Field-effect transistor

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor which uses an electric

field to control the flow of current. FETs are devices with three terminals:
source, gate, and drain. FETs control the flow of current by the application of a
voltage to the gate, which in turn alters the conductivity between the drain and
source.

FETs are also known as unipolar transistors since they involve single-carrier-
type operation. That is, FETs use electrons or holes as charge carriers in their
operation, but not both. Many different types of field effect transistors exist.
Field effect transistors generally display very high input impedance at low
frequencies. The most widely used field-effect transistor is the MOSFET (metal- Cross-sectional view of a field-effect
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor). transistor, showing source, gate and
drain terminals

Contents
History
Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
Basic information
More about terminals
Effect of gate voltage on current
n-channel FET
p-channel FET
Effect of drain-to-source voltage on channel
Composition
Types
Advantages
Disadvantages
Failure modes
Uses
Source-gated transistor
See also
References
External links

History
The concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) was first patented by Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925
and by Oskar Heil in 1934, but they were unable to build a working practical semiconducting device based on the concept. The
transistor effect was later observed and explained by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William
Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947, shortly after the 17-year patent expired. Shockley initially attempted to build a working FET, by
trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to
problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound
materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to
build a working FET, this led to Bardeen and Brattain instead building a point-contact transistor
in 1947, which was followed by Shockley's bipolar junction transistor in 1948.[1][2]

The first FET device to be successfully built was the junction field-effect transistor (JFET).[1]
A JFET was first patented by Heinrich Welker in 1945.[3] The static induction transistor (SIT),
a type of JFET with a short channel, was invented by Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa
Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
and Y. Watanabe in 1950. Following Shockley's theoretical treatment on the JFET in 1952, a proposed the concept of
working practical JFET was built by George F. Dacey and Ian M. Ross in 1953.[4] However, a field-effect transistor
the JFET still had issues affecting junction transistors in general.[5] Junction transistors were in 1925.
relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which
limited them to a number of specialised applications. The insulated-gate field-effect transistor
(IGFET) was theorized as a potential alternative to junction transistors, but researchers were unable to build working IGFETs,
largely due to the troublesome surface state barrier that prevented the external electric field from penetrating into the material.[5]
By the mid-1950s, researchers had largely given up on the FET concept, and instead focused on bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
technology.[6]

Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right) invented the MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) in 1959.

A breakthrough in FET research came with the work of Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla in the late 1950s.[2] He investigated
the surface properties of silicon semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he adopted a new method of semiconductor device
fabrication, coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide, so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the
conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. This is
known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the semiconductor industry as it made mass-production of silicon
integrated circuits possible.[7][8] Building on his surface passivation method, he developed the metal–oxide–semiconductor
(MOS) process,[7] which he presented in 1957.[9] He later proposed the MOS process could be used to build the first working
silicon FET, which he began working on building with the help of his Korean colleague Dawon Kahng.[7]

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in
1959.[10][11] The MOSFET largely superseded both the bipolar transistor and the JFET,[1] and had a profound effect on digital
electronic development.[12][11] With its high scalability,[13] and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar
junction transistors,[14] the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits.[15] The MOSFET is also capable
of handling higher power than the JFET.[16] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and
mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[5] The MOSFET thus became the most common type of transistor in computers,
electronics,[8] and communications technology (such as smartphones).[17] The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it a
"groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world".[17]

CMOS (complementary MOS), a semiconductor device fabrication process for MOSFETs, was developed by Chih-Tang Sah and
Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963.[18][19] The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by Dawon
Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967.[20] A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory
researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi.[21][22] FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D non-planar multi-
gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in
1989.[23][24]

Basic information
FETs can be majority-charge-carrier devices, in which the current is carried predominantly by majority carriers, or minority-
charge-carrier devices, in which the current is mainly due to a flow of minority carriers.[25] The device consists of an active
channel through which charge carriers, electrons or holes, flow from the source to the drain. Source and drain terminal conductors
are connected to the semiconductor through ohmic contacts. The conductivity of the channel is a function of the potential applied
across the gate and source terminals.

The FET's three terminals are:[26]

1. source (S), through which the carriers enter the channel. Conventionally, current entering the channel at S is
designated by IS.
2. drain (D), through which the carriers leave the channel. Conventionally, current entering the channel at D is
designated by ID. Drain-to-source voltage is VDS.
3. gate (G), the terminal that modulates the channel conductivity. By applying voltage to G, one can control ID.

More about terminals

All FETs have source, drain, and gate terminals that correspond roughly to the
emitter, collector, and base of BJTs. Most FETs have a fourth terminal called the
body, base, bulk, or substrate. This fourth terminal serves to bias the transistor
into operation; it is rare to make non-trivial use of the body terminal in circuit
designs, but its presence is important when setting up the physical layout of an
integrated circuit. The size of the gate, length L in the diagram, is the distance
between source and drain. The width is the extension of the transistor, in the
direction perpendicular to the cross section in the diagram (i.e., into/out of the Cross section of an n-type MOSFET
screen). Typically the width is much larger than the length of the gate. A gate
length of 1 µm limits the upper frequency to about 5 GHz, 0.2 µm to about
30 GHz.

The names of the terminals refer to their functions. The gate terminal may be thought of as controlling the opening and closing of
a physical gate. This gate permits electrons to flow through or blocks their passage by creating or eliminating a channel between
the source and drain. Electron-flow from the source terminal towards the drain terminal is influenced by an applied voltage. The
body simply refers to the bulk of the semiconductor in which the gate, source and drain lie. Usually the body terminal is
connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit, depending on the type of the FET. The body terminal and the source
terminal are sometimes connected together since the source is often connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit,
although there are several uses of FETs which do not have such a configuration, such as transmission gates and cascode circuits.
Effect of gate voltage on current
The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes) from the
source to drain by affecting the size and shape of a "conductive
channel" created and influenced by voltage (or lack of voltage)
applied across the gate and source terminals. (For simplicity, this
discussion assumes that the body and source are connected.) This
conductive channel is the "stream" through which electrons flow
from source to drain.
I–V characteristics and output plot of a JFET n-
channel transistor.
n-channel FET
In an n-channel "depletion-mode" device, a
negative gate-to-source voltage causes a
depletion region to expand in width and
encroach on the channel from the sides,
narrowing the channel. If the active region
expands to completely close the channel, the
resistance of the channel from source to drain
becomes large, and the FET is effectively
turned off like a switch (see right figure, when
there is very small current). This is called
Simulation result for right side: formation of inversion channel
"pinch-off", and the voltage at which it occurs (electron density) and left side: current-gate voltage curve (transfer
is called the "pinch-off voltage". Conversely, characteristics) in an n-channel nanowire MOSFET. Note that the
a positive gate-to-source voltage increases the threshold voltage for this device lies around 0.45 V.
channel size and allows electrons to flow
easily (see right figure, when there is a
conduction channel and current is large).

In an n-channel "enhancement-mode" device, a conductive channel

does not exist naturally within the transistor, and a positive gate-to-
source voltage is necessary to create one. The positive voltage
attracts free-floating electrons within the body towards the gate,
forming a conductive channel. But first, enough electrons must be FET conventional symbol types
attracted near the gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body
of the FET; this forms a region with no mobile carriers called a
depletion region, and the voltage at which this occurs is referred to as the threshold voltage of the FET. Further gate-to-source
voltage increase will attract even more electrons towards the gate which are able to create a conductive channel from source to
drain; this process is called inversion.

p-channel FET
In a p-channel "depletion-mode" device, a positive voltage from gate to body widens the depletion layer by forcing electrons to
the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, positively charged acceptor ions.

Conversely, in a p-channel "enhancement-mode" device, a conductive region does not exist and negative voltage must be used to
generate a conduction channel.

Effect of drain-to-source voltage on channel

For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less than gate-to-source voltages, changing
the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance, and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source
voltage). In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear mode or ohmic
mode.[27][28]

If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the channel due to a gradient
of voltage potential from source to drain. The shape of the inversion region becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the
channel. If drain-to-source voltage is increased further, the pinch-off point of the channel begins to move away from the drain
towards the source. The FET is said to be in saturation mode;[29] although some authors refer to it as active mode, for a better
analogy with bipolar transistor operating regions.[30][31] The saturation mode, or the region between ohmic and saturation, is
used when amplification is needed. The in-between region is sometimes considered to be part of the ohmic or linear region, even
where drain current is not approximately linear with drain voltage.

Even though the conductive channel formed by gate-to-source voltage no longer connects source to drain during saturation mode,
carriers are not blocked from flowing. Considering again an n-channel enhancement-mode device, a depletion region exists in the
p-type body, surrounding the conductive channel and drain and source regions. The electrons which comprise the channel are free
to move out of the channel through the depletion region if attracted to the drain by drain-to-source voltage. The depletion region
is free of carriers and has a resistance similar to silicon. Any increase of the drain-to-source voltage will increase the distance
from drain to the pinch-off point, increasing the resistance of the depletion region in proportion to the drain-to-source voltage
applied. This proportional change causes the drain-to-source current to remain relatively fixed, independent of changes to the
drain-to-source voltage, quite unlike its ohmic behavior in the linear mode of operation. Thus, in saturation mode, the FET
behaves as a constant-current source rather than as a resistor, and can effectively be used as a voltage amplifier. In this case, the
gate-to-source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel.

Composition
FETs can be constructed from various semiconductors—silicon is by far the most common. Most FETs are made by using
conventional bulk semiconductor processing techniques, using a single crystal semiconductor wafer as the active region, or
channel.

Among the more unusual body materials are amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon or other amorphous semiconductors in
thin-film transistors or organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) that are based on organic semiconductors; often, OFET gate
insulators and electrodes are made of organic materials, as well. Such FETs are manufactured using a variety of materials such as
silicon carbide (SiC), gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), and indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs).

In June 2011, IBM announced that it had successfully used graphene-based FETs in an integrated circuit.[32][33] These transistors
are capable of about 2.23 GHz cutoff frequency, much higher than standard silicon FETs.[34]

Types
The channel of a FET is doped to produce either an n-type semiconductor or a p-type semiconductor. The drain and source may
be doped of opposite type to the channel, in the case of enhancement mode FETs, or doped of similar type to the channel as in
depletion mode FETs. Field-effect transistors are also distinguished by the method of insulation between channel and gate. Types
of FETs include:

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) utilizes an insulator (typically SiO2) between
the gate and the body. This is by far the most common type of FET.

The DGMOSFET (dual-gate MOSFET) or DGMOS, a MOSFET with two insulated gates.
 The IGBT (insulated-gate bipolar transistor) is a
device for power control. It has a structure akin to a
MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main
conduction channel. These are commonly used for
the 200–3000 V drain-to-source voltage range of
operation. Power MOSFETs are still the device of
choice for drain-to-source voltages of 1 to 200 V.
The MNOS (metal–nitride–oxide–semiconductor
transistor) utilizes an nitride-oxide layer insulator
between the gate and the body.
The ISFET (ion-sensitive field-effect transistor) can
be used to measure ion concentrations in a
solution; when the ion concentration (such as H+,
see pH electrode) changes, the current through the
transistor will change accordingly.
The BioFET (Biologically sensitive field-effect
transistor) is a class of sensors/biosensors based
on ISFET technology which are utilized to detect
charged molecules; when a charged molecule is
present, changes in the electrostatic field at the
BioFET surface result in a measurable change in
current through the transistor. These include
enzyme modified FETs (EnFETs), immunologically
modified FETs (ImmunoFETs), gene-modified FETs
(GenFETs), DNAFETs, cell-based BioFETs
(CPFETs), beetle/chip FETs (BeetleFETs), and Depletion-type FETs under typical voltages: JFET,
FETs based on ion-channels/protein binding.[35] poly-silicon MOSFET, double-gate MOSFET,
The DNAFET (DNA field-effect transistor) is a metal-gate MOSFET, MESFET.
specialized FET that acts as a biosensor, by using Depletion
a gate made of single-strand DNA molecules to
detect matching DNA strands. Electrons
The JFET (junction field-effect transistor) uses a Holes
reverse biased p–n junction to separate the gate from
the body. Metal
Insulator
The static induction transistor (SIT) is a type of
JFET with a short channel. Top: source, bottom: drain, left: gate, right: bulk.
The DEPFET is a FET formed in a fully depleted Voltages that lead to channel formation are not
substrate and acts as a sensor, amplifier and memory shown.
node at the same time. It can be used as an image
(photon) sensor.
The FREDFET (fast-reverse or fast-recovery epitaxial diode FET) is a specialized FET designed to provide a
very fast recovery (turn-off) of the body diode.
The HIGFET (heterostructure insulated-gate field-effect transistor) is now used mainly in research.[36]
The MODFET (modulation-doped field-effect transistor) is a high-electron-mobility transistor using a quantum
well structure formed by graded doping of the active region.
The TFET (tunnel field-effect transistor) is based on band-to-band tunneling.[37]
The HEMT (high-electron-mobility transistor), also called a HFET (heterostructure FET), can be made using
bandgap engineering in a ternary semiconductor such as AlGaAs. The fully depleted wide-band-gap material
forms the isolation between gate and body.
The MESFET (metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor) substitutes the p–n junction of the JFET with a
Schottky barrier; and is used in GaAs and other III-V semiconductor materials.
The NOMFET is a nanoparticle organic memory field-effect transistor.[38]
The GNRFET (graphene nanoribbon field-effect transistor) uses a graphene nanoribbon for its channel.[39]
The VeSFET (vertical-slit field-effect transistor) is a square-shaped junctionless FET with a narrow slit connecting
the source and drain at opposite corners. Two gates occupy the other corners, and control the current through
the slit.[40]
The CNTFET (carbon nanotube field-effect transistor).
The OFET (organic field-effect transistor) uses an organic semiconductor in its channel.
 The QFET (quantum field effect transistor) takes advantage of quantum tunneling to greatly increase the speed
of transistor operation by eliminating the traditional transistor's area of electron conduction.
The SB-FET (Schottky-barrier field-effect transistor) is a field-effect transistor with metallic source and drain
contact electrodes, which create Schottky barriers at both the source-channel and drain-channel
interfaces.[41][42]
The GFET is a highly sensitive graphene-based field effect transistor used as biosensors and chemical sensors.
Due to the 2 dimensional structure of graphene, along with its physical properties, GFETs offer increased
sensitivity, and reduced instances of 'false positives' in sensing applications[43]
The Fe FET uses a ferroelectric between the gate, allowing the transistor to retain its state in the absence of bias
- such devices may have application as non-volatile memory.

Advantages
The FET has high gate-to-main current resistance, on the order of 100 MΩ or more, providing a high degree of isolation between
control and flow. Because base current noise will increase with shaping time,[44] a FET typically produces less noise than a
bipolar junction transistor (BJT), and is found in noise-sensitive electronics such as tuners and low-noise amplifiers for VHF and
satellite receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and makes an excellent
signal chopper. It typically has better thermal stability than a BJT.[26] Because they are controlled by gate charge, once the gate is
closed or open, there is no additional power draw, as there would be with a bipolar junction transistor or with non-latching relays
in some states. This allows extremely low-power switching, which in turn allows greater miniaturization of circuits because heat
dissipation needs are reduced compared to other types of switches.

Disadvantages
A field-effect transistor has a relatively low gain–bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET is very susceptible to
overload voltages, thus requiring special handling during installation.[45] The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the
gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic discharge or changes to threshold voltage during handling. This is not
usually a problem after the device has been installed in a properly designed circuit.

FETs often have a very low "on" resistance and have a high "off" resistance. However, the intermediate resistances are
significant, and so FETs can dissipate large amounts of power while switching. Thus efficiency can put a premium on switching
quickly, but this can cause transients that can excite stray inductances and generate significant voltages that can couple to the gate
and cause unintentional switching. FET circuits can therefore require very careful layout and can involve trades between
switching speed and power dissipation. There is also a trade-off between voltage rating and "on" resistance, so high-voltage FETs
have a relatively high "on" resistance and hence conduction losses.

Failure modes
FETs are relatively robust, especially when operated within the temperature and electrical limitations defined by the manufacturer
(proper derating). However, modern FET devices can often incorporate a body diode. If the characteristics of the body diode are
not taken into consideration, the FET can experience slow body diode behavior, where a parasitic transistor will turn on and allow
high current to be drawn from drain to source when the FET is off.[46]

Uses
The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET. The CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) process technology is
the basis for modern digital integrated circuits. This process technology uses an arrangement where the (usually "enhancement-
mode") p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is on, the other is off.
In FETs, electrons can flow in either direction through the channel when operated in the linear mode. The naming convention of
drain terminal and source terminal is somewhat arbitrary, as the devices are typically (but not always) built symmetrical from
source to drain. This makes FETs suitable for switching analog signals between paths (multiplexing). With this concept, one can
construct a solid-state mixing board, for example. FET is commonly used as an amplifier. For example, due to its large input
resistance and low output resistance, it is effective as a buffer in common-drain (source follower) configuration.

IGBTs are used in switching internal combustion engine ignition coils, where fast switching and voltage blocking capabilities are
important.

Source-gated transistor
Source-gated transistors are more robust to manufacturing and environmental issues in large-area electronics such as display
screens, but are slower in operation than FETs.[47]

See also
Chemical field-effect transistor
CMOS
FET amplifier
FinFET
FlowFET
Multigate device

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External links
PBS The Field Effect Transistor (https://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/info/transmodern.html)
How Semiconductors and Transistors Work (MOSFETs) (https://www.wecanfigurethisout.org/VL/MOS_kit.htm)
WeCanFigureThisOut.org
Junction Field Effect Transistor (https://www.radio-electronics.com/info/data/semicond/fet-field-effect-transistor/ju
nction-jfet-basics-tutorial.php)
CMOS gate circuitry (https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_3/7.html)
Winning the Battle Against Latchup in CMOS Analog Switches (https://web.archive.org/web/20160105144331/htt
p://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/35-05/latchup/)
Field Effect Transistors in Theory and Practice (https://www.freescale.com/files/rf_if/doc/app_note/AN211A.pdf)
The Field Effect Transistor as a Voltage Controlled Resistor (https://ljmayes.pnyhost.com/comp/vcr.html)
 "The FET (field effect transistor)" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjeK1nkiFvI). rolinychupetin (L.R.Linares).
March 30, 2013 – via YouTube.

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