. Secondly, to plan and implement mobility data-based in-
the mobility domain, and possibilities for data- sights and services in a scalable and efficient
driven services, are evolving rapidly, meaning manner.
that new possibilities emerge frequently. This Significant contribution in this aspect can be
also means that it was difficult, if not impossible, achieved with the introduction of applicable
to foresee all possible mobility data-driven ser- data exchange standards and data provision re-
vices at the moment when the initial data stan- quirements and recent developments from both
dardization questions arose. This often left new industry and administrative bodies leave space
advances and services out of the scope of exist- for optimism in this aspect as well as indicate
ing standardization efforts. An example of this the relevance of such questions for all
could be shared mobility services that were stakeholders.
developed in recent years. As, to the best of the Some of the most recent developments in this
author’s knowledge, at this moment there is no aspect include DaTeX, NeTEx (Network
 3.5 Connected mobility 41
Timetable Exchange), and GTFS (General Transit Language), it can package a complete dataset
Feed Specification) standards. as a single coherent document that can be
The GTFS standard originates from industry, managed and validated. Another potential
more specifically from Google. Its creation was comparative advantage of NeTEx, from a service
initiated when the company was triggered by provision perspective, is its capability to link to-
the lack of any standard for public transport ward operational systems and supply the addi-
timetables in the United States and the need to tional information suited to provision real-time
make public transport data integrations scalable systems (such as destination displays on public
options for Google maps solutions (Roush, 2012). transport vehicles or stops) as well as enabled
Today, the GTFS covers information about pub- versioning and validity condition mechanisms,
lic transport stops, lines, and timetabled journey, which makes it suitable for continuous peer-to-
but also supports a few simple types of fare peer integration of data from various providers.
products. The standard implements data identi- Considering a complementarity among the
fiers, which are specific to each data set and NeTEx and the GTFS, it is possible to generate
require registration with Google. Regarding the a complete GTFS data set from NeTEx, however,
data files, the GTFS uses a traditional flat file the opposite does not hold. To support this the
format, which makes it compact and efficient, NeTEx UML (Unified Modeling Language) in-
but also requires multiple files to describe the cludes a GTFS mapping package, which maps
different types of elements, adding the how to populate each GTFS element from the
complexity reflected in the need for additional corresponding NeTEx element, which is a posi-
rules for naming and packaging the files. tive step forwards toward across standards’
Furthermore, custom-written tools are required (co)operability.
to interpret and process the data. As a standard, From the European standardization context,
the GTFS is widely known and used among de- the NeTEx does not come alone, but as a part
velopers and stakeholders interested in the crea- of the European Transmodel (CEN, 2021a,
tion of journey planning applications. However, 2021b). The Transmodel stands for the European
often stakeholders such as public transport orga- Standard “Public Transport Reference Data
nizations and authorities did not find their needs Model” (EN 12896) (CSN, 2016) that is designed
met as the standard does not include much infor- as a higher-level reference data model that
mation needed for, for example, development of covers the whole area of public transport opera-
timetables themselves. tions and provides a framework for defining and
The NeTEx is another standard dedicated to agreeing on data models. As such, it supports the
the public transport information, but contrasting development of integrated and interoperable in-
to the GTFS, it originates from the authority- formation processing systems within an organi-
initiated initiative. The NeTEx is a CEN zation, as well as efficient communication and
(European Committee for Electrotechnical Stan- exchange of data among various stakeholders
dardization, 2021) Technical Standard for such as transport operators, authorities, or soft-
exchanging public transport schedules and ware suppliers. Next to the NeTEx, it has already
related data, including network descriptions, been a fundamental input for the design of a
fare products, journey and timing patterns, number of EU standards as DVC (Data Commu-
connection timings, joined journeys, train nication on Vehicles) (CEN, 2020a, 2020b),
makeup, etc., enabling the exchange of both IFOPT (Identification of Fixed Objects in Public
source datasets used to build timetables as well Transport) (CEN, 2006), SIRI (Standard Interface
as the resulting timetables themselves. Further- for Real-Time Information) (CEN, 2015), DJP/
more, as NeTEx uses XML (Extensible Markup OJP (Open API for distributed journey planning)
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Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and
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Go to Contents; List of Woodcuts; or

Transcriber's Note
T h e A n ­c i e n t S t o n e Im ­p l e ­‐
m e n t s , We a ­p o n s a n d O r n ­a ­‐
m e n t s , o f G re a t B r i ­t a i n ; S e ­‐
c o n d E d i ­t i o n , Re ­v i s e d ; B y
S i r J o h n E v­a n s .
 THE AN­C IENT

STON E IM ­P L E­M EN TS,

WEA­P ONS AND OR­N A­M ENTS,
OF

G R E AT B R I TA I N .
SECOND EDITION, REVISED.

BY

S I R J O H N E VA N S, K . C . B.,
D.C.L., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., ETC., ETC.
CORRESPONDANT DE L’INSTITUT DE FRANCE.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
AND BOMBAY
1897
(All rights reserved .)
 LONDON:
PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED.
CITY ROAD.
 PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.

In presenting this work to the public I need say but little by way of
preface. It is the result of the occupation of what leisure hours I
could spare, during the last few years, from various and important
business, and my object in undertaking it is explained in the
Introduction.
What now remains for me to do is to express my thanks to those
numerous friends who have so kindly aided me during the progress
of my work, both by placing specimens in their collections at my
disposal, and by examination of my proofs. Foremost among these
must be ranked the Rev. William Greenwell, F.S.A., from whose
unrivalled collection of British antiquities I have largely drawn, and
from whose experience and knowledge I have received much
assistance in other ways.
To Mr. A. W. Franks, F.S.A.; Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S.; Mr. W.
Pengelly, F.R.S.; Colonel A. Lane Fox, F.S.A.; Mr. E. T. Stevens, of
Salisbury; Messrs. Mortimer, of Fimber; Mr. Joseph Anderson, the
Curator of the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh; and to numerous
others whose names are mentioned in the following pages, my
thanks must also be expressed.
The work itself will, I believe, be found to contain most of the
information at present available with regard to the class of
antiquities of which it treats. The subject is one which does not
readily lend itself to lively description, and an accumulation of facts,
such as is here presented, is of necessity dull. I have, however,
relegated to smaller type the bulk of the descriptive {vi} details of
little interest to the ordinary reader, who will probably find more than
enough of dry matter to content him if he confines himself to the
larger type and an examination of the illustrations.
Whatever may be the merits or defects of the book, there are two
points on which I feel that some credit may be claimed. The one is
that the woodcuts—the great majority of which have been specially
engraved for this work by Mr. Swain, of Bouverie Street—give
accurate representations of the objects; the other is, that all the
references have been carefully checked.
The Index is divided into two parts; the first showing the subjects
discussed in the work, the second the localities where the various
antiquities have been found.
Now that so much more attention than formerly is being bestowed
on this class of antiquities, there will, no doubt, be numerous
discoveries made, not only of forms with which we are at present
unacquainted, but also of circumstances calculated to throw light on
the uses to which stone implements and weapons were applied, and
the degree of antiquity to be assigned to the various forms.
I will only add that I shall gladly receive any communications
relative to such discoveries.
JOHN EVANS.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, May, 1872.
 PREFACE
TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The undiminished interest taken by many archæologists in the

subject to which this book relates seems to justify me in again
placing it before the public, though in an extended and revised form.
I am further warranted in so doing by the fact that the former
edition, which appeared in 1872, has now been long out of print.
In revising the work it appeared desirable to retain as much of the
original text and arrangement as possible, but having regard to the
large amount of new matter that had to be incorporated in it and to
the necessity of keeping the bulk of the volume within moderate
bounds, some condensation seemed absolutely compulsory. This I
have effected, partly by omitting some of the detailed measurements
of the specimens, and partly by printing a larger proportion of the
text in small type. I have also omitted several passages relating to
discoveries in the caverns of the South of France.
I have throughout preserved the original numbering of the
Figures, so that references that have already been made to them in
other works will still hold good. The new cuts, upwards of sixty in
number, that have been added in this edition are distinguished by
letters affixed to the No. of the Figure immediately preceding them.
The additions to the text, especially in the portion relating to the
Palæolithic Period, are very extensive, and I hope that all the more
important discoveries of stone antiquities made in this country
during the last quarter of a century are here duly recorded, and
references given to the works in which fuller details concerning them
may be found. In some cases, owing to the character of the {viii}
objects discovered being insufficiently described, I have not thought
it necessary to cite them.
I am indebted to numerous collectors throughout the country for
having called my attention to specimens that they acquired, and for
having, in many cases, sent them to me for examination. I may take
this opportunity of mentioning that while the whole of the objects
found by Canon Greenwell during his examination of British Barrows
has been most liberally presented to the nation, the remainder of his
fine collection of stone antiquities, so frequently referred to in these
pages, has passed into the hands of Dr. W. Allen Sturge, of Nice.
The two Indices have been carefully compiled by my sister, Mrs.
Hubbard, and are fuller than those in the former edition. They will
afford valuable assistance to any one who desires to consult the
book.
For the new woodcuts that I have had engraved I have been so
fortunate as to secure the services of Messrs. Swain, who so skilfully
cut the blocks for the original work. I am indebted for the loan of
numerous other blocks to several learned Societies, and especially to
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and to the Geological Society
of London. Mr. Worthington Smith has also most liberally placed a
number of blocks at my disposal.
It remains for me to express my thanks to those who have greatly
aided me in the preparation of this edition, the whole of the proofs
of which have been kindly read by Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., of the
British Museum, as well as by some members of my own family. Dr.
Joseph Anderson, of the National Museum at Edinburgh, has been
good enough to read the parts relating to Scotland, while Professor
Boyd Dawkins has gone over the chapter on Cave Implements, and
Mr. William Whitaker has corrected the account of the discoveries in
the River-drift. To each and all I am grateful, and as the result of
their assistance I trust that, though not immaculate, the book may
prove to be fairly free from glaring errors and inconsistencies.
 JOHN EVANS.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, May, 1897.
 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
The Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages — Bronze in use before Iron — Persistence of Religious
Rites — Use of Stone in Religious Ceremonies — Stone Antiquities not all of the same
Age — Order of Treatment . . . 1
CHAPTER II.
ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES.
Pyrites and Flint used for striking Fire — Strike-a-light Flints — The Gun-flint Manufacture
— Gun-flint Production — Modes of producing Flakes — Pressigny Nuclei — Rough-hewing
Stone-hatchets — Ancient Mining for Flint — Flint-mines at Grime’s Graves and Spiennes
— Production of Arrow-heads — Flaking Arrow-heads — Arrow-flakers — Grinding Stone
Implements — Methods of Sawing Stone — Methods of Boring Stone — Boring by means
of a Tube — Progress in Modes of Manufacture . . . 14

IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD.

CHAPTER III.
CELTS.
Belief in their Meteoric Origin — Regarded as Thunderbolts — Celt with Gnostic
Inscriptions — Their Origin and Virtues — How regarded by the Greeks and
Romans . . . 55
CHAPTER IV.
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS.
The Kjökken-Mödding Type — Some possibly Agricultural Implements — Some carefully
Chipped — The Common Forms — Their abundance — Discoveries at Cissbury — Found in
company with Polished Celts — Their probable Age . . . 67
CHAPTER V.
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
Pointed at the Butt-end — Of Elongated Form — Expanding at the Ends — Of Peculiar
Forms — Their Occurrence in Foreign Countries . . . 87
CHAPTER VI.
POLISHED CELTS.
A Type common in the Eastern Counties — With the Surface ground all over — Expanding
at the Edge — Of other Materials than Flint — The Thin and Highly-polished Type — With
Flat Sides — With Flat Sides and Narrow Butt — With Flat Sides and Pointed Butt — Of
Rectangular Section — Chisel-like and of Rectangular Section — Of Oval Section — Of Oval
Section with Conical Butt — Of a Form common in France — Of Oval Section pointed at
the Butt — With a Cutting Edge at each End — Sharp at both Ends — Polished Celts
narrowing in the Middle — Used in the Hand without Hafting — Polished Celts of
Abnormal types — Polished Celts with Depressions and Flutings — Circumstances under
which they have been Found — Their Discovery with Objects of Later Date — Their Range
in Time — Accompanying Interments — Manner in which Hafted — In their original
Handles — Inserted in Sockets in the Hafts — Hafted with Intermediate Sockets —
Compared with Axes of modern Savages — Mounted in Forked Hafts — Mounted on
Wooden Hafts — Compared with Adzes of modern Savages — Mounted in Withes and
Cleft Sticks — Modern methods of Hafting Axes . . . 98
CHAPTER VII.
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
Small Hand Chisels — Gouges rare in Britain — Bastard Gouges . . . 173
CHAPTER VIII.
PERFORATED AXES.
Sharp at both Ends — Expanding at one End — Pointed at one End — Adze-like in
Character — Cutting at one End only — Used as Battle-axes — Ornamented on the Faces
— Large and Heavy — A Large Form common in the North — Fluted on the Faces —
Boring, the last Process — Axe-hammers hollowed on the Sides — Axe-hammers
ornamented on the Faces — Frequently found in Barrows — But little used by modern
Savages . . . 183
CHAPTER IX.
PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS.
Of Peculiar Forms — Some of them Weapons, not Tools — Conical, Rounded at each End
— Made from Pebbles with Natural Holes — Of an Ornamented Character — Made from
Quartzite Pebbles — Purposes to which Applied — Mauls for Mining Purposes — Of Wide
Range — Net-sinkers . . . 217
CHAPTER X.
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
With Depressions on the Faces — With Cup-shaped Depressions — Ridged at the End —
Made of Flint and Quartzite — Saddle-querns — Pestles and Mortars — From Shetland and
Orkney — Various forms of Mortars — Hand-mills or Querns . . . 238
CHAPTER XI.
GRINDING-STONES AND WHETSTONES.
Uses for Sharpening Celts — Found in Barrows — Found with Interments — Pebbles with
Grooves in them . . . 261
CHAPTER XII.
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
The Cone and Bulb of Percussion — Classification of Flakes — Polygonal Cores —
Numerous in Ancient Settlements — Localities where Abundant — Not Confined to the
Stone Period — The Roman Tribulum — In other parts of the World — The Uses of Flakes
— Flakes ground at the Edge — Hafted Flakes — Flakes made into Saws — Serrated, as
the Armature of Sickles . . . 272
CHAPTER XIII.
SCRAPERS.
Used in Dressing Hides — Horseshoe-shaped — Kite-shaped and Duck-bill-shaped —
Some like Oyster Shells in Form — Double-ended and Spoon-shaped — Found with
Interments — Evidences of Wear upon them — Found with Pyrites — The Modern form of
Strike-a-light — Used with Pyrites for producing Fire — The Flat and Hollowed
Forms . . . 298
CHAPTER XIV.
BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS.
Found in different Countries — Of Minute Dimensions . . . 321
CHAPTER XV.
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
From different Countries — Some Trimmed Flakes, probably Knives — Knives from
Barrows — Some possibly Lance-heads — Knives with one Edge blunt — Of Oval Form —
Sharpened by Grinding — Of Circular Form — Of Semicircular and Triangular Form — The
so-called “Picts’ Knives” — Like those of the Eskimos — Daggers or Lance-heads — With
Notches at the Sides — Found in other Countries — Curved and Crescent-shaped Blades
— Curved Knives, probably Sickles — Ripple-marked Egyptian Blades . . . 326
CHAPTER XVI.
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
Their earliest occurrence — Thought to fall from the Heavens — Superstitions attaching to
them — Worn as Amulets — An Egyptian Arrow — Javelin-heads — Leaf-shaped Arrow-
heads — Leaf-shaped Arrow-heads pointed at both Ends — Lozenge-shaped Arrow-heads
— Stemmed-Arrow-heads — Stemmed and Barbed Arrow-heads — Unusual Forms —
Found in Scotland — Localities where found — The Triangular Form — Single-barbed
Arrow-heads — The Chisel-ended Type — Found in Barrows — Irish and French Types —
From various Countries — African and Asiatic Types — South American Types — How
attached to their Shafts — Bows in Early Times . . . 360
CHAPTER XVII.
FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC.
Their probable Uses — Used for working in Flint . . . 412
CHAPTER XVIII.
SLING-STONES AND BALLS.
Sling-stones Roughly Chipped from Flint — Ornamented Balls principally from Scotland —
The use of “Bolas” . . . 417
CHAPTER XIX.
BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE.
Wrist-guards or Bracers of Stone — The use of Arm-guards — Bone Lance-heads and
Pins — Needles of Bone — Hoes of Stag’s Horn . . . 425
CHAPTER XX.
SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS.
Superstitions attaching to Whorls — Uses of Perforated Discs — Use of Slick-stones —
Stones as Burnishers and Weights — Stone Cups — Cups turned in a Lathe — Amber Cup
— Vessels made of Stone . . . 436
CHAPTER XXI.
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC.
Buttons of Jet, Shale, and Stone — Buttons found in Barrows — Necklaces of Jet —
Necklaces, Beads, Pendants, and Bracelets — Rings of Stone — Pebbles found in Barrows
— Lucky Stones and Amulets — Conclusions as to the Neolithic Period . . . 452

IMPLEMENTS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD.

CHAPTER XXII.
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
Compared with those from the River-drift — Formation of Caverns — Deposition of
Stalagmite — Different Ages of Caverns — Chronological Sequence of Caverns — Fauna of
the Caves — Dean Buckland’s Researches — Kent’s Cavern, Torquay — Alteration in
Structure of Flint — Trimmed Flakes from Kent’s Cavern — Scrapers from Kent’s Cavern —
Cores and Hammers from Kent’s Cavern — Bone Harpoon-heads from Kent’s Cavern —
Fauna of Kent’s Cavern — Animal Remains associated with Works of Art — Correlation of
Kent’s Cavern with Foreign Caves — Brixham Cave — Trimmed Flakes from the Brixham
Cave — The Wookey Hyæna Den — The Gower and other Welsh Caves — The Caves of
Creswell Crags — General Considerations . . . 473
CHAPTER XXIII.
IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT PERIOD.
The Discoveries at Abbeville and Amiens — Discoveries on the Continent and in India —
In the Valley of the Ouse — Biddenham, Bedford — Hitchin, Herts — Valleys of the Cam
and the Lark — Bury St. Edmunds — Icklingham — High Lodge, Mildenhall — Redhill,
Thetford — Santon Downham — Bromehill, Weeting — Gravel Hill, Brandon — Lakenheath
— Shrub Hill, Feltwell — Hoxne, Suffolk — Saltley, Warwickshire — Possibility of their
occurrence in the North of England — Gray’s Inn Lane, London — Highbury, London —
Lower Clapton, Stoke Newington, &c. — Ealing and Acton — West Drayton, Burnham,
Reading — Oxford and its Neighbourhood — Peasemarsh, Godalming — Valleys of the
Gade and Colne — Caddington — No Man’s Land, Wheathampstead — Valley of the Lea —
Valley of the Cray — Swanscomb and Milton Street — Ightham, Sevenoaks — Limpsfield,
Surrey — Valley of the Medway — Reculver — Thanington, Kent — Canterbury and
Folkestone — Southampton — Hill Head, Southampton Water — The Foreland, Isle of
Wight — Bemerton, Salisbury — Fisherton and Milford Hill, Salisbury — Bournemouth and
Barton Cliff — Valley of the Axe . . . 526
CHAPTER XXIV.
FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT.
Flint Flakes — Trimmed Flakes — Pointed Implements — Sharp-rimmed Implements —
Differ from those of Neolithic Age — Their occurrence in other parts of the World —
Found in Africa and Asia — Their probable Uses — The Civilization they betoken —
Characteristics of their Authenticity . . . 640
CHAPTER XXV.
ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT.
Hypothetical case of River-action — Origin of River Systems — Amount of Solid Matter in
Turbid Water — Nature of Flood-deposits — Effects of Ground-Ice — Deposits left on the
Slopes of Valleys during Excavation — Solvent power of Carbonic Acid — The results of
the Deepening of Valleys — Actual Phenomena compared with the Hypothetical — The
Denudation of the Fen Country — The Valley of the Waveney — The Valley of the
Thames — Deposits in the South of England — Deposits near Salisbury — The Origin of
the Solent — Deposits at Bournemouth — Breach through the Chalk-range South of
Bournemouth — The Question of Climate — Evidence as to Climate — Association of
Implements with a Quaternary Fauna — Scarcity of Human Bones in the River-drift —
Attempts to formulate Chronological Data — Data from Erosion — Conclusion . . . 662
 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
CHAPTER I. * The cuts marked with an asterisk
INTRODUCTORY. have been borrowed from various
1. Egypt . . . 8 sources, which are duly acknowledged
in the body of the book.
CHAPTER II.
ON THE MAN­U ­FAC­T URE OF STONE IM­P LE­M ENTS IN PRE­H IS­TOR­I C
TIMES.
2. Flint Core with Flakes replaced upon it . . . 20
2A . Gun Flint, Avlona, Albania . . . 21
3. Nucleus—Pressigny . . . 29
4. — — . . . 30
5. — — . . . 30
6. Flake — . . . 31
7. — — . . . 31
8. Eskimo Arrow-flaker . . . 38
9.* — — — . . . 38
10. — — — . . . 38

CHAPTER III.
CELTS.
11.* Celt with Gnostic Inscription . . . 61

CHAPTER IV.
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS.
12. Near Mildenhall . . . 68
13. — — . . . 68
14. Near Thetford . . . 69
15. Oving, near Chichester . . . 70
16. Near Newhaven . . . 71
 17. Near Dunstable . . . 72
18. Burwell Fen . . . 72
19. Mildenhall . . . 73
20. Bottisham Fen . . . 73
21. Near Bournemouth . . . 74
22. Thetford . . . 74
23. Reach Fen, Cambridge . . . 75
24. Scamridge, Yorkshire . . . 76
25.* Forest of Bere, near Horndean . . . 76
25A .* Isle of Wight . . . 77
26. Cissbury . . . 81
27. — . . . 81
28. — . . . 82
29. — . . . 82

CHAPTER V.
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
30. Downs near Eastbourne . . . 88
31. Culford, Suffolk . . . 88
32. Near Mildenhall, Suffolk . . . 88
33. Sawdon, North Yorkshire . . . 89
34. Weston, Norfolk . . . 90
35. Mildenhall . . . 91
35A . Reach Fen . . . 92
36. Burwell Fen . . . 93
37. Thetford . . . 93
38. Undley Common, Lakenheath . . . 94
38A . East Dean . . . 95
39. Ganton . . . 95
40. Swaffham Fen . . . 95
41. Grindale, Bridlington . . . 96
42. North Burton . . . 96

CHAPTER VI.
POLISHED CELTS.
43. Santon Downham, Suffolk . . . 99
44. Coton, Cambridge . . . 101
45. Reach Fen, Cambridge . . . 102
46. Great Bedwin, Wilts . . . 102
47. Burradon, Northumberland . . . 103
48. Coton, Cambridge . . . 104
49. Ponteland, Northumberland . . . 105
50. Fridaythorpe, Yorkshire . . . 105
51. Oulston . . . 106
52. Burwell Fen . . . 107
52A .* Berwickshire . . . 108
53. Botesdale, Suffolk . . . 111
54. Lackford, Suffolk . . . 112
55. Dalmeny, Linlithgow . . . 113
56. Sprouston, near Kelso . . . 114
57. Nunnington, Yorkshire . . . 115
58. Burradon, Northumberland . . . 116
59. Livermere, Suffolk . . . 116
60. Ilderton, Northumberland . . . 117
61. Near Pendle, Lancashire . . . 118
62. Ness . . . 119
63. Gilling . . . 120
64. Swinton, near Malton . . . 121
65. Scamridge Dykes, Yorkshire . . . 121
66. Whitwell, Yorkshire . . . 122
67. Thames, London . . . 123
68. Near Bridlington . . . 124
69. Lakenheath, Suffolk . . . 125
70. Seamer, Yorkshire . . . 126
71. Guernsey . . . 127
72. Wareham . . . 127
73. Forfarshire . . . 128
74. Bridlington . . . 129
75. Caithness . . . 129
76. Gilmerton, East Lothian . . . 131
77. Stirlingshire . . . 132
78. Harome . . . 133
79. Daviot, near Inverness . . . 134
80. Near Cottenham . . . 135
81. Near Malton . . . 135
82. Mennithorpe, Yorkshire . . . 136
83. Middleton Moor . . . 137
83A . Keystone . . . 137
84. Near Truro . . . 138
84A .* Slains . . . 138
85. Near Lerwick . . . 139
86. Weston, Norfolk . . . 139
87. Acklam Wold . . . 140
88. Fimber . . . 140
89. Duggleby . . . 141
90. Guernsey . . . 141
90A . Wereham . . . 142
91.* Solway Moss . . . 151
92. Cumberland . . . 153
93.* Monaghan . . . 154
94. Axe from the Rio Frio . . . 155
95.* War-axe—Gaveoë Indians, Brazil . . . 156
96. Axe of Montezuma II . . . 157
97. Axe—Nootka Sound . . . 158
98. Axe in Stag’s-horn Socket—Concise . . . 159
99. Axe—Robenhausen . . . 159
99A . Penhouet . . . 161
99B .* New Guinea . . . 161
 99C .* — — Adze . . . 162
100. Axe—Robenhausen . . . 163
101. Schraplau . . . 163
102.* Adze—New Caledonia . . . 164
103.* Adze—Clalam Indians . . . 165
104.* South-Sea Island Axes . . . 166
105.* Axe—Northern Australia . . . 168
106.* Hatchet—Western Australia . . . 170

CHAPTER VII.
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
107. Great Easton . . . 173
108. Bury St. Edmunds . . . 174
109. Burwell . . . 175
110. Near Bridlington . . . 175
111. Dalton, Yorkshire . . . 176
112. Helperthorpe . . . 177
113. New Zealand Chisel . . . 178
114. Burwell . . . 179
114A . Westleton Walks . . . 179
115. Eastbourne . . . 180
116. Willerby Wold . . . 181
117. Bridlington . . . 181

CHAPTER VIII.
PERFORATED AXES.
118. Hunmanby . . . 185
119.* Hove . . . 186
120. Llanmadock . . . 188
121. Guernsey . . . 189
122. Fireburn Mill, Coldstream . . . 190
123. Burwell Fen . . . 191
124. Stourton . . . 192
125. Bardwell . . . 193
 126. Potter Brompton Wold . . . 194
127. Rudstone . . . 195
128. Borrowash . . . 196
129.* Crichie, Aberdeenshire . . . 197
130. Walsgrave-upon-Sowe . . . 199
131. Wigton . . . 201
132. Wollaton Park . . . 203
133. Buckthorpe . . . 204
134. Aldro’ . . . 205
135. Cowlam . . . 206
136. Seghill . . . 207
136A .* Wick, Caithness . . . 208
137. Kirklington . . . 209
138.* Winterbourn Steepleton . . . 210
139. Skelton Moors . . . 211
140. Selwood Barrow . . . 211
140A .* Longniddry . . . 212
141. Upton Lovel . . . 213
142. Thames, London . . . 213
143. Pelynt, Cornwall . . . 214

CHAPTER IX.
PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS.
144. Balmaclellan . . . 219
145. Thames, London . . . 219
145A .* Kirkinner . . . 220
146. Scarborough . . . 221
147. Shetland . . . 221
148.* Caithness . . . 222
149. Leeds . . . 222
150. Rockland . . . 223
151. Heslerton Wold . . . 224
152. Birdoswald . . . 225
 153. Maesmore, Corwen . . . 226
154. Normanton, Wilts . . . 227
155. Redgrave Park . . . 228
156. Redmore Fen . . . 228
157.* Stifford . . . 229
158. Sutton . . . 231
159.* Ambleside . . . 236

CHAPTER X.
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
160. Helmsley . . . 239
161. Winterbourn Bassett . . . 240
161A .* Goldenoch . . . 241
162. St. Botolph’s Priory . . . 242
163. Bridlington . . . 242
164. — . . . 243
165. — . . . 243
166. Scamridge . . . 246
167 & 168. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 248
168A .* Culbin Sands . . . 249
169. Bridlington . . . 249
170.* Holyhead . . . 251
171.* Ty Mawr . . . 253
172.* Holyhead . . . 254
173.* Pulborough . . . 254
174.* Shetland . . . 256
175.* — . . . 256
176.* — . . . 256
177.* — . . . 256
178.* — . . . 256
179.* — . . . 257
180.* Balmaclellan . . . 260

CHAPTER XI.
GRINDING-STONES AND WHETSTONES.
180A .* Lamberton Moor . . . 264
181. Dorchester . . . 265
182. Rudstone . . . 265
183. Fimber . . . 266
184. Cowlam . . . 267
185. Amesbury . . . 267
186.* Hove . . . 268
187.* Ty Mawr . . . 270

CHAPTER XII.
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
188. Artificial Cone of Flint . . . 274
189. Weaverthorpe . . . 276
190. Newhaven . . . 278
191. Redhill, Reigate . . . 278
192. Icklingham . . . 278
193. Seaford . . . 278
194.* Tribulum from Aleppo . . . 285
195.* Admiralty Islands . . . 288
196. Charleston . . . 291
197. Nussdorf . . . 292
198. Australia . . . 293
199. Willerby Wold . . . 295
200. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 295
201. Scamridge . . . 296
202. West Cranmore . . . 296

CHAPTER XIII.
SCRAPERS.
203.* Eskimo Scraper . . . 298
204. Weaverthorpe . . . 300
205. Sussex Downs . . . 301
206. Yorkshire . . . 302
 207. Helperthorpe . . . 302
208. Weaverthorpe . . . 302
209. Sussex Downs . . . 303
210. Yorkshire . . . 303
211. — Wolds . . . 303
212. — — . . . 304
213. Sussex Downs . . . 304
214. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 304
215. Sussex Downs . . . 305
216. — — . . . 306
217. — — . . . 306
218. Bridlington . . . 307
219. — . . . 307
220. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 307
221. — — . . . 308
222. French “Strike-a-light” . . . 314
223. Rudstone . . . 316
224. Method of using Pyrites and “Scraper” for striking a light . . . 317
225. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 319
226. — — . . . 319
226A . North of Ireland . . . 320

CHAPTER IV.
BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS.
227. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 322
228. Bridlington . . . 322
229. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 323
230. Bridlington . . . 323
231. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 324
232. — — . . . 324
232A . Hastings . . . 325
232B . — . . . 325
232C . — . . . 325
 232D .* Vindhya Hills . . . 325
232E .* — — . . . 325
232F .* — — . . . 326

CHAPTER XV.
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
233. Cambridge (?) . . . 326
234. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 328
235. Yorkshire . . . 328
236. Bridlington . . . 329
237. Yorkshire . . . 329
238. Bridlington . . . 329
239. Castle Carrock . . . 329
240. Ford, Northumberland . . . 330
240A .* Etton . . . 330
241. Weaverthorpe . . . 331
242. Wykeham Moor . . . 331
243. Potter Brompton Wold . . . 332
244. Snainton Moor . . . 333
245. Ford . . . 333
246. Bridlington . . . 334
247. Cambridge Fens . . . 334
248. Scamridge . . . 335
249. Burwell Fen . . . 336
250. Saffron Walden . . . 336
251. Fimber . . . 337
252. Argyllshire . . . 338
253. Glen Urquhart . . . 338
254. Bridlington . . . 339
255. Overton . . . 339
256. Kempston . . . 340
256A . Eastbourne . . . 341
257. Kintore . . . 342
 258. Newhaven, Derbyshire . . . 342
259. Harome, Yorkshire . . . 343
260. — — . . . 344
261. Crambe . . . 345
262. Walls, Shetland . . . 346
263. — — . . . 347
264. Lambourn Down . . . 349
265. Thames . . . 350
266. Burnt Fen . . . 350
267. Arbor Low . . . 352
267A . Sewerby . . . 355
268. Fimber . . . 356
269. Yarmouth . . . 356
270. Eastbourne . . . 357

CHAPTER XVI.
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
271.* Elf Shot . . . 365
272. Egypt . . . 369
273. Winterbourn Stoke . . . 371
274. — — . . . 371
275. — — . . . 371
276.* Calais Wold Barrow . . . 372
277.* — — — . . . 372
278.* — — — . . . 372
279.* — — — . . . 372
280. Icklingham . . . 373
281.* Gunthorpe . . . 373
282. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 373
283. — — . . . 374
284. Little Solsbury Hill . . . 374
285. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 374
286. Bridlington . . . 374
287 & 288. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 375
289. Lakenheath . . . 375
290 & 291. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 376
292 & 293. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 376
294. — — . . . 376
295.* Fyfield . . . 377
296. Bridlington . . . 378
297. Newton Ketton . . . 378
298 & 299. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 378
300. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 379
301. Amotherby . . . 379
302. Iwerne Minster . . . 379
303. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 380
304. — — . . . 380
305. Pick Rudge Farm . . . 380
305A . Ashwell . . . 381
306. Sherburn Wold . . . 381
307. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 381
308. — — . . . 381
309. — — . . . 381
310. — — . . . 381
311. — — . . . 381
312. — — . . . 381
313 & 314. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 382
314A . Icklingham . . . 382
315. Eddlesborough . . . 383
316. Reach Fen . . . 383
317. Isleham . . . 383
318. Rudstone . . . 384
318A . Dorchester Dykes . . . 384
319. Lambourn Down . . . 384
320. Fovant . . . 384
 321. Yorkshire Moors . . . 385
322 & 323. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 385
323A .* Brompton . . . 386
324.* Isle of Skye . . . 387
325. Urquhart . . . 387
326. Aberdeenshire . . . 387
327. Glenlivet . . . 387
327A .* Philiphaugh . . . 388
328. Icklingham . . . 390
329. Langdale End . . . 390
330. Amotherby . . . 390
331. Weaverthorpe . . . 391
332. Lakenheath . . . 391
333. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 391
334. — — . . . 391
335. — — . . . 392
336. Bridlington . . . 392
337. — . . . 392
338. Fimber . . . 393
339. Hungry Bentley . . . 394
340.* Caithness . . . 394
341. Lakenheath . . . 395
342. Urquhart . . . 395
342A .* Fyvie, Aberdeenshire . . . 408
343. Switzerland . . . 408
344. Fünen, Denmark . . . 409
345.* Modern Stone Arrow-head . . . 409

CHAPTER XVII.
FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC.
346. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 412
346A .* Corennie . . . 413
347. Bridlington . . . 413
 348. Sawdon . . . 415
349. Acklam Wold . . . 415

CHAPTER XVIII.
SLING-STONES AND BALLS.
350. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 419
351.* Dumfriesshire . . . 420
352.* Towie . . . 421

CHAPTER XIX.
BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE.
353. Isle of Skye . . . 425
354. Evantown . . . 426
355. Devizes . . . 426
356.* Isle of Skye . . . 428

CHAPTER XX.
SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS.
357. Scampston . . . 438
358.* Holyhead . . . 438
359.* — . . . 438
360.* — . . . 438
361.* — . . . 442
362.* Scotland . . . 444
363.* Sutherlandshire . . . 444
364.* Faroe Islands . . . 445
365.* Broad Down or Honiton . . . 446
366.* Rillaton . . . 448
367.* Hove . . . 449
368.* Ty Mawr . . . 450

CHAPTER XXI.
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC.
369. Butterwick . . . 453
370. — . . . 453
371. Rudstone . . . 454
372. — . . . 454
 373. Crawfurd Moor . . . 454
374.* Calais Wold Barrow . . . 455
375.* Assynt, Ross-shire . . . 457
376.* Pen-y-Bonc . . . 458
377.* Probable Arrangement of the Jet Necklace found at Pen-y-Bonc,
Holyhead . . . 459
378.* Fimber . . . 461
379.* Yorkshire . . . 462
380.* — . . . 462
381. Hungry Bentley . . . 464
381A .* Heathery Burn Cave . . . 464
382.* Jet—Guernsey . . . 464
383.* Bronze—Guernsey . . . 464
384. Kent’s Cavern . . . 465
385.* Ty Mawr . . . 466

CHAPTER XXII.
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
386. Kent’s Cavern . . . 493
387. — — . . . 493
388. — — . . . 494
388A .* — — . . . 495
389. — — . . . 496
390. — — . . . 496
391. — — . . . 498
392. — — . . . 499
393. — — . . . 499
394. — — . . . 500
395. — — . . . 500
396. — — . . . 501
397. — — . . . 501
398. — — . . . 502
399. — — . . . 502
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