Transport Policy 162 (2025) 296–312

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transport Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol

Bibliometric analysis and literature review on sustainable aviation fuel

(SAF): Economic and management perspective
Yuchao Xu a , Yahua Zhang a,* , Xin Deng b , Seung-Yong Lee a , Kun Wang c , Linbo Li d
a
UniSA Aviation/STEM, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
b
UniSA Business, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
c
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
d
Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is a key contributor to the aviation sector’s efforts to achieve net-zero targets.
Sustainable aviation fuel This article presents a bibliometric analysis and literature review of 243 SAF-related publications from social
SAF science and quantitative disciplines, covering the period from 2014 to 2024. It highlights the latest research
Power-to-Liquid
trends on the economic analysis of technological pathways, feedstocks, and policy interventions. Although SAF
Decarbonisation
Feedstock
usage in commercial aviation is below 0.1% as of 2024, its decarbonisation potential could exceed 68%,
particularly for medium- and long-haul flights. While biomass-based SAF faces constraints due to feedstock
availability, the power-to-liquid pathway may offer a long-term solution. Five key themes have been identified in
the literature: (1) sustainable certification of pathways and feedstocks, (2) economic simulations of alternative
solutions, (3) economic feasibility of pathways and feedstocks, (4) supply chain dynamics and involvement of
multiple stakeholders, and (5) policy interventions. Future studies could focus on economic simulations of airline
competition under different SAF quotas, case studies on supply chain stakeholders, and the inclusion of grey
literature for discussion. This research underscores the importance of international collaboration to create a level
playing field for SAF adoption.

1. Introduction air traffic routes for greater operational efficiency, and transitioning to
SAF (Keiser et al., 2023).
While the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the Despite significant progress in enhancing aircraft operational effi-
International Air Transport Association (IATA) commit to achieving net- ciency, achieving further substantial gains proves challenging due to
zero emissions by 2050, national regulatory bodies, airlines, airports, diminishing returns (Huang et al., 2023). While new aircraft designs and
and fuel suppliers are also joining this decarbonisation effort. Unlike the technologies have the potential to reduce aviation’s carbon footprint,
rapidly electrifying road transport, aviation is considered one of the few their large-scale implementation demands considerable time, invest-
hard-to-abate industries, with limited options for reducing emissions. ment, research, development, and certification (Abrantes et al., 2021;
There are primarily two solutions: reducing the number of flights Barros Pintos et al., 2023; Yusaf et al., 2022). The futuristic electric and
through voluntary passenger behaviour changes or higher ticket prices hydrogen-powered aircraft currently under development are primarily
(via emissions taxes), and decreasing fossil fuel consumption through suited for short-haul routes (Eaton et al., 2023; Avogadro and Redondi,
more efficient aircraft propulsion technologies and alternative fuels, 2024). Hydrogen-powered aircraft are not expected to be commercial-
particularly Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) (Gössling and Dolnicar, ised before 2035 (Airbus, 2023), and the complete replacement of
2023). However, with the rise of middle-income populations, especially existing fleets will take even longer. Given these limitations, SAF has
in emerging economies like China, India, and ASEAN countries, and the emerged as a vital short-to mid-term solution for decarbonising the
global expansion of tourism, reducing air travel is becoming increasingly aviation sector.
impractical. Achieving the 2050 carbon-neutral goal will require SAF is derived from renewable sources and has significantly lower, or
concerted efforts, including adopting new airplane designs, optimising even zero, life-cycle carbon intensity compared to traditional jet fuel. As

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.11.014
Received 27 June 2024; Received in revised form 13 November 2024; Accepted 18 November 2024
Available online 24 November 2024
0967-070X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Y. Xu et al. Transport Policy 162 (2025) 296–312

a drop-in fuel, SAF can be blended with conventional jet fuel, requiring techno-economic analysis.
minimal or no modification to existing aircraft or infrastructure. This Chiaramonti (2019) was among the first to include market pro-
makes SAF a practical and scalable solution for decarbonising aviation jections in discussions of SAF pathways and feedstocks. The US
while accommodating the growing demand for air travel. Hassan et al. Department of Energy (2024) reviewed all technical SAF pathways,
(2018) found that large-scale SAF implementation could contribute to noting that sourcing iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, and high-performing
64% of total emissions savings by 2050, compared to 31% from greener molecules from low-cost resources is key to production, alongside the
technologies and 5% from operational efficiency improvements. social and environmental benefits of SAF derived from wastes. Doliente
However, widespread commercial adoption of SAF faces several et al. (2020) compared techno-economic analyses of various generations
barriers. Most notably, the current high cost of SAF discourages airlines of feedstocks, addressing emissions, costs, storage, and transport chal-
from voluntary use. SAF is two to three times more expensive than lenges. The ideal feedstock and technology depend on spatial and tem-
conventional jet fuel (Ng et al., 2021), with recent prices around USD poral factors. Shahriar and Khanal (2022) and Cabrera and de Sousa
2500 per tonne for SAF compared to USD 734 per tonne for conventional (2022) explored existing techno-economic analyses and examined pol-
jet fuel (IATA, 2024b; IATA, 2024d). icy initiatives incentivising SAF production and adoption. Grimme
To promote SAF adoption, governments are introducing regulations (2023) and Braun et al. (2024) contributed reviews on SAF production
and offering financial subsidies. The European Parliament has approved costs and minimum selling prices. Further reviews by Ng et al. (2021)
a SAF mandate requiring at least 2% of aviation fuel to be SAF by 2025, and Wang et al. (2024) focused on market potential and specific tech-
increasing to 6% by 2030, 20% by 2035, and eventually 70% by 2050. nological production processes for each pathway.
Japan mandates that 10% of SAF be used for international flights Watson et al. (2024) advanced previous research by extracting
departing from Japanese airports by 2030. Singapore plans to imple- techno-economic (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) data from over 50
ment a SAF levy on departing flights, with a target of 1% in 2026, rising sources, presenting a comprehensive overview of SAF technologies,
to 3–5% by 2030. The UK will implement its SAF mandate in 2025, costs, emissions profiles, and policy implications. They are among the
starting at 2% of total jet fuel demand and increasing to 10% by 2030 few to propose four macro-level future research directions related to
(IATA, 2023a; IATA,2023b; IATA,2024d). economics, management, and policy: a realistic roadmap to 2050,
Several airlines have also voluntarily committed to SAF use. United prospects beyond 2050, standardised guidelines for TEA and LCA, and
Airlines has pledged to purchase up to 52.5 million gallons of SAF. The their integration into policymaking.
Lufthansa Group has partnered with OMV to supply over 800,000 tonnes Despite a substantial body of technological knowledge accumulated
of SAF from 2023 to 2030. Air France-KLM has signed contracts for 1.6 in recent years, non-engineering aspects, including economic viability,
million tonnes of SAF with Neste and DG Fuels, while Delta Airlines has the impact on airline competition, and the role of government in stim-
agreed to purchase 250 million gallons from Aemetis. American Airlines ulating production and adoption, have received little attention. This
has finalised an agreement to buy 500 million gallons of SAF from Gevo. bibliometric analysis and systematic literature review (SLR) focus on the
Emirates has conducted a demonstration flight using 100% SAF, and economic, policy, and managerial aspects, aiming to identify themes
Singapore Airlines has signed an agreement with Neste for 1000 tonnes that encourage greater participation from social sciences in this critical
of SAF (Centre for Aviation Analysis Report, 2023). As of 2023, more discussion and to elaborate future research directions. Bibliometric
than 50 airlines have used SAF on over 500,000 flights. Total SAF pro- analysis could complement and enhance the traditional systematic
duction by 2024 is expected to double from 2023 levels, reaching 1.5 literature review by providing insights into research trends, academic
million tonnes (Air France, 2023; CAPA, 2022a; CAPA, 2022b; CAPA, networks, and citation patterns, allowing researchers to track the most
2023a; S&P Global, 2022; S&P Global, 2024; Neste, 2023; OMV, 2023). influential and relevant studies on SAF and map interdisciplinary con-
Sustainable aviation has become a prominent topic in academic nections. A total of 1378 related journal articles published between
discourse, as reflected in the growing number of reviews within the field. 2014 and 2024 have been collected and analysed.
Afonso et al. (2023) conducted a systematic review of sustainable This paper finds that biomass-derived SAF is constrained by feed-
aviation strategies, covering not only fuel and propulsion systems but stock availability, but the Power-to-Liquid pathway may offer a long-
also operations, energy storage, aerodynamics, structures, materials, term solution. Five key themes have emerged in the literature: (1) sus-
and manufacturing processes. Similarly, Su-ungkavatin et al. (2023) tainable certification of pathways and feedstocks, (2) economic simu-
reviewed four key decarbonisation solutions for aviation: biofuels, lations of alternative solutions, (3) economic feasibility of pathways and
electrofuels, battery-based electric propulsion, and hydrogen. Their re- feedstocks, (4) supply chain dynamics and involvement of multiple
view included nine biofuel and electrofuel pathways, five key battery stakeholders, and (5) policy interventions. Future studies may focus on
technologies, and six existing and emerging carbon-free hydrogen pro- economic simulations of airline competition under different SAF quotas
duction technologies. and case studies on supply chain stakeholders. This research underscores
Undavalli et al. (2023) examined recent advancements in SAF the importance of international collaboration to create a level playing
regarding operational performance, emissions impact, engine and fuel field for SAF adoption and calls for research on multiple stakeholders
system compatibility, and other technical aspects. Heyne et al. (2021) across the SAF supply chain, the potential impacts of airline alliances
laid important groundwork for prescreening procedures preceding the and air passengers on airlines, along with their ripple effects on
official ASTM D4054 certification process. Yusaf et al. (2022) and competition. Additionally, it highlights the importance of engaging with
Mannava and Velautham (2023) endorsed hydrogen as an ultimate so- grey literature, which is evolving rapidly and offering timely updates.
lution but acknowledged the challenges of scaling it up in the short term. The remainder of this article is structured as follows: Section 2 is
Regarding feedstocks, Wei et al. (2019) and Peters et al. (2023) dedicated to methodology, Section 3 summarises the results of the
reviewed the production technologies of biomass-derived SAF. Song bibliometric analysis and SLR, Section 4 discusses the themes identified
et al. (2023) explored hydroprocessing of lipids, a feedstock for HEFA, in the existing SAF literature, and Section 5 concludes by offering future
the most mature and commercially viable pathway in terms of tech- research directions on SAF.
nology and fuel readiness (see also Watson et al., 2024). Emmanouilidou
et al. (2023) reviewed SAF production from solid waste biomass. Zhang 2. Methodology
et al. (2020) published groundbreaking work by reviewing trends, op-
portunities, and challenges in SAF, discussing the market size in the US A systematic literature review (SLR) follows a structured approach to
and globally, and providing detailed comparisons of feedstock and fuel identify literature relevant to specific research questions (Tranfield
characteristics, including the use of SAF in 18 commercial airline flights et al., 2003). This SLR adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for
between 2008 and 2015. This work laid the foundation for future Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (2021

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update). The PRISMA framework was used to identify, screen, and select which are generally lacking in the existing literature on SAF. The aim is
articles for inclusion in the review and bibliometric analysis, with the to engage economic, management, and policy researchers in the con-
assistance of Bibliometrix and VOSviewer. Bibliometrix, an R package, versation on aviation decarbonisation (Fig. 1).
supports co-citation, coupling, and co-word analysis, making it a
powerful tool for scientometric research (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017). 3. Results
VOSviewer offers text-mining functionality to visualise co-occurrence
networks of key terms in scientific literature (Van Eck and Waltman, 3.1. Leading sources and authors
2010; Radha and Arumugam, 2021; Liu et al., 2024).
Although sustainable aviation fuel is the main keyword, there are From 2014 to 2017, the trend in the number of articles produced
also synonyms widely used due to different conventions. The search each year remained relatively stable. However, from 2018 to 2020,
query TITLE-ABS-KEY (“sustainable aviation fuel” OR “sustainable jet publications doubled, and both categories experienced a dramatic in-
fuel” OR “renewable aviation fuel” OR “renewable jet fuel” OR “alter- crease after 2021. The category ‘natural and applied sciences’ is denoted
native aviation fuel” OR “alternative jet fuel” OR “bio aviation fuel” OR as (n), while ‘social sciences and quantitative disciplines’ is denoted as
“bio jet fuel” OR “aviation biofuel” OR “jet biofuel” OR “synthetic (s) in Fig. 2.
aviation fuel” OR “synthetic jet fuel”) was applied to English-only For the ‘natural and applied sciences’ categories, the majority of
journal articles and reviews from 2014 to 2024. The initial search sources are from the journal Fuel (134 articles in the last decade), fol-
found 1361 articles from the Scopus database and 1123 from the Web of lowed by related energy publications. Most of these articles were pub-
Science Core Collection (WoS Core), yielding a total of 2484 articles (as lished in Fuel between 2021 and 2022 (in Fig. 3). ‘Heyne, Joshua’ and
of September 17, 2024). After removing duplicates, 1378 articles ‘Washington State University’ are the most frequent author and affilia-
remained. tion in SAF research, based on the number of articles produced (Table 1).
The research on SAF encompasses both natural and applied sciences, For the social sciences and quantitative disciplines, the leading au-
notably chemical engineering and biological science, as well as social thors are Uwe Riedel and Wei-Cheng Wang, affiliated with the Institute
sciences and qualitative disciplines. A filter of subject areas was also of Combustion Technology and Beihang University (Table 2). Four
applied. By selecting the subject areas of Scopus and WoS, categories in clusters of authors exist in this field, with Heyne, Joshua and Yang,
‘natural and applied sciences’—including energy, chemical engineering, Zhibin from the U.S. among the most relevant authors leading their
environmental science, chemistry, engineering, agricultural and bio- cluster (Fig. 4).
logical science, physics, biochemistry, material sciences, microbiology, The most cited sources include Energies, Frontiers in Energy
and earth science—generated 1330 results. Categories in ‘social sciences Research, and Journal of Cleaner Production (Fig. 5). These interdisci-
and quantitative disciplines’—including social science, economics, plinary journals primarily focus on applied science, suggesting that the
econometrics and finance, business, management and accounting, and existing discussions of specific SAF policies base on a solid under-
decision sciences—generated 243 results. There is some unavoidable standing of established knowledge regarding technological production
overlap between the two categories due to the multidisciplinary nature pathways, chemical properties, and industrial development.
of the topic, such as the techno-economic analysis of the Alcohol-to-Jet The Journal of Air Transport Management, Energy Economics,
pathway. Transportation Research Part A, and Transport Policy are closely con-
PRISMA is commonly followed by thematic identification; however, nected with Frontiers in Energy Research and Journal of Cleaner Pro-
given the high volume of literature, using Braun and Clarke’s six-step duction, but contribute less than journals like Energies. Articles in the
thematic analysis could complement semantic analysis (Braun and Journal of Air Transport Management, Energy Economics, and Trans-
Clarke, 2006). Semantic analysis can help clarify and refine themes by port Policy were published before 2022, while articles in Transportation
examining the language used in the data and validating the identified Research Part A have generally weaker interrelatedness compared to
themes, ensuring they truly represent the data (Liu et al., 2024). Because those in Fig. 3 (using the same parameters with min. strength 15 and
understanding the ‘natural and applied sciences’ is the prerequisite for max. lines 100). This is due to the lesser inter-citations and references
this alternative jet fuel discussion, a brief overview will be provided, among these journals, indicating that social science research on SAF
followed by an analysis focusing on managerial and policy implications, remains siloed.

Fig. 1. Flowchart illustrating the review procedure.

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Fig. 2. The number of articles and average citations (Left: natural and applied sciences; Right: social sciences and quantitative disciplines).

Fig. 3. The co-occurrence network for sources in ‘natural and applied sciences’.

3.2. Semantic analysis and refining themes In this network, three clusters of highly shared keywords were
identified. The green cluster, which includes economic analysis, supply
A visual summary of frequently used words reveals trends and pat- chain, cost-benefit analysis, and oilseeds, focuses on feedstock and its
terns that warrant further investigation. By removing synonyms of economic implications. The red cluster encompasses keywords related to
‘Sustainable aviation fuel’, which contribute significantly to the the airline industry, air transportation, civil aviation, sustainability,
keyword word cloud as they are commonly searched queries, we can climate change, and emission control, reflecting macro discussions on
better highlight the key terms in the articles. aviation decarbonisation policy design. The blue cluster is weaker than
The overall word cloud derived from the keywords (Fig. 6) provides the others, comprising keywords such as hydrocarbons, kerosene,
interesting insights into current research across both natural and applied combustion, blending, and engines, which relate to certification regu-
sciences, including fatty acids, pyrolysis, Fischer-Tropsch processes, lations for fuels.
engines, and hydrocarbons, as well as social sciences such as economic Most articles using these keywords were published in 2021 and 2022
analysis, air transportation, supply chain, and the aviation sector. (Fig. 8). The relationships between different concepts were analysed to
However, a co-occurrence network analysis (Fig. 7) further elucidates identify clusters of related terms, providing insights into main themes
the semantics. and emerging trends. Complemented by the aforementioned semantic

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Table 1 solutions, (3) economic feasibility of pathways and feedstocks, (4)

Most frequent authors and affiliations in ‘natural and applied sciences’. supply chain dynamics and involvement of multiple stakeholders, and
Authors Articles Affiliation Articles (5) policy interventions.
HEYNE, JOSHUA 28 WASHINGTON STATE 195
UNIVERSITY 4. Discussion of the key research themes
WANG, WEI-CHENG 22 INSTITUTE OF COMBUSTION 146
TECHNOLOGY 4.1. Sustainable certification of pathways and feedstocks
GUTIÉRREZ-ANTONIO, 18 BEIHANG UNIVERSITY 138
CLAUDIA
WOLCOTT, MICHAEL 18 PURDUE UNIVERSITY 109
The potential of using SAF to decarbonise the aviation sector has
YANG, XIAOYI 15 ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY 108 been supported by many studies (Prussi et al., 2019; Rupcic et al., 2023;
GARCIA-PEREZ, 14 TIANJIN UNIVERSITY 81 Smith et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2023a; Wang et al., 2023b). It is esti-
MANUEL mated that a reduction of approximately 68% could be achieved by 2050
GÓMEZ-CASTRO, 14 DALIAN INSTITUTE OF 67
if over 85% of aviation fuel demand is met with SAF (Staples et al., 2018;
FERNANDO ISRAEL CHEMICAL PHYSICS
HARVEY, BENJAMIN G. 14 GUANGZHOU INSTITUTE OF 65 Hamdan et al., 2022). However, the availability of SAF is constrained by
ENERGY CONVERSION limited feedstocks and pathways, along with strong demands from
HERNÁNDEZ, 14 SOUTHEAST UNIVERSITY 65 multiple transport sectors (Urban et al., 2024). The source of feedstock is
SALVADOR crucial, as it directly impacts the sustainability and scalability of the SAF
KILAZ, GOZDEM 14 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND 62
TECHNOLOGY OF CHINA
production process. The first key theme explores optimal pathways and
suitable feedstocks.
Currently, there are eight certified pathways and two co-processing
pathways, as shown in Table 3. HEFA is the most commercially
Table 2
mature pathway in use today, followed by Fischer-Tropsch and Alcohol-
Most frequent authors and affiliations in ‘social sciences and quantitative
to-Jet (BP, 2024) (see Table 4).
disciplines’.
Lipids, found in used cooking oil, waste grease, animal fats, plant
Authors Articles Affiliation Articles
oils, and microalgae oils (Doliente et al., 2020), are accessible and
RIEDEL, UWE 7 INSTITUTE OF COMBUSTION 33 market-mature feedstocks, particularly for the HEFA pathway. Much
TECHNOLOGY research has focused on identifying new oil sources, with cover crops
WANG, WEI-CHENG 7 BEIHANG UNIVERSITY 32
such as pennycress, carinata, and camelina among the most discussed
BRAUN-UNKHOFF, 6 WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY 31
MARINA (Taheripour et al., 2022; Phippen et al., 2022; Mousavi-Avval et al.,
HEYNE, JOSHUA S. 6 SOUTHEAST UNIVERSITY 25 2023; Alam and Dwivedi, 2019; Karami et al., 2022; Field et al., 2022).
ENGLISH, BURTON 5 PURDUE UNIVERSITY 22 Other noteworthy sources include jatropha oil, babassu oil, palm oil,
C.
tamanu oil, sunflower oil, and rubber seed oil (Baidoo et al., 2022; Cican
JASIŃSKI, 5 NATIONAL CHENG KUNG 17
REMIGIUSZ UNIVERSITY
et al., 2023; Hamdan et al., 2022). Food waste could also serve as an oil
WOLCOTT, 5 CATALYTIC CARBON 16 source, although controlled fermentation to produce volatile fatty acids
MICHAEL TRANSFORMATION CENTER (VFA) comes at a relatively high cost (Huq et al., 2021; Darda et al.,
BRANDT, KRISTIN 4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 15 2019).
DWIVEDI, PUNEET 4 UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE 15
Lignocellulosic biomass is another potential feedstock. Lignin-
KARAMI, OMID 4 UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON 14
derived jet fuel could enhance the economic viability of SAF due to
low-cost production, high thermal stability and energy density, and low
analysis, Braun and Clarke’s six-step thematic analysis was employed, greenhouse gas emissions (Ahmad et al., 2021; Hamdan et al., 2022).
which includes: familiarising with the data, generating initial codes, Large amounts of woody residues (e.g., wood chips and sawdust) from
searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining themes, and writing Sweden, Finland, and Norway (Siegfried et al., 2023; Puschnigg et al.,
up. This process refined five key themes: (1) sustainable certification of 2023; Cavalett and Cherubini, 2018), forest residue in the central Ap-
pathways and feedstocks, (2) economic simulation of alternative palachian region of the U.S. (English et al., 2022), and cellulosic biomass

Fig. 4. The co-authorship network in ‘social sciences and quantitative disciplines’.

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Fig. 5. The co-occurrence network for sources in ‘social sciences and quantitative disciplines’.

Fig. 6. A word cloud of keywords in the articles in ‘social sciences and quantitative disciplines’.

such as miscanthus, sorghum, or switchgrass are of scholarly interest converted to SAF via the FT pathway (Micheli et al., 2022).
(Gautam et al., 2023; Uludere Aragon et al., 2023). However, lignocel- The articles on this theme of pathways and feedstocks lay a solid
lulosic SAF technologies face a significant limitation—low fuel foundation for the extended literature discussion.
yields—primarily due to the high oxygen content of the feedstock. The
gasification and Fischer–Tropsch processes may offer advantages in
4.2. Economic simulation of alternative solutions
maximising fuel yield (Tanzil et al., 2021; Krogh et al., 2022; Rijo et al.,
2023).
Given the constraints facing the production and adoption of SAF,
Ethanol, waste gases, green hydrogen, and captured carbon are po- researchers have conducted economic simulations of non-SAF strategies
tential feedstocks (Martini et al., 2018; Ahmad et al., 2021; Collis et al.,
to achieve the 2050 net zero goal. Kito et al. (2023) compared two
2022; Micheli et al., 2022). However, each faces specific challenges. pathways using data from Japan. One pathway relies on established
While alcohols, particularly ethanol, are commonly used in vehicles methods (non-future technology), such as gradually improving fuel ef-
either as pure ethanol or blended with petrol, they may not be suitable ficiency, controlling flight distance, and extending aircraft lifetimes. The
for direct use in aircraft engines and require conversion via the AtJ other pathway considers less predictable methods (future technology),
process. In São Paulo, Brazil, researchers have identified sugarcane as a such as introducing SAF. The non-future technology pathway demon-
viable feedstock for the local subindustry; however, the lack of sus- strated that suppressing cumulative flight distances by at least 27% by
tainability safeguards on sugarcane cultivation raises concerns 2050 could help achieve carbon neutrality, assuming maximised fuel
regarding land use and food competition (Martini et al., 2018). Steel mill efficiency and aircraft lifetimes, replacing domestic flights with rail
gases, coke oven gas, and blast furnace gas can be used as feedstocks for transport, limiting international leisure flights, and increasing fares by
the FT process (Ahmad et al., 2021), but the high cost of carbon capture up to 48% to compensate for sales declines.
and storage (CCS) means waste gases would only be feasible under a Sobieralski (2023) found that operational efficiency increased with
high carbon tax regime (Collis et al., 2022). Using electrolysis to produce an improved Flight Management System (FMS), which includes a social
hydrogen is also costly, similar to CCS. Green hydrogen, generated from cost index metric to optimise speed. Implementing this index could save
renewable power, is currently more efficiently used directly than approximately 22 gallons of jet fuel per flight per hour, with potential

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Fig. 7. Co-occurrence clustered network for keywords in ‘social sciences and quantitative disciplines’.

Fig. 8. Co-occurrence time-laying network for keywords in ‘social sciences and quantitative disciplines’.

savings including a 7%–23% reduction in fuel burn compared to tradi- and wing designs could reduce emissions by up to 15% by 2050.
tional climbs and a 10%–28% reduction in noise. However, Villegas Díaz Hydrogen and electricity are viable for short-haul flights in the near
et al. (2020) noted that enforcing optimal continuous climb operations is term. Electric propulsion eliminates water vapour and other greenhouse
challenging due to varying contexts. While the numbers appear prom- gases (GHGs) and reduces noise both inside and around aircraft. How-
ising, the cumulative effect of improved flight operational efficiency ever, fully electric aircraft are feasible only for distances of up to
contributes minimally. For example, in China’s commercial aviation 250–300 km. Liquid hydrogen is preferred, offering an 83% reduction in
sector, CO2 emission reductions from flight operational improvements emissions with a minimal weight increase of 0.5%. While
were only 2.11 Mt between 2009 and 2019, due to increasing travel hydrogen-powered flights could reach up to 2900 km under optimal
demand and lagging technological advancements. Under the baseline scenarios, this option requires dedicated infrastructure for hydrogen
scenario, aviation carbon intensity could achieve a maximum reduction storage and transfer at airports (Barros Pintos, 2023).
of 65% by 2035 and even less by 2050 (Huang et al., 2023). Hydrogen may be the ultimate solution for the future. However,
Redesigning aircraft has the potential to increase efficiency even before 2050, the volumetric size of liquid hydrogen presents a signifi-
with conventional jet fuel. Abrantes et al. (2021) found that new engines cant concern regarding compatibility with existing engines and aircraft.

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Table 3
Certified SAF pathways.
ASTM D7566- Certified SAF Maximum Blend Approval Feedstocks
23b Annex (%v/v) year

Annex A1 Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene 50 2009 Syngas, a mixture of CO and H2, produced from the gasification of
(FT-SPK) biomass such as agricultural and forest wastes, municipal solid waste,
wood and energy crops, or coal and natural gas.
Annex A2 Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids 50 2011 Triglyceride feedstocks including animal and plant oil, yellow or brown
Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HEFA-SPK) greases, or waste fat, oil, and greases.
Annex A3 Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to 10 2014 Microbial conversion of sugars to hydrocarbons. Feedstocks include
Synthesised Iso-Paraffins (HFS-SIP) cellulosic biomass feedstocks such as herbaceous biomass and corn stover,
pretreated waste fat, oil, and greases.
Annex A4 Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene 50 2015 Like FT-SPK ASTM D7566 Annex A1, but with the addition of aromatic
with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A) components.
Annex A5 Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene 50 2016 Ethanol and isobutanol produced from lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., corn
(ATJ, isobutanol) stover).
Annex A5 Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene 50 2018 ASTM approved in April 2016 for isobutanol and in June 2018 for ethanol
(ATJ, ethanol) with a 30% blend limit.
Annex A6 Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Synthesised 50 2020 Triglyceride-based feedstocks such as soybean oil, jatropha oil, camelina
Kerosene (CHJ or CH-SK) oil, carinata oil, and tung oil.
Annex A7 Hydroprocessed Hydrocarbons, Esters and 10 2020 Botryococcus braunii, a high-growth algae that produces triglyceride oil.
Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HC-
HEFA-SPK)
Annex A8 Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Kerosene with 50 2023 Like FT-SPK ASTM D7566 Annex A5, but with the addition of aromatic
Aromatics (ATJ-SKA) components.
ASTM Certified SAF Maximum Approval Feedstocks
D1655-23 Blend (%v/v) date
Annex
Annex A1 Co-Processing 5% ​ Fats, oils and greases or Fischer-Tropsch biocrude

Note: Complied by the authors from the following sources: ASTM International (2023); Aviation Benefits (2024); CAAFI (2024); IATA (2024a).; ICAO (2024); SkyNRG
(2024a); SkyNRG (2024b) The U.S. Department of Energy (2024). These forms are for reference only; all engineering, chemical, and relevant details have been
simplified. Please refer to the original ASTM documentation for more information.

Introducing entirely new designs may result in daunting upfront costs with the logistical challenges of producing, transporting, and storing
for manufacturers and operators (Yusaf, 2022), which many airlines SAF, further affect its economic feasibility. For instance, the capital cost
cannot afford given the industry’s thin profit margins. of a HEFA production plant using rubber seed oil is US$8.7 million, with
While the production and adoption of SAF face numerous obstacles, an annual operating cost of US$0.33 million (Baidoo et al., 2022).
Mayeres et al. (2023) found that an emissions trading scheme could be a Strategies such as establishing a book-and-claim mechanism, optimising
low-hanging fruit. Their techno-economic model indicated that a tax on transport to the nearest airport, and strategically locating biorefineries
fossil fuel incurs a lower welfare cost per tonne of GHG abated compared can mitigate costs and emissions (Doliente et al., 2020; Mousavi-Avval
to both a blending mandate and a SAF subsidy. Consequently, emissions et al., 2023). Maximum prices paid to farmers for feedstock like
trading schemes (ETS), such as the EU-ETS and the Carbon Offsetting Pennycress range from 10.18 to 11.73 cents per pound, equivalent to US
and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), are more $225 to US$259 per tonne. These prices are closely linked to farmers’
cost-effective. This is because the sectoral source is less relevant, as some willingness to adopt oilseed plants (Trejo-Pech et al., 2021; McCollum
sectors can reduce GHG emissions more easily than others. Proost et al., 2021), highlighting the need for concerted efforts to reduce SAF
(2024) used a model to verify that the EU-ETS is the most stable and prices to sustainable levels.
robust pathway for the EU to achieve net zero, complemented by SAF There is ongoing debate about safety concerns and their long-term
research and development incentives, while the SAF mandate is the least financial implications for the widespread deployment of SAF. Studies
efficient to kickstart SAF adoption. (Kramer et al., 2022; Babuder et al., 2024) suggest that more frequent
safety inspections may be required for relevant aircraft components (e.
g., fuel systems) and airport operations (e.g., re-fuelling systems).
4.3. Economic feasibility of pathways and feedstocks However, other research indicates that the variability of SAF is negli-
gible, allowing for widespread adoption without major changes to en-
SAF is currently not an economically viable option for airlines, as it is gines or infrastructure (Oldani et al., 2022). This aligns with findings
approximately 3.5 times more expensive than Jet A1 fuel (Watson et al., that within blend limits, the use of SAF is not expected to significantly
2024). The recent average price of SAF from various sources is around
US$2437 per tonne (IATA, 2024b), compared to about US$690 per
tonne for Jet A1 (Jet-A1-Fuel, 2024). This gap widens further in the Table 4
absence of a carbon trading market. However, efforts are being made to The average performance of each technology’s MSP and CO2 emissions
compared to conventional jet fuel.
make SAF economically sustainable. According to Watson et al. (2024),
the HEFA pathway, the most mature market option, offers compara- Technology MSP USD Percent CO2 Percent
Average per Increase from Emissions Decrease
tively lower costs than Fischer-Tropsch, AtJ, and CHJ. Research in-
(USD per Tonne Conventional Average from
dicates that the minimum sustainable price (MSP) of HEFA derived from Liter) (gCO2eq Conventional
inedible fats and oils is US$1100 per tonne, while HEFA from palm fatty MJ− 1)
acid distillate and ATJ from corn grain have MSPs of US$1400 per tonne FT-SPK 2.08 2540 320% 7.84 92%
(Wang et al., 2021). However, the limited availability of lipid feedstock HEFA-SPK 1.12 1370 120% 65.22 27%
makes the HEFA pathway unsustainable for achieving 2050 goals if ATJ-SPK 1.69 2060 240% 38.67 57%
relied upon solely (Yilmaz, 2022; Cui and Chen, 2024; Collis et al., HFS–SIP 3.99 4870 700% 42.02 53%
CHJ-SPK 1.3 1590 160% 20.58 77%
2022).
The upfront costs and operational expenses of biorefineries, along Source: Watson et al. (2024).

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impact operations (Babuder et al., 2024; Barros Pintos et al., 2023; Cican capacity and exploring additional feedstock options, and fuel producers,
et al., 2023). tasked with boosting SAF production capacity and developing next-
Extensive research has examined the impact of technological path- generation technologies (Emmanouilidou et al., 2023; Tanzil et al.,
ways, feedstocks, biorefinery costs, logistics, maximum feedstock prices, 2021). The roles of feedstock producers and fuel producers may not have
and additional labour costs for safety checks on SAF production clearly defined boundaries, as the production technology and feedstocks
(Babuder et al., 2024; Baidoo et al., 2022; Barros Pintos et al., 2023; are closely intertwined; they must be compatible, or else they will be
Cican et al., 2023; Collis et al., 2022; Cui and Chen, 2024; Doliente et al., ineffective. The third stakeholder group comprises airframe and engine
2020; Kramer et al., 2022; McCollum et al., 2021; Mousavi-Avval et al., original equipment manufacturers, who are responsible for developing
2023; Oldani et al., 2022; Trejo-Pech et al., 2021; Yilmaz, 2022). Future airframes and engines suitable for SAF and supporting testing (Heyne
research should prioritise developing a standardised reporting format et al., 2021; Gan et al., 2023). Other stakeholders include airlines, which
for SAF production costs, including both simulation and actual pro- are the direct users of SAF. They are tasked with investing in feedstock
duction data. There are currently limited reports on initial and opera- and fuel producers by sending clear market signals and signing offtake
tional costs associated with standalone or co-processing biorefineries, agreements. End customers, whether corporate or individual air pas-
logistical expenses, and additional labour costs for safety checks. The sengers, also play a role by contributing to the demand for SAF. Airports
maximum purchasing price of feedstock also remains underreported. are another crucial stakeholder, ensuring that infrastructure is condu-
This highlights the need for a standardised reporting format to facilitate cive for all suppliers to deliver their products to airlines, thereby
monitoring fluctuations and gaps, enhancing transparency, efficiency, creating a level playing field for all suppliers (not excluding any sup-
and economic viability within the SAF production landscape. plier) (Chao et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020; Jain et al., 2021). Gov-
ernment and local regulators play significant roles in ensuring that the
4.4. Supply chain dynamics and involvement of multiple stakeholders supply chain runs smoothly and addressing any market failures through
policy instruments. Lastly, international organisations/agencies advo-
The existing literature identifies that the supply chain of SAF com- cate for and facilitate collaboration among regulators across jurisdic-
prises five phases plus logistical transport (rail, truck, or pipeline) con- tions, particularly for long-haul international flights (Ng et al., 2021;
necting them: feedstock production, feedstock processing, refining and Pavlenko and Searle, 2021).
certification, blending and certification, and fuelling and end-use (BP,
2024; CSIRO, 2023; IATA, 2024c; SkyNRG, 2024a; SkyNRG, 2024b). For 4.5. Policy interventions
each phase of the SAF supply chain, highly trained professionals are
required to manage the new challenges in accordance with updated SAF Dodd and Yengin (2021) identified a deadlock among airlines, fuel
guidelines. The first phase involves cultivating or collecting feedstock producers, and governments, as each has different priorities. Airlines
for preprocessing. The second phase entails initial treatment (e.g., hesitate to invest unless SAF becomes more affordable and readily
biochemical and thermochemical processes) of raw feedstock to produce available, while SAF producers are reluctant without a guaranteed
intermediate products. The third phase converts these intermediate market from airlines. Consequently, governments play a crucial role in
products into final SAF via certified technological pathways and certifies breaking this deadlock. The estimated investment required over a
them according to ASTM D7566. Given that only a limited percentage of 27-year period, from 2023 to 2050, amounts to US$5.3 trillion (IATA,
SAF can be used at this stage, the fourth phase blends pure SAF with 2023b). Redirecting subsidies currently allocated to fossil fuels could
conventional Jet A/A-1 fuel, requiring additional certification to ensure contribute nearly one-third of this funding, as governments spend an
compliance with ASTM D7566 standards (Martinez-Valencia et al., average of US$55.6 billion per year on such subsidies (ATAG, 2021;
2023; Phippen et al., 2022; English et al., 2022). Once certified, the final IATA, 2023a). The UK has implemented the JetZero strategy, aiming to
phase delivers fuel to airport tanks for distribution via the hydrant have five commercial-scale SAF plants under construction by 2025, with
system or refueler trucks. GBP 180 million in new funding (UK Parliament, 2023). Other countries
Much of the existing research on supply chains focuses on the should act quickly to establish similar SAF schemes to support the in-
instability of feedstock availability due to the temporal and spatial dustry (Barbarà and Ennison, 2023; FAA, 2024; Mission Possible Part-
variability of biomass yield and quality, along with uncertainties in pre- nership, 2022; Qantas Airways Limited, 2024).
treatment (Roni et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2022; Doliente et al., 2020). Some Command-and-control regulations can effectively address environ-
studies also address geopolitical implications (e.g., Shehab et al., 2023) mental issues arising from market failures. A mandate for a certain
and the scalability of technological pathways. Furthermore, research percentage of SAF in jet fuel is easy to monitor and enforce, providing
investigates the e-kerosene supply chain, which involves transporting predictable carbon reduction and certainty. The EU leads by imposing
captured CO2 through pipelines and other modalities (Engelmann et al., quotas requiring fuel suppliers to blend 2% of SAF by 2025, 5% by 2030,
2024; Ying et al., 2023). However, the operational and infrastructural and at least 63% by 2050 at all EU airports (CAPA, 2023b). A similar
impacts of these supply chains, beyond feedstock sourcing and bio- mandate has been imposed on airlines departing from Singapore (The
refinery, are insufficiently researched and analysed (Babuder et al., Straits Times, 2024a).
2024). Policy interventions, in the form of regulations and incentives, are
The current research has not fully investigated the multiple stake- crucial for enabling fuel suppliers to manage funding, financing, and risk
holders in the supply chain, despite the fact that the production and mitigation. Incentives, such as SAF blender tax credits, can increase fuel
adoption of SAF hinge on concerted cooperation across this chain. Ac- yield, and stacking them reduces the probability of financial loss
cording to IATA on sustainability and economics, there are eight (Martinez-Valencia et al., 2023). Additional subsidies and combined
stakeholders in the supply chain, six of which are closely related to federal and local programmes can significantly lower the minimum
aviation, while one represents government/regulators, and the other is selling price (Brandt et al., 2022) and enhance the financial performance
an international organisation/agency (IATA, 2023a; IATA, 2023b). and assessed value of fuel suppliers (Weibel, 2018; Bhatt et al., 2023).
The stakeholders most closely related to aviation include feedstock Carlson et al. (2023) noted that variable subsidies, aligned with
producers, who are responsible for increasing feedstock production changing crude oil prices, may be more efficient and effective than fixed

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subsidies per unit of SAF, allowing biorefineries to expand capacity. 0.1% as of 2024, real-world data are insufficient. Therefore,
Policies on SAF have been considered and discussed at multiple simulations can serve as valuable references for policymakers and
levels. At the macro level, researchers have focused on the role of the businesses to validate the necessity of SAF. Research should also
ICAO and the CORISA, advocating for a coherent global policy frame- focus on the impacts of SAF adoption on airline competition and
work due to the transboundary nature of the aviation industry (Dodd related industries, such as tourism and agriculture. Beyond
and Yengin, 2021; Kania et al., 2023). Researchers have also proposed merely comparing policies, theoretical modelling and numerical
various approaches to accelerate the ASTM evaluation process, such as experiments (which will require quantitative data) could better
analysing low-cost SAF screening tools by combining timescale theory inform policymakers.
with reduced-order fuel properties and random forest regressions 3). Inspired by section 4.3: If governments continue to send strong
(Peiffer et al., 2019), and using a fuel properties database to streamline market signals, more production units will be established,
the approval process by addressing the physicochemical variability of attracting interest from financial institutions and investment
SAF (Boehm et al., 2021; Heyne et al., 2021; Oldani, 2022). At the meso banks. Engineering economic analyses are needed to understand
level, different countries and regions employ various policy approaches, cost-benefit scenarios, including break-even points and internal
such as pro-mandatory quotas (Chen et al., 2023), pro-carbon trading rates of return (IRR). More techno-economic studies should
(Hamdan et al., 2022), and welfare-oriented policies (Jiang and Yang, examine investing in production units using different combina-
2021). However, Bullerdiek et al. (2021) cautioned that mandating tions of pathways and feedstocks.
airlines to use specific types of SAF may promote a broader range of 4). Inspired by section 4.4: The dynamics between various stake-
technological pathways, but overly ambitious SAF blending targets holders, such as farmers, logistics agencies, and regulatory
could lead to a ‘lock-in effect,’ resulting in an oligopolistic market bodies, remain underexplored. For example, the relationship
structure and excessive pricing power, thereby hindering other nascent between feedstock producers and biorefineries has not been
innovations. Building on the policy discussions around carbon taxes and thoroughly investigated, nor has the motivation for farmers to
quotas (Chao et al., 2019; Jiang and Yang, 2021) and other relevant cultivate oil plants. Llimited research exists on how related in-
prior research, Zheng et al. (2024) utilised economic modelling to dustries manage risks while ensuring regulatory compliance
compare the effects of subsidies and quotas on SAF usage. This research (Babuder et al., 2024). Decarbonisation efforts will also necessi-
found that while subsidy policies lead to higher SAF usage, greater tate new skills for existing and emerging roles in the aviation
consumer surplus, and increased airline profits, they also result in higher sector, with significant investments in Australia aimed at a pro-
total emissions. This SAF policy model is sensitive to production costs duction target of 20 GL per year, potentially creating long-term
and market potential, suggesting that policymakers should adjust stra- employment for around 250,000 people in regional areas
tegies according to different scenarios. Chen et al. (2024) further (ARENA, 2019).
develop the modelling and apply game-theoretic techniques to examine 5). Inspired by section 4.5: More attention should be paid to inter-
the effects of a government-mandated SAF on full-service carriers and national collaboration in promoting SAF production and adop-
low-cost carriers. The study demonstrates that the SAF mandate benefits tion, particularly for long-haul international routes that
LCCs, as they gain from enhanced fuel efficiency. When LCCs’ fuel ef- contribute significantly to emissions but often fall outside regu-
ficiency is sufficiently high, the SAF mandate can increase both their lations. Investigating international treaties and agreements be-
traffic and profits. At the micro level, research centres on airlines’ tween jurisdictions is essential for understanding their real
reluctance to adopt SAF due to concerns about losing price competi- impacts. Comparative analyses of various policies across juris-
tiveness, as passengers may be unwilling to pay extra for carbon-neutral dictions and over time are also needed (Gössling and Lyle, 2021;
flights despite their positive perceptions of SAF’s benefits (Xu et al., Watson et al., 2024). As discussed in the second point of this
2022). section, economic modelling research can provide a broad com-
parison of policies across jurisdictions but offers deeper insights
5. Future research directions when using numerical data from specific jurisdictions (Zheng
et al., 2024). In particular, a comprehensive global SAF dataset is
After reviewing five key thematic topics, the following future di- still not available for the research.
rections (1–7) are inspired by the thematic discussions. 6). Research efforts can extend beyond airlines to examine whether
airline alliances facilitate greater SAF uptake. And understanding
1). Inspired by section 4.1: Research in this area requires a solid the extent to which passengers influence airlines’ adoption of SAF
foundation in chemical engineering, which can serve as prereq- is critical. Studies should investigate whether promotional ma-
uisite knowledge for social science and quantitative researchers. terials can raise public awareness and willingness to pay higher
Regulatory concerns remain a significant topic. As global demand fares for SAF-powered flights.
for biomass increases, proper regulation and certification are 7). Greater attention could be paid to grey literature, which is often
essential. Researchers should be mindful of the potential negative more timely and business-driven than journal articles. This grey
impacts of SAF production on the environment. For instance, in literature approaches SAF from various angles, including tech-
the U.S., ethanol producers seeking government subsidies must nical certification, sustainability certification, technological
adhere to stringent criteria (Douglas and Renshaw, 2024). The analysis, prediction, and policy considerations. Reports from
European Union has also been cautious about the use of palm oil, prominent international organisations such as ICAO, IATA, the
a stance supported by the World Trade Organization (The Straits International Energy Agency (IEA), and think tanks like the In-
Times, 2024b). ternational Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) and the
2). Inspired by section 4.2: Understanding decarbonisation scenarios World Economic Forum (WEF) are essential. The Industrial Alli-
without SAF in place across jurisdictions is crucial. Currently, ance Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) and Airlines for
only SAF quota scenarios for certain flights have been simulated. Australia and New Zealand (A4ANZ) have also published relevant
Given that the SAF usage rate for commercial aviation is less than findings. Consulting firms like Deloitte and Kearney, along with

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active regulatory bodies such as the UK Jet Zero Council, U.S. significantly to carbon emissions and should be prioritised. Mandatory
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the European Union regulations may have flexible timelines for less developed countries and
Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), and the Australian Civil Aviation airlines. Incentive-driven policies could facilitate early production and
Safety Authority (CASA), as well as fuel suppliers like Air BP and adoption through various packages and nudges. A firm commitment to
Shell, have contributed valuable insights over the past three the net-zero goal through SAF from all governments would send a strong
years. Reports on SAF have also been released by manufacturers signal to investors, producers, and airlines, emphasising the importance
such as Airbus and Boeing. The latter has introduced the Cascade of acting early.
Climate Impact Model to inform the public and researchers about This study combines bibliometric analysis with a systematic litera-
advancements in this area. The abundant sources of grey litera- ture review, but it has limitations, primarily due to the reliance on
ture require more academic attention; qualitative policy com- datasets such as Scopus and the Web of Science Core Collection. These
parison studies and natural language processing could be datasets are comprehensive and widely recognised within academia, but
effective approaches (Dimitriadou and Lavinsky, 2022; Douglas they may not fully capture grey literature. As the SAF sector has
and Renshaw, 2024; Ember, 2024). developed rapidly, particularly over the last three years, there has been a
surge in industrial reports, media coverage, and conference proceedings.
6. Conclusion Secondly, this review may therefore exclude relevant studies due to the
strict inclusion and exclusion criteria imposed by these databases,
Aviation decarbonisation requires joint efforts, including market- potentially missing some emerging interdisciplinary perspectives.
based mechanisms (such as emissions trading schemes and carbon Moreover, citation bias can skew the evaluation of research quality, as
taxes), optimised air traffic management, aircraft design, and improve- older papers tend to receive more citations than newer ones. For
ments in operational efficiency. Although it is not a silver bullet, SAF is a instance, a paper published five years ago will typically have more
significant contributor to this effort. visibility and citations than one published just two or three months ago.
This bibliometric analysis and literature review of articles on SAF Despite these minor limitations, this review identifies seven key
from the past decade, primarily within the social sciences and quanti- areas for future research in SAF. It also encourages non-engineering
tative disciplines, reveals that the aviation industry’s approach to SAF researchers to engage with SAF research, contributing via theoretical
should not be framed as a yes-or-no question. Instead, the focus should modelling or empirical studies. This study also advocates for more
be on determining the appropriate percentage of SAF to use and the research on SAF, particularly using existing ADS-B or OAG datasets, case
policies that should be implemented. Non-SAF alternatives alone will studies, grey literature and the involvement of researchers from diverse
not achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, as discussed in Sections 4.1 and disciplines to advance aviation decarbonisation.
4.2. In particular, electric and liquefied hydrogen-powered jets are un-
likely to be commercially viable for mid- and long-haul flights until at CRediT authorship contribution statement
least 2050, barring disruptive technologies (ATAG, 2021; Bain and
Company, 2023). SAF remains the only commercially mature option Yuchao Xu: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis.
available today, although pathways such as HEFA, Fischer-Tropsch, and Yahua Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology,
AtJ are constrained by feedstock availability, as outlined in Section 4.3 Conceptualization. Xin Deng: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
(ATAG, 2023). The power-to-liquid pathway shows promise for the Seung-Yong Lee: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Kun Wang:
future but requires further research and development to scale up Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. Linbo Li: Writing – re-
renewable hydrogen production. While production has received over- view & editing, Supervision.
whelming academic interest, ensuring seamless delivery to aircraft ne-
cessitates more coordination across the entire supply chain, as discussed Acknowledgement
in Section 4.4.
Most importantly, as outlined in Section 4.5, governments and in- This research benefits from the sustainable aviation fuel project
ternational organisations must agree on effective policies and regula- funded by Australia’s National Foundation for Australia- China Re-
tions to ensure the participation of all airlines and create a level playing lations (project number: NFACR230215).
field globally. Inter-continental ultra-long-haul flights contribute

Appendix 1. Uncertified SAF pathways under consideration

Technology Feedstocks Final Products Direct Key features Source

Blend-
in?

Direct liquefaction Coal, biomass Synthetic crude oil/ No Using high pressure and temperature without Krogh et al. (2022)
Bio crude oil oxygen to convert solid feedstocks into liquid
SAF
Power-to-X (PtX) Electricity Various, including No Converting electricity into other forms of (Fasihi et al., 2017; Krogh et al., 2022;
hydrogen, methane, energy, substances, or materials. Melo et al., 2020)
liquid fuels, and
chemicals
Gas-to-Liquid Natural gas or other Liquid hydrocarbons No Syngas production through steam methane (Heesterman, 2019; Krogh et al., 2022)
gaseous reforming or partial oxidation, followed by
hydrocarbons Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or methanol
synthesis to produce liquid fuels.
Integrated Coal, biomass Synthetic liquid fuels No Enhancing Fischer–Tropsch by integrating Tanzil et al. (2021)
carbonisation- carbonisation and gasification into a more
gasification- efficient and more environmentally friendly
Fischer–Tropsch single process.
(ICGFT)
(continued on next page)

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(continued )
Technology Feedstocks Final Products Direct Key features Source
Blend-
in?

Volatile fatty acids Organic waste, Short-chain volatile No Using fermentation of organic waste to Huq et al. (2021)
fermentation (VFA- wastewater fatty acids produce VFAs
SAF)
Power to Liquid (PtL) Electricity, water, Synthetic liquid fuels Yes The subset of PtX. Involves electrolysis to (Dietrich et al., 2024; Fasihi et al.,
kerosene CO2 (Kerosene) produce hydrogen from water, which is then 2017; Hasan et al., 2021; Melo et al.,
combined with CO2 in a synthesis process (e. 2020; Micheli et al., 2022; Ozkan et al.,
g., Fischer-Tropsch) to produce synthetic 2024; Shehab et al., 2023; Stauch and
kerosene for aviation. Müller, 2022)
Gasification and Fischer- Coal, biomass, or Synthetic liquid fuels No Converting solid or liquid feedstocks into (Okolie et al., 2023; Tanzil et al., 2021)
Tropsch process (GFT) waste syngas, which is then transformed into
longer-chain hydrocarbons via Fischer-
Tropsch synthesis to produce liquid fuels.
Direct sugar to Sugars from biomass Synthetic liquid fuels No Converting sugars into hydrocarbons (Melo et al., 2020; Okolie et al., 2023;
hydrocarbon (DSHC) through biochemical and/or chemical Tanzil et al., 2021)
processes, without the need for intermediate
fermentation to ethanol.
Fast pyrolysis (FP) Biomass Bio crude oil, char, No Rapid heating of biomass without oxygen to (Krogh et al., 2022; Okolie et al., 2023;
syngas produce bio-oil, which can be upgraded to Siegfried et al., 2023; Tanzil et al.,
fuels or chemicals, as well as char and syngas 2021)
as by-products.
Aqueous phase Water-soluble Gases, liquid No Transforming aqueous streams of biomass- (Okolie et al., 2023; Pipitone et al.,
reforming (APR) biomass components hydrocarbons derived compounds into hydrogen and other 2023; Zhu et al., 2022)
(e.g., sugars, valuable chemicals through a catalytic
alcohols) process at moderate temperatures with high
pressure.
hydrothermal Wet biomass, algae Bio crude oil No Using high pressure and temperature in a (Huq et al., 2021; Krogh et al., 2022;
liquefaction (HTL) water medium to convert wet biomass into Melo et al., 2020; Okolie et al., 2023;
biocrude. Zhu et al., 2022)

Appendix 2. Research methods of selected articles

Research Methods Authors

Modelling and simulation, Scenarios (Ahmad et al., 2021; Alam and Dwivedi, 2019; Aygun and Caliskan, 2022a; Chen et al., 2023; Cican et al., 2023; Field et al., 2022; Gautam
analysis et al., 2023a; Gössling and Humpe, 2023; Gunaltili et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2023; Isufaj et al., 2022; Jain et al., 2021; Jiang and Yang, 2021;
Kito et al., 2023; Krogh et al., 2022; Li and Merkert, 2023; Liu et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2022; Male et al., 2021; Mousavi-Avval et al., 2023; Ng,
2023; Phippen et al., 2022; Prasannakumar et al., 2022; Roni et al., 2023; Shehab et al., 2023; Siegfried et al., 2023; Sobieralski, 2023; Tian
et al., 2020; Timmons and Terwel, 2022; Uludere Aragon et al., 2023; Ying et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2024)
Life cycle assessment (Keiser et al., 2023; Kossarev et al., 2023; Melo et al., 2020; Micheli et al., 2022; Puschnigg et al., 2023; Rupcic et al., 2023; Taheripour et al.,
2022; Vásquez et al., 2019; Wang & Sun et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2022)
Bibliometric analysis (Gössling and Dolnicar, 2023; Gössling and Lyle, 2021; Hopkins et al., 2023; Keiser et al., 2023; Leal Filho et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2023; Rijo
et al., 2023; Su et al., 2022)
Techno-economic assessment (Brandt et al., 2022; Collis et al., 2022; Dietrich et al., 2024; English et al., 2022; Kossarev et al., 2023; Pipitone et al., 2023; Trejo-Pech et al.,
2021b)
Monte Carlo simulation (Carlson et al., 2023; Kadyk et al., 2019; Kılkış and Kılkış, 2017; Pipitone et al., 2023)
Financial analysis (Carlson et al., 2023; Collis et al., 2022; Mahtani and Garg, 2018; Martinez-Valencia et al., 2023)
Survey & case study (Ahmad and Xu, 2021; Dodd and Yengin, 2021; Engelmann et al., 2020; Kania et al., 2023; Korkut and Fowler, 2021; McCollum et al., 2021;
Moo et al., 2022; Oldani et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2022; Yilmaz and Kose, 2021; Zhang et al., 2022)

Appendix 3. Research themes and corresponding articles

Research Themes Authors

Sustainable certification of pathways and (Ahmad et al., 2021; Afonso et al., 2021; Barros Pintos et al., 2023; Bergero et al., 2023; Carlson et al., 2023; Centracchio et al.,
feedstocks 2018; Collis et al., 2022; Cooke and Bernheim, 2022; Cosgrove, 2018; Gao et al., 2022; Gunaltili et al., 2023; Guo and Huang, 2021;
Hamdan et al., 2022; Heyes et al., 2020; Ho-Huu et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2023; Jain et al., 2021; Jiang et al., 2022; Kito et al.,
2023; Krogh et al., 2022; Kwasiborska and Skorupski, 2021; Lazic et al., 2023; Leavitt et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2023;
Male et al., 2021; Ng, 2023; Okolie et al., 2023; Oldani et al., 2022; Prasannakumar et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2021; Sobieralski,
2023; Xue et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2022.)
Economic simulation of alternative solutions (Alam and Dwivedi, 2019; Bach et al., 2021; Baidoo et al., 2022; Cican et al., 2023; English et al., 2022; Fasihi et al., 2017; Field
et al., 2022; Gautam et al., 2023; Heesterman, 2019; Huq et al., 2021; Karami et al., 2022; Kossarev et al., 2023; Krogh et al., 2022;
Male et al., 2021; Micheli et al., 2022; Mousavi-Avval et al., 2023; Phippen et al., 2022; Pipitone et al., 2023; Puschnigg et al.,
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et al., 2023; Vásquez et al., 2019; Wang & Guo et al., 2023; Ying et al., 2023; Yusaf et al., 2022)
Economic feasibility of pathways and feedstocks (Aygun and Caliskan, 2022; Boehm et al., 2021; Brandt et al., 2022; Caraveo Gomez Llanos et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2017, 2023;
Collis et al., 2022; Doliente et al., 2020; English et al., 2022; Farid and Donyatalab, 2022; Gössling and Humpe, 2023; Kramer et al.,
2022; Landera et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2022; Martinez-Valencia et al., 2023; McCollum et al., 2021; Moo et al., 2022;
Singh et al., 2019; Su et al., 2022; Tanzil et al., 2021; Trejo-Pech et al., 2021; Wu and Yang, 2021; Zhang et al., 2018)
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Research Themes Authors

Supply chain dynamics and involvement of (Ahmad and Xu, 2021; Dube and Nhamo, 2019; Gössling and Dolnicar, 2023; Hopkins et al., 2023; Kito et al., 2023; Leal Filho
multiple stakeholders et al., 2023; Li and Merkert, 2023; McCollum et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2022)
Policy interventions (Abrantes et al., 2021; Ahmad, 2018; Barrett and Caldera-Petit, 2021; Bartle et al., 2021; Bullerdiek et al., 2021; Chao et al., 2019;
Darda et al., 2019; Dodd and Yengin, 2021; García-Olivares et al., 2020; Gössling and Lyle, 2021; Hasan et al., 2021; Hassan et al.,
2018; Jiang and Yang, 2021; Kania et al., 2023; Korkut and Fowler, 2021; Littorin, 2021; Rumizen, 2021; Smith et al., 2017;
Villegas Díaz et al., 2020; Zaporozhets et al., 2021)

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