II.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TECHNOLOGY

The production of fibre or micro-concrete tiles is based on a simple step by step process.
Materials are usually available in a majority of countries: sand of average particle size, ordinary
Portland cement (OPC 45), aggregate, vegetable fibre (sisal or coir), pigments. A cement mortar
is prepared with OPC 45 and sand and aggregate. The cement: sand/aggregate ratio ranges from
1:3 to 1:2. When producing fibre concrete, vegetable fibres are chopped in segments 10 to 20
mm in length. The fibre is weighed in a ratio of 0.5 to 1 percent of dry mortar weight and added
to the mortar. Once the sand-cement-fibre mix is completed, water is added to a suitable
homogeneous and plastic consistency. One scoop of mix containing the correct measure for one
tile is placed in the screeding frame on a vibrating table.

The vibrating table is made of a metal plate mounted on springs and powered by a small 12 volt
electric motor (car battery or a.c. + transformer). A screeding frame of the size of the expanded
(flat) tile is fixed on the table. The mortar is trowelled into the screeding frame, and the power is
switched on for approximately 45 seconds. Once the layer is vibrated, a small cube of mortar is
moulded on the right hand side of the tile to form a nib. Once vibration is completed, the vibrated
layer of mortar is transferred to a polyester or glass fibre mould. The mould is a standard pantile
form. Once in the mould, the screed takes the shape of the pattern. At this stage, a tile-fixing
device is moulded on the tile: this is usually a galvanized iron wire loop embedded in the fresh
mortar of the nib. This loop will later fasten the tile on the roof battens (laths). After allowing to
dry for 24 hours, the tile is hard enough for demoulding but needs additional curing. An
additional curing period of 5 days through total immersion in a water tank guarantees good
tensile strength. Finally, tiles must be kept in storage under a shed for 15 to 20 days before they
can be sold and placed on the roof.

III.1 Wood

Wood, a particularly versatile material, may be put to many uses in construction. However, as
the technical and physical characteristics of wood differ widely from one species to another, no
universal rule may be laid down. In hot and humid climates in particular, special preservatives
against insects, fungi and dampness are necessary. Such chemical treatments often increase
production costs. A number of traditional methods are also effective, such as: liming, painting
with used engine oil, smoking.

However the intensive use of wood as roofing material contributes to one of the major problems
of tropical countries: deforestation. We therefore recommend extreme caution in assessing the
consequences of using wood as roofing material.

The main characteristics of wood shingles are:

- length = variable (330 mm, 470 mm, 510 mm);

- width = variable (80 to 200 mm);
- thickness = thin end (upper) 3 to 6 mm;
- thickness = thick end (lower) 12 to 16 mm;
- weight = 35kg/m2.
Shingles may be laid on scantlings or boards and panels. The number of shingles per square
metre depends on the roof slope. The main advantages of wood shingle are:

- heat insulation;
- moderate weight;
- good rot resistance (for certain species);
- durability (up to one century with good maintenance);
- noise insulation;
- attractive aspect.

III.2 Bamboo

Bamboo is the generic name for some 550 plant species growing in tropical and temperate
regions. It grows easily and in abundance. With an extremely high fibre content, bamboo offers
good bending and tensile characteristics.

Bamboo presents three major drawbacks: it is highly flammable; it splits easily as a result of
variations in air moisture; it has a short life-span.

As in the case of wood, preventive treatment is possible but has the drawback of increasing the
cost price. Making bamboo tiles and shingles is extremely simple. Laying techniques are not
difficult. Moreover, bamboo can be used as roof structure material.

There are essentially two techniques. Bamboo tile roofing consists of successive rows of half-
stems covering the whole length from the ridge to the gutter. A first layer is laid, with the
concave side facing up. A second layer is laid on the first, with the convex side facing up (as for
Roman tiles).

Bamboo shingles are segments of 3 to 4 cm in width and maximum length between knots. They
are fixed on battens made of half-stems laid concave side up.

III.3 Grass - Straw - Thatch - Reed - Papyrus

These materials have been in use for centuries. They are economical and easy to use. The major
drawbacks Involved in using organic materials result from damage caused by insects and natural
decay.

Laying processes are critical to durability. A correctly laid thatched roof may last up to 10 years.
Unfortunately know-how is becoming scarce and nowadays grass roofs need to be changed every
2 or 3 years.

Preparation of the materials is quite simple. Sound plants with hard, dry and long stems are
collected. The stalks are tied in bunches of 10 to 15 cm diameter. The bunches are tied to the
battens with ropes and piled in staggered layers up to a thickness of 25 to 30 cm.
Population growth and drought have a negative impact on the continued use of thatch as roofing
material. This natural resource is becoming increasingly scarce.

III.4 Corrugated sheet

Corrugated sheet is a universal substitute for traditional materials. It is often perceived as a

symbol of higher social status.

Corrugated sheet comes in several grades. Quality depends on the metal used (aluminium, iron,
steel), sheet thickness and the thickness of the protective coating (galvanisation). Sheet thickness
ranges between 0.15 mm (39 gauge) and 1.22 mm (18 gauge). The thickness of the galvanizing
material (zinc) varies in the range of 60 microns.

Galvanized steel sheet is attacked by corrosion as the protective coating decays. Aluminium
sheet is naturally protected by its self-preserving oxide layer. Over time, it acquires a greyish
colour and loses its reflective properties. The durability of corrugated roofing sheets depends on
these parameters.

The widespread use of corrugated sheet as roof cladding material is essentially due to the fact
that its qualities are consistent with the circumstances of developing countries:

- lightweight (lighter roof structure);

- readily transportable;
- simple laying procedures.

In the long run, serious defects appear, amongst which:

- poor heat insulation;

- poor noise insulation;
- deterioration of false ceilings as a result of condensation;
- need to import the material (foreign currency);
- poor quality of galvanization (corrosion);
- unattractive external aspect.

For all of the above reasons, more appropriate solutions must be found, offering all the benefits
of sheet roofing but none of its defects. Fibre concrete tiles are the perfect solution.

III.5 Clay tiles

Another traditional roofing material is fired clay tile. The technology involves local raw
materials and relatively unskilled manpower. With good quality tiles, a roof will present good
physical characteristics (strength, heat and noise insulation, etc). Clay tiles come in many shapes:
Roman (or Spanish) tiles, flat tiles, pantiles, industrial tiles.

The use of clay as a raw material is highly dependent on several parameters:

- quality of the clay: the presence of impurities results in a brittle end-product;

- firing method: the type of kiln used and the firing method strongly affect tile quality;

- wood consumption: firing requires a large quantity of fuel and contributes to deforestation. The
firing of 5,000 tiles (65 to 200m2 of roofing depending on the type of tile used) requires 2 to 4
cords of firewood depending on the type of kiln used;

- heavy weight: the weight per square metre of roofing varies from 35 to 80 kg. This requires a
much larger section of timber, as compared with lightweight traditional materials or sheets, and
therefore an increase in the cost of substructures.

III.6 Brick and stone: arches

Arch roofs are very widespread in certain regions and practically unknown in others. They can
span large surfaces with materials which hold together by compression only. Such materials are
usually available locally (brick, stone, earth). The more expensive elements required to provide
bending strength (wood, metal, reinforced concrete) can thus be dispensed with.

Although this type of roofing presents all the benefits of appropriate technology for developing
countries (local materials, labour intensive, good heat and noise insulation, durability), a major
obstacle hinders widespread application: know-how.

In regions where this technique is used, there is no need to seek and suggest alternative methods.
Where it does not exist, the training of skilled manpower requires long training hours and
persuasion: numerous fears and deterrents linked with innovation, especially in building
techniques, need to be overcome.

III.7 Fibre or micro-concrete

Fibre or micro-concrete technology has been in existence for a long time. It presents many
technical and economic benefits but has also been criticized for its many drawbacks. Most of the
time, such drawbacks are due to inappropriate management of the technology and insufficient
know-how. This last point cannot be over-emphasised. Although the manufacturing process is
simple, strict observance of all the manufacturing instructions is critical in order to obtain a
quality product that will be readily accepted and disseminated. The end product must compete in
terms of economics, strength and durability with the better-known materials. In other words,
poor know-how hinders the dissemination of this technology: the product cannot gain
widespread acceptance on the market without good technology transfer.

Compared with the other technologies as briefly described above, fibre concrete tiles present
numerous advantages:

- most of the materials used are found locally. Extracting them is a source of employment;
- investments required for starting up production units are moderate. Equipment accounts for
only a small share of initial investments and can be made locally. The largest portion of start-up
capital goes into a revolving fund for raw materials, infrastructure and labour;

- the technology generates employment;

- the use of fibre or micro-concrete tiles results in hard currency savings through a reduction of
Imports;

- the life expectancy of the material is at least 10 to 15 years: the oldest fibre concrete tile roofs
are found in Kenya (10 years);

- heat and noise insulation;

- attractive appearance.

IV. PRODUCTION SCALE

The production capacity of fibre or micro-concrete tile-making units depends essentially on two
factors:

- type of equipment;
- number of workstations.

A small production unit can produce 500 tiles a week, or the equivalent of 38m2 of roof. With a
more sophisticated plant, production capacity may be increased to 1,000 tiles per week, or 80m2
of roof. With more work stations, production may be raised to 5,000 tiles a week or 400m2 of
roof cover.

Table 1 gives examples of production capacity for three types of plant: small, medium and large

Table 1. Production capacity for three plant sizes

Production Tiles per Type of machine Number of Type of market

Scale week workers
Small 500 Small mobile screeding 2 Local and rural
machine
Medium 2,000 Electric plant 3 District
Hand powered plant 4
Large 5,000 Complete work station 7 Urban
Industrialized

Small- and medium-scale production units

A small-scale production unit produces enough tiles in a week to cover a house. Capital
investment is low and within reach of small communities. Portable plants can be used to produce
tiles close to building sites, thereby reducing transport costs. Sand being the largest input,
production units should be located as close as possible to a quarry in order to reduce transport
costs.

Large-scale production units

By increasing the number of work stations and purchasing more sophisticated equipment,
production can be increased to keep up with increasing demand. Although the capital outlay is
larger, this is offset by a lower manpower ratio. In addition, infrastructures for this type of
production units require larger workshops and more expensive storage areas.

This technical memorandum applies to all production scales: output can be easily adjusted to the
capacity of individual producers. There is little technical difference between the various types of
plant.

V. CONTENTS OF TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM

Chapter II describes the various raw materials involved in the technology. It deals with physical
and chemical characteristics, quality and quantity control. One section deals with additives.
Another section discusses suggestions for improved performance.

Chapter III describes the equipment and tools required for a production unit.

Chapter IV gives a step by step description of the tile-making process. For each step, possible
mistakes are identified together with their consequences on tile quality.

Chapter V describes the various tests for quality control of the end product. All the tests are
described. Where tests are failed, reasons for failure are identified. A separate section in this
chapter presents problems, causes and solutions in table form.

Chapter VI deals with the organization of production. The last section in this chapter presents
two typical plant layouts. Chapter VII is intended for carpenters. It discusses the basic principles
of roof frame construction. It also offers a comparative analysis of different types of structures
for different types of roofing.

Chapter VIII is intended for roofers or tile layers. It presents basic rules for calculating the
number of tiles required for a given roof surface as well as several methods for fixing the various
types of tiles on the frame.

Chapter IX defines a methodology for the assessment of production costs and the sales price of
tiles. One section applies the methodology to a specific case study. A second section provides
basic information on costing methods.
Chapter × presents a point by point discussion of the various criteria and socio-economic factors
resulting from the dissemination of this technology.

Annexes I, II and III contains respectively a glossary of technical terms, a list of major
institutions which can provide information on fibre concrete or micro-concrete technology and a
bibliography.

VI. TARGET AUDIENCE

The aim of this technical memorandum is to provide information for various professional
categories (architects, contractors, building technicians etc.) or institutions interested in
construction materials and, more specifically, economic housing in developing countries, i.e.:

- authorities concerned with low-cost housing;

- construction research institutions;
- government agencies in charge of housing and public construction;
- financial institutions, banks, loan agencies;
- local craftsmen and small-scale entrepreneurs wishing to set up their own production units;
- building cooperatives;
- volunteer organizations, technical assistance workers, etc.;
- members of the various crafts involved in roof-making.

(introduction...)

The quality of a mortar depends on the quality of its components, mix proportions and the
mixing environment. Many variables can thus affect the end quality of the tiles.

The following chapter gives a description of components and a presentation of the major
characteristics required for a good quality mix. Sand, aggregates, cement and fibre are analysed
in detail as basic components. Mortar quality is also highly dependent on mix ratios. Another
section discusses the main additives. Finally, several suggestions for improving the end-product
are given at the end of the chapter.

(introduction...)

The quality of sand is highly dependent on its origin (petrology-mineralogy) and its physical
properties (shape, texture, porosity etc). The type of sand used has a direct influence on the
strength of fibre concrete products. It is difficult to choose the right type of sand without prior
trials. The choice of sand and its adequacy to the technology depend on several factors:

- appropriate grading (particle size distribution in aggregates);

- particle shape;
- clay content (sand equivalent);
- presence of organic matter.

I.1 Granulometry
The size distribution of sand particles has a direct influence on the strain and stress strength of
concrete products. If the sand contains a majority of identical size particles, natural bonding
cannot occur. A "well graded" sand contains a wide range of particle sizes. Different grain sizes
are necessary for appropriate bonding, inter alia for the following reasons:

- a diversity of grain sizes reduces the prevalence of voids;

- a high number of contact points in the aggregate allow the cement to bond the particles
together;

- the absence of voids (density) prevents excessive shrinkage (development of micro-cracks)

during setting;

- fine and medium-size particles fill the voids and prevent the cement milk from seeping during
the vibration phase;

- an excessive ratio of "fines" will require additional water to achieve good workability; this
reduces the overall strength of the mortar.

Sands are graded according to particle size.

Table 2: Grading of soil by size of constituent

Size of particles (in mm) Name

60.0 - 20.0 Coarse gravels
20.0 - 6.0 Medium gravels
6.0 - 2.0 Fine gravels
2.0 - 0.6 Coarse sand
0.6 - 0.2 Medium sand
0.2 - 0.06 Fine sand
0.06 - 0.02 Coarse silt
0.02 - 0.006 Medium silt
0.006 - 0.002 Fine silt
< 0.002 Clay

Particle size analysis (granulometry) ensures the adequacy of a given sand to the technology. A
dried sand sample is sieved through square or round mesh screens. In many countries, public
works laboratories have the testing equipment and can offer this service.

The successive rejects collected on the sieves are weighed. The granulometric curve of an
aggregate is constructed by plotting the mesh size on the horizontal axis and the percentage of
successive rejects on the vertical axis.
The shape of the granulometric curve is significant. It gives a direct insight of grain size
distribution of the aggregate in a given sand sample. Three typical examples are given on the
following page (figures 1 to 3).

Reinforced concrete aggregates (mortar) are often defined by two letters: d/D, "d" being the
smallest dimension and "D" the largest dimension.

The mix used in fibre and micro-concrete technology requires a fairly well-balanced sand with
particle size ranging from 0.06 to 2 mm. It should be graded on a 2 mm to 2.5 mm mesh size
sieve. With this type of sand, the granulometric curve will be suitably distributed, thereby
guaranteeing good stress and strain strength.

The presence of 0.06 mm. size particles is an advantage in low cement ratio mortars, provided
the components are clean and adequate from a mineralogic standpoint. However, the percentage
of micro-particles must remain very low (1 to 5 per cent) otherwise they hamper mix
workability.

The granulometric curve given in figure 4 is that of a very clean sand used in Madagascar during
preliminary testing prior to the installation of the tile production unit.

I.2 Grain shape

Grain shape affects the amount of water required for the mix. Angular particles impair the
workability of the material. Smooth, round-shaped particles will require less mixing water. The
water ratio of a mortar will directly affect the strength of the finished product (see section IV.3 in
this chapter).

In addition, a high proportion of particles with flat and smooth surfaces (e.g. mica) is detrimental
to mortar quality. Mica presents a double disadvantage: microparticles cannot adhere to its
smooth surface; the cleavage of mica particles induces the development of cracks.

I.3 Clay content: sand equivalent

Clay is composed of microscopic particles. When mixed with sand, the microparticles deposit on
the grain surface and form a coating which prevents the chemical binder (cement) reaction from
operating. A high clay content reduces the strength of the finished product.

The lowest sand equivalent acceptable for this technology is in the range of 75 percent to 85
percent. This is a "clean" to "very clean" sand, with a low percentage of clay fines.

It should also be noted that a total absence of fine particles negatively affect mortar workability.
Although additional water can be used for the mix, this is detrimental to the quality of the final
product (see section IV. 3 in this chapter).

The clay content of a sand sample may be established by a very simple test. This test must be
carried out regularly, particularly if the sand comes from different sites.
Clay content or sand equivalent test (figure 5)

Materials

- One test-tube graduated in millilitres;

- Salt water solution.

Method

- Pour a small amount of salt water in test-tube;

- Add sand up to 100 ml graduation mark;
- Add salt water up to 150 ml mark;
- Cover tube; shake energetically;
- Place tube on flat surface; level sand surface by tapping on test tube;
- Allow to decant and settle for 3 hours.

I.4 Impurities

Organic impurities may impair the setting properties of concrete. A simple test gives the content
of organic matter in the sand. This test should be performed regularly, particularly if the
extraction site is changed during a production run.

Test for organic impurities

Materials

- One 350 ml jar graduated at 130 ml and 200 ml;

- One 3 per cent NaOH or CaOH distilled water solution.

Method

- Fill jar with sand up to 130 ml mark;

- Pour water solution up to 200 ml mark;
- Shake mixture energetically;
- Allow to decant and settle for 24 hours.

Reading and results

The colour of the solution indicates the organic matter content:

- transparent to light low organic matter content: the sand is appropriate;

yellow:
- dark yellow: presence of organic impurities: final strength of concrete will be reduced
by 10 to 20 per cent;
- reddish-yellow: sand should be rejected: final strength of concrete will be reduced by 50
to 80 per cent.
II.1 Rationale

Numerous experts in many countries now recognise that natural vegetable fibre may be replaced
with small-sized gravel - aggregate - when preparing the mix. Although the many advantages of
fibre concrete have been amply demonstrated, substituting aggregate for the fibre produces other
benefits, such as:

- the mechanical strength of the tile will remain constant over time; it will not be impaired by the
decay of fibres caused mainly by the influence of alkali in the cement;

- tiles which are not reinforced with vegetable fibre should be made thicker (approximately 30
per cent more). Although this means increasing the raw materials required, costs will not be
higher. Fibre is an expensive material in some countries and in any event the adjunction of fibre
in the mortar is extremely labour intensive. Substituting aggregate for the fibre increases the
overall productivity of a tile-making production unit;

- by increasing tile thickness to 8mm, micro-concrete tiles offer excellent strength qualities,
advantageous during long distance hauls.

II.2 Characteristics and selection

Aggregates should have the same characteristics and properties as sand. Most sands already
contain the required quantity of coarser grains. The following points should be observed:

- maximum particle size depends on tile thickness; in no case should it exceed two-thirds of the
tile thickness: for an 8mm tile, maximum grain size should be 6mm;

- aggregates should be as clean and free from clay as the sand (see sections 1.3 and 1.4 in this
chapter);

- natural rounded aggregates should be preferred to crushed quarry materials. For one reason, if
they are silica based, they will be less porous and the amount of water required to bring the mix
to the appropriate consistency need not be increased (adding extra water impairs mortar
strength). Another reason is that quarry material is more angular and therefore reduces mortar
workability;

- aggregate porosity, as mentioned above, is an essential factor which must be borne in mind
when selecting samples;

- a granulometric curve for the aggregate giving the percentage distribution of different sized
particles is not as vital as it is for sand. The main point to be observed for gravel is that the
maximum gravel size should be less than two-thirds of the overall tile thickness.

If a granulometric curve is planned, it should preferably be made from the sand plus gravel
mixture. The general outlook of the curve should be similar to that shown in figure 4, the main
difference being a shift of the curve to the gravel side.
III. CEMENT

Cement is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties. It is an hydraulic binder composed
of lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide. Several basic components enter into the production of
cement. As a result, cement comes in several varieties: Ordinary Portland cement, pozzolanic
cement, aluminous cement, metallurgical cement etc. Portland cement is made from limestone
and silica. When fired at 1500ºC, this mixture produces clinker. The clinker is crushed into a fine
powder and mixed with a small quantity of gypsum. Metallurgical cements are made from slag, a
by-product of iron production. Pozzolanic cements are a mixture of Portland cement and
pozzolana (volcanic ash).

Ordinary Portland cement is also suitable1, although its quality can vary widely depending on its
origin. Cement setting depends essentially on the water/cement ratio, water evaporation, ambient
temperature and relative humidity. Setting of the cement will begin as soon as hydratation starts:
the process gives off heat. Setting time decreases with higher temperatures. After 24 hours,
setting is effective. The cement will continue to harden and will reach optimal strength after 28
days.
1
Ordinary Portland cement. See British Standards Institution B.S. 12, 1971.

Pozzolanic cements are the result of adding pozzolana to OPC. Pozzolana is a natural or artificial
component which contains silica in its reactive phase. Pozzolanic cements are slow-setting. If the
production cycle (demoulding, mixing new mortar, moulding and setting) can be kept down to
24 hours, all the moulds may be reused each day. With a slow-setting cement, the tiles cannot be
demoulded before 48 hours, and a larger number of moulds is necessary to maintain daily
production. This means a higher investment.

Cement storage conditions are critical to the quality of a mortar mix. Even in normal storage
conditions, the properties of cement deteriorate over time. The chemical reaction starts as soon as
the cement is in the presence of humidity: the air moisture seeps through the bags and produces
lumps. It is unadvisable to store cement for a long time: it loses 20 per cent of its strength after 3
months, 30 per cent after 6 months and 40 per cent after one year (figure 6).

Cement must therefore always be stored away from dampness and wind. Bags should not be in
contact with the ground, but rather placed on pallets. They should not be stacked against an outer
wall. In order to avoid air circulation, they should be stacked very tight. In draughty storage sites,
cement bags should be covered with a plastic sheet.

(introduction...)
Fibre concrete tile production is fairly widespread throughout the world. The use of vegetal fibre
for reinforcement has become routine technology. However, experts in several countries have
now come to question the value of adding fibre in the mix. Although the adjunction of fibre is no
longer viewed as a must, it does remain a worthwhile and indeed valuable technology.

This section describes the major characteristics required of fibres for fibre concrete production.
Fibre size and quantities are described in section IV.2 of this chapter.

IV.1 Rationale

Adding fibre to concrete serves the following purposes:

- to prevent cracks due to shrinkage during the cement hardening period. Shrinkage occurs when
the water trapped in the voids evaporates. The end volume of the dry product is smaller than the
total volume of its components;

- to produce thinner tiles. Concrete tile-making has been known for many years. However, in
order to prevent the development of cracks, it was necessary to produce thick tiles (12 mm
minimum). This resulted in an increase of the load per square metre of roof (50 to 60 kg/m2).
The adjunction of fibre to the mix makes it possible to reduce tile thickness to 6 mm: the load is
thus brought down to 21 kg/m2. The gain is twofold: less cement is needed to produce the same
number of tiles and wood structures can be kept lighter;

- to improve impact strength. In the course of handling tiles are often subjected to various shocks
and constraints. Careless transport and handling are the main causes of breakage. Adding fibre to
the mix improves the tile's resistance to these hazards.

Concrete tiles may also be produced WITHOUT FIBRE. Fibres are replaced by aggregates.

A simple test measures the benefits of reinforcing tiles with fibre. A mortar is prepared and
divided into two samples. The first sample is moulded without fibre. The second sample receives
additional fibre before moulding. Drying and curing of both tiles are carried out in the same
conditions (21 day cycle). The two tiles are held vertically with the small edge resting on the
ground, and released at the same time. The reinforced tile does not break. If the impact is not
strong enough, it may crack; the non-reinforced tile will always break (figures 7 and 8).

IV.2 Modification of the physical properties of tiles due to fibre adjunction

The mechanical properties of a mortar reinforced with vegetable fibre are modified. The tensile
strength required to develop the first crack is slightly lower for fibre concrete: fibre has a
negative effect on cement setting (presence of chemicals). Conversely, when subjected to impact,
a non-reinforced tile will break more readily. A fibre reinforced tile will present a higher
distortion capacity.

Tile porosity is not affected by the incorporation of fibre, provided the quantities used are in
keeping with the standards defined in section V.2 of this chapter. There is an indirect relationship
between fibre content and porosity: with a higher proportion of fibre, more water goes into the
mix, thereby reducing its strength (mechanical strength and permeability).

The following physical properties of a tile are not affected nor modified by a small proportion of
fibre in the mix:

- thermal conductivity;
- noise transmission;
- water absorption;
- elasticity in relation to dampness;
- elasticity in relation to temperature.

IV.3 Types of fibres

Rather than industrial products (glass fibre, iron filings) and man-made materials (polymer
fibre), the fibres best suited to the socio-economic circumstances of developing countries are
natural fibres. This study deals essentially with sisal fibre and, to a lesser extent, coir fibre.

The adequacy of other fibres for fibre concrete production should not be rejected a priori.
However, this should be confirmed by a specific study before mass production is started.

Table 3 shows the major physical properties of the most commonly used fibres. Appropriate
fibres present the following features:

- flexibility (non brittle);

- rough surface texture;
- non-oily to the touch;
- free from chemicals (e.g. sugar) affecting cement setting;
- dimensional stability even in the presence of moisture.

IV.4 Sisal (figure 9)

Sisal is grown in many countries of the world. It grows easily in warm climates. Its lifespan is 10
to 14 years. The first leaves are collected after 3 or 4 years and are 1.2 m to 2 m long. Each leaf
contains on average 1000 fibres of 1 to 1.5 m in length, arranged longitudinally. Fibre diameter
ranges from 0.2 mm to 0.5 mm. Sisal leaves contain 85 per cent water, 4 per cent fibre and 11
per cent of various residues. During its lifespan, each plant produces 5 to 7 kg of fibre. The
physical properties of fibres are shown in the table above. Most sisal farms extract the fibre
automatically. However, in rural areas, certain families still cultivate and process sisal leaves by
hand. This simple operation consists in scraping the leaf until the pulp is completely removed.

Where sisal is not available locally (in the shape of "long strands"), information may be sought
from the different industries which are likely to use this product (figure 10). These industries will
indicate their source of supply in the country or abroad.
 Table 3. Physical properties of fibres

Fibre type Length Diameter Density Youngs Tensile Elongation Water

mm mm kg/m3 Modulus Strength at break % absorption
GPa MPa %
Kenaf 30-750 0.04-0.09 NA 22 295 NA NA
Coir 50-350 0.1-0.4 1440 0.9 200 29 130-180
Sisal 1000-1300 0.2-0.3 1450 26 570 3 60-70
Bagasse NA 0.2-0.4 1250 17 290 NA 70-75
Bamboo NA 0.1-0.4 1500 27 575 3 40-45
Jute 1800-3000 0.1-0.2 1500 32 350 1.7 NA
Flax 500 NA 1540 100 1000 2.0 NA
Elephant NA NA NA 5 178 3.6 NA
Grass
Water-reed NA NA NA 5 70 1.2 NA
Plantain NA NA NA 1.4 92 5.9 NA
Musamba NA NA NA 0.9 83 9.7 NA
Piassava NA NA NA 6 143 6.0 110
Polypropylene NA NA 910 6.8 586 210 2
Glass NA NA 2700 76 1240 3.5 4
Steel 5-200 0.1-0.4 7860 207 700-2100 3.5 NA
Asbestos <15 <0.2 2550 159 210-2000 2.5 7-18
Concrete NA NA 2300 32 5 0.02 NA
(1) Mpa: Megapascal: 1 Mpa = 10 bars = 10.2 kgf/cm2.
(2) Elongation of fibre up to breaking point, expressed as percentage of initial fibre length.
(3) Water absorption capacity of fibre as a percentage of its initial water content.
Source: ref. 11

IV.5 Coir

Coconut husk (figure 11) is composed of a layer of fibrous tissue (mesocarp) wedged between an
outer hull (exocarp) and the hard shell surrounding the kernel (endocarp). The husk accounts for
35 per cent of the total weight of the nut. There are three main types of coconut fibres:

- long, fine and white, used for making mats and ropes;
- coarse and rigid (bristle), used for brushmaking;
- short and flexible.

Only the first type of fibres are suitable for reinforcing concrete. They are collected when the nut
is gathered before it is completely ripe for the kernel to be sold. The fibre of coconuts grown for
palm oil production cannot be used, since the nut must reach full maturity before harvesting. The
short and flexible fibres derived from mature copra nuts are therefore not suitable. Rigid fibres
(bristle) are not adequate for this technology.
 SISAL FIBRE

Upholstering Ropes Tow Sacking Mats Reinforced Handicrafts

Twine Packing Rugs Plastic
Nets

The average length of coir fibres ranges from 5 cm to 35 cm, their diameter being 0.1 mm to 0.5
mm. The physical properties of fibres are shown in table 3 in this chapter. Coir fibre presents
good elongation at break properties.

(introduction...)

For the production of vibrated mortar (without fibres), a mixture of sand and aggregate should be
prepared. The sand:aggregate ratio depends on several factors such as grain distribution in the
samples, mineralogical origin, grain shape, costs, etc. The appropriate sand:aggregate ratio
should be worked out on a case by case basis with practical trials and strength tests. The
sand:aggregate ratio is usually 1:1 to 1:2.

V.1 Cement: sand/aggregate ratio

The composition of a mortar mix is defined by a ratio giving the amount of cement to be added
to a mix of sand and aggregate. The percentage of cement is critical to tile strength. The accuracy
of the cement:sand/aggregate ratio is important with regard to both the cost of materials and tile
strength.

Proportioning can be done by weight or volume. Both methods have their drawbacks:

By weight: - variations in the mineralogical composition of sand and aggregate (bulk);

- variation in the water content of sand and aggregate depending on its origin and/or
place of storage.
By - bulking (compacting) of sand/aggregate and/or cement.
volume:

The ideal ratio of the mortar mix required for this technology is given by the weight of DRY
MATERIALS, i.e. a cement:sand ratio of 1:3. A 6 mm tile weighs 1.6 kg.

Table 4. Ideal ratio of dry materials

Per tile 10 tiles

Sand/aggregate 1.2 kg 12 kg
Cement 0.4 kg 4 kg

In practice, the sand and aggregate used are never dry; it is often stocked in the open air and its
water content varies. It is therefore necessary to find a method of measurement which
approximates the ideal theoretical ratio as closely as possible. For this purpose, the equipment
delivered with the vibrating table generally includes scoops to be used for batching sand and
cement (see chapter III, section VII).

Proportioning of the mix components must be adjusted to a number of parameters determined by

the quantity of raw materials (see above) and local climatic conditions. Where climatic
conditions are harsh, or if roofs are exposed to hurricanes, impact of fruits falling from trees, or
rock-throwing, two measures may be taken separately or simultaneously:

- increasing tile thickness while maintaining the basic cement:sand/ aggregate ratio;
- increasing the proportion of cement to improve strength characteristics.

As an example, the three tables below (5, 6 and 7) show the weight of components per tile for
various cement: sand/aggregate ratios and different tile thicknesses (theoretical weight of dry
materials consistent with average bulk).

a) Good quality raw materials;

Table 5 gives reference figures for standard tiles made with high quality raw materials. The
particle size of the sand and aggregate are appropriate, and the cement used is OPC 45. The tiles
are intended for hurricane-free areas. If violent storms are expected to occur, tile thickness
should be increased.

Table 5. Weight of cement and sand for a 1:3 ratio

RATIO 1 : 2 CEMENT SAND/AGGREGATE

Percentage of total weight 25% 75%
Thickness: 6 mm 0.40 kg 1.20 kg
8 mm 0.53 kg 1.60 kg
10 nun 0.66 kg 2.00 kg

b) Mediocre raw materials or harsh climate;

Table 6 gives reference figures for tiles intended to be used in two fairly frequent situations. If
the raw materials do not meet the criteria described above, the amount of cement used must be
increased. In countries prone to violent windstorms and hurricanes, both the amount of cement
and tile thickness should be increased.

Table 6. Weight of cement and sand for a 1:2 ratio

RATIO 1 : 2 CEMENT SAND/AGGREGATE

Percentage of total weight 33% 66%
Thickness: 6 mm 0.53 kg 1.06 kg
8 mm 0.71 kg 1.42 kg
10 nun 0.88 kg 1.77 kg
c) Replacing cement with silicous ash

Table 7 gives reference figures for tiles produced with the adjunction of vegetal ash with a high
silica content (see section VI.3 in this chapter). Tests must be made to assess the feasibility of
substituting silicous ash for part of the cement. In the example shown in table 7, the suggested
ratio makes it possible to replace 20 percent of total cement weight with silicous ash. The ratio
will then be:

(4/5 + 1/5) cement + ash: 3 sand/aggregate.

Table 7. Amounts of cement, ash and sand for a (4/5 +1/5): 3 ratio

RATIO (4/5 +1/5) : 3 (CEMENT + ASH) SAND/AGGREGATE

Percentage of total weight 20% 5% 75%
Thickness: 6 mm 0.32 kg 0.08 kg 1.20 kg
8 mm 0.43 kg 0.10 kg 1.60 kg
10 mm 0.53 kg 0.13 kg 2.00 kg

V.2 Fibres

When producing fibre concrete tiles, the length and quantity of fibres added to the mortar
directly affect the plasticity (workability) of the mix.

1. Fibre length

There is a relationship between the quantity of fibres used, their length and "balling". If the
density of long fibres is excessive they will tend to bunch up together and form small bundles
(figure 12).

Opinions vary as to optimal fibre length. Experience shows that fibres are not effective if they
are too short. Where there is a risk of cracking, the fibres should be long enough to bond with the
mortar. If they are too short, they cannot act as a reinforcing bonding agent. On the other hand,
excessively long fibres have a negative effect on mortar plasticity.

A suitable compromise must therefore be found. Reports on several experiments on fibre length
quote the following extremes: 6 mm (ref. 22) and 50 mm (ref. 10). An average fibre length of 15
mm to 20 mm gave excellent results in trials carried out in Madagascar and Cd'Ivoire.
2. Proportion of Fibre

The major role of fibre is to prevent cracks due to shrinkage during setting and give enough
strength to the tile to avoid breakage during handling and transport. Once these major risks no
longer exist, reinforcing fibres are less necessary. After a few months' weathering, the sisal fibre
is attacked chemically by the alkaline water of the concrete. The space initially occupied by the
decomposing fibres becomes vacant; as a consequence, the tile will be more liable to crack or
break than a non-reinforced concrete tile, since the latter remains compact over time. If the gaps
left by the decomposed fibres are too numerous, the tile will become porous. Thus, the lifespan
of a fibre is a critical factor: despite their reinforcing properties, fibre additives should be used
sparingly. Between 0.5 to 1 per cent on average of the total sand + cement weight provides good
reinforcement performance without subsequent deterioration.

3. Water absorption: mortar workability

The adjunction of fibre to the mortar causes a demand for additional water. This has a negative
effect on tile strength (see section V.3.2 in this chapter). There is a relationship between the
amount of fibre and the amount of water necessary to ensure good mortar workability. The graph
below (fig. 13) shows that as the quantity of fibre increases (expressed as a percentage of total
mortar weight), there is a demand for additional water in order to keep workability constant.

Figure 13. Extra water required in relation to fibre volume to keep workability constant (ref. 10)

4. Recommended fibre length and ratio

Recommended standards for tiles of 6 mm to 10 mm thickness:

- length: 15mm to 20 mm (max. 25 mm);

- quantity expressed as percentage of total weight: 0.5 to 1 per cent of dry mortar weight.

V.3 Water

1. Quality
Drinking water may naturally be used without restriction. However, in many developing
countries, the water supply cannot be taken for granted.

Tests made in Botswana in 1978 (ref. 24) on the use of brackish water (as compared to drinking
water) showed no difference in the behaviour of fibre concrete tiles. Brackish water should,
however, be avoided: in the presence of salt, the wire loops cast in the tile nib are likely to
corrode more quickly. Whenever the sand or water used for mixing contains salt, the use of
galvanized wire or plastic fixtures is recommended for the fastening loops.

Roof rainwater may be used, except immediately after a dry spell when it will be contaminated
by debris.

2. Quantity

Several factors have an effect on the amount of water to be used for the mix. The appropriate
amount is determined by trial and error (see Chapter IV step 5). The proportion of water in the
mix affects the quality of the mortar.

The setting reaction (hardening of the mortar through the action of the hydraulic binder on
aggregates) is triggered by the adjunction of water to the dry mix. The water fills in the voids.
During setting, the water evaporates, thereby producing shrinkage. The setting speed and extent
of shrinkage depend on three main factors:

- quantity of water used for the wet mix;

- air temperature;
- air-moisture.

The amount of water used for the mix is expressed by the water: cement ratio. It can be altered to
obtain the desired consistency (plasticity) (table 8).

Table 8. Water:cement ratio as a function of concrete consistency

Consistency of concrete Quantity of water Observation

(litres per C kg. cement)
Dry C × 0.5 Aggregates should be
Plastic C × 0.6 to 0.7 slightly moist (1 to
Fluid C × 0.75 to 0.8 2 percent humidity)
Source: ref. 8

The quantity of water used in the mortar mix has a major effect on tile strength and porosity.

a) Strength

If shrinkage is excessive during setting, microcracks will develop. As a consequence, this will
reduce the ability of the tile to withstand the various strains and stresses.
The strength of hardened concrete reaches a maximum for a precise quantity of water and
decreases with excessive or insufficient amounts of water (fig. 14). In the example shown in the
graph, 30 per cent of water in excess (as opposed to the exact amount conferring maximum
strength) results in a loss of 50 percent of maximum strength.

Figure 14. Relationship between tile strength and water/cement ratio

- For compressive strength, unit is maximum strength

- For water , unit is quantity producing maximum strength

b) Porosity

Too much water in the mix also results in increased tile porosity. Porosity is due to the presence
of gaps created by the withdrawal of the water filling in the gaps between the aggregate and the
cement.

Tile porosity (permeability) is in an inverse ratio to the quantity of water used for the mix (figure
15).

V.4 Summary of ratios and quantities of raw materials

Table 9. Summary of quantities of raw materials required for given ratios and tile thicknesses

Ratio Tile Cement Sand (Fibre) Water Total Number Weight

Thickness kg Aggreg. gr litres Weight of tiles of tiles
mm kg kg /m2 kg/m2
1:3 6 .4 1.2 11-16 .26 1.616 12.5 20.2
1:2 10 .88 1.77 18-26 .577 2.675 12.5 33.5
VI.3 Waterproofing agents

Waterproofers reduce porosity. A standard sand/cement mix presents a certain degree of

porosity. The quality and grading of the sand used are the principal factors affecting the degree
of permeability of concrete. After lengthy exposure to rainfall, the undersurface of the tile
becomes darker: the water has seeped through. If the damp stain is limited (less than one-third of
the total surface), there is no need to change the proportioning of the mix. If it is larger and the
grading of the sand cannot be improved, a waterproofing agent should be added.

In regions exposed to heavy rainfall or long rainy seasons, the waterproofer may be in the form
of an additive. Additive concentration depends on the characteristics of local waterproofing
products.

Waterproofing agents come in several forms: powder, paste, liquid. They can be used as
admixtures or primers.

a) Waterproofing admixtures

Very fine particles fill in the gaps between the coarser aggregates. They are chemically inactive
(lime, talc), or chemically active (calcium and aluminium chloride, zinc and aluminium
sulphate).

Other additives act in a different way. They emit an electrostatic charge which repels the water
molecules. There is, however, some doubt as to whether their effect is lasting over the long term
(calcium stearate, soda, potassium, resins, fats).

The technique used in Malawi (ref. 29) combines the pore-blocking effect and the water-
repellent effect. Slaked lime is added to the dry mix (2 per cent of dry mortar weight). The lime
acts as a micro-filler inside the material (pore-blocking effect). Externally, it conveys water-
repellent properties to the surface of the concrete (water-repellent effect). Lime also improves the
plasticity of the mix. This characteristic makes it possible to reduce the water:cement ratio and
therefore increase the strength of the finished product.

b) Surface waterproofing

These substances act as surface pore-fillers or protective coatings. If the roof runoff water is
collected for consumption, it is essential to make sure that the gradual decay of the protective
coating will not contaminate the water. The application of surface waterproofers implies an
additional production step, thereby resulting in increased production costs.

c) Natural waterproofing agents

A third type of waterproofers are the result of natural processes (weathering). The gradual
accumulation of fine particles of dust slowly blocks the surface pores which water, previously
permeated. In certain countries, second-hand tiles fetch a higher price than new ones.
VI.4 Pigments (colouring agents)

The colour of fibre concrete tiles depends on the colour of the sand and cement used. They
usually come in lighter or darker shades of grey. A simple method of making fibre concrete
products more attractive is to incorporate a pigment (colour) in the mix. Pigments can be of
mineral or synthetic origin. They are available commercially in the form of very finely ground
powders (microparticles or fillers).

Depending on the grade of the sand, the adjunction of a filler may have a positive or negative
effect on concrete quality. If the adjunction of pigment produces a sticky mix, this means that the
quantity of fines is too high. The mortar cannot be correctly vibrated. After demoulding, the tile
surface will show pock marks. These are air bubbles which have been prevented from rising up
to the surface during vibrating because the wet mix is too compact.

The most common pigment is iron oxide. The adjunction of iron oxide produces a red colour tile,
very similar to a natural clay tile (fired clay).

One point which must be stressed is that dark colours increase the capacity to absorb radiated
heat and this should be viewed as a drawback in hot climates.

The additional cost resulting from colouring depends on local market conditions. This can be
easily calculated and incorporated in the sale price.

The use of artificial pigments does not affect the quality of run off rain-water.

There are two methods of colouring tiles:

(a) In the wet mix:

The pigment is incorporated into the mortar at the mixing stage. The quantity required depends
on the shade desired and the additional cost. On average, 5 to 10 per cent by weight of cement
gives a good result. With higher quality pigments, this amount may be reduced to 3 per cent of
cement weight. This method produces a permanent and fade-resistant colour.

(b) Surface coating:

The pigment is added to a fluid composed of cement and water paste. The mixture is applied on
the dried tiles with a brush. The high cement content of this paste guarantees good surface
adherence, although run off water will eventually destroy this primer.

VI.5 Fluidifiers

If the workability of the mortar is not satisfactory, a substance may be added to increase its
plasticity. The simplest product is dish-washing detergent which, added in small quantities,
makes moulding easier.
(introduction...)

Laboratory research (ref. 10 and 12) shows that the highly alkaline environment of cement (pH
above 13) induces brittleness in the vegetable fibres1. In the test, the tiles are placed in a
weathering machine and subjected to artificial and cyclical changes in temperature and humidity.
1
The pH value of a solution defines its acid or basic characteristics, For a pH under 7, the
solution is acid; above 7, the solution is alkaline.

The chemical decomposition of fibres is induced by the dissolution of lignin and hemicellulose.
The fibre is discoloured yellow. The destruction of the interstitial material bonding the vegetable
cells causes the fibre to lose its reinforcing properties (figures 16 and 17).

Fibre deterioration may be inhibited by reducing the alkalinity of the cement. Several methods
may be used:

II.1 Stocking of raw materials

Cement is supplied in 50 kg bags and stored in a dry place. One bag of cement is sufficient to
produce approximately 100 to 125 tiles.

Sand and aggregate are generally supplied in truck-loads of "x" tons or per cubic metre. They can
be stocked outside, preferably under shelter.

Fibre is supplied in bunches or bales. It should be kept in dry storage and protected against
rodents.

II.2 Preparation of raw materials

STEP 1: Sieving of sand

Before mixing the mortar, the coarser gravel should be removed. For fibre concrete production,
the sand should be sieved with a mesh-size of approximately 2mm. For micro-concrete
production, sand and aggregate should be sieved with a mesh-size of approximately two-thirds of
the tile thickness. The choice of mesh-size also depends frequently on what the local hardware
stores have to offer.

Screening should be performed close to the storage area, on a clean surface. Sieving may be
carried out in several ways: the sieve may be placed on the ground, on a transport device or slung
on posts, trees, etc. (see chapter II, section X.I).

If the tests for clay and micro-organisms reveal an excessive amount of impurities, the sand
should be washed out with water. This should be done carefully: excessive water pressure or
flooding might result in a loss of all the finer particles and produce a coarse end-product. In such
cases, a given amount of very fine sand may be added, although this technique produces very
unpredictable sand grades.
STEP 2: Chopping of fibre

Fibres are generally very long and must be cut down to pieces of approximately 15 mm.
Chopping may be done with a machete and block. A chopper may also be used to chop the fibre
into pieces of identical size. This operation should produce enough fibre to last the whole day.

II. RAW MATERIALS

Quality control of raw materials consists in checking whether the materials supplied are suitable
for the technology (in other words, whether their characteristics meet the requirements described
in chapter II). Tests should be carried out at regular intervals on samples taken from sand
deliveries, in particular to check particle size, organic matter content and clay content. Special
care should be taken when changing suppliers or sources of supply. Samples should be taken and
tested for each new delivery.

If the samples taken prove unsatisfactory, sampling should be increased. If the samples fail the
tests, the delivery should be cancelled, with a request to supply materials consistent with
specifications.

III.1 Shape and dimension

Each tile is checked for correct shape after demoulding by positioning it on the control jig. Tile
dimensions are usually correct since they are moulded in a metal frame. The outside
measurements of a pantile (produced with the equipment described in chapter III) are 49 cm × 24
cm. In some cases the trimming of rough edges may be excessive (see chapter IV, step 16). If so,
tile width being reduced, the tiles will not fit correctly and the overlap will not be regular.
Differences in tile widths should not exceed 5 mm.

The main source of error is due to poor positioning of the screed on the mould, a frequent source
of warped tiles (see chapter IV, step 15).

III.2 Tile strength

The tiles should be strong enough to withstand transport and handling. Once they are in position
on the roof they should resist minor impacts. In special circumstances, such as frequent
hailstorms, debris blown by violent winds, proximity of sports grounds or trees bearing heavy
fruit, standard tiles should be replaced with heavy-duty tiles. Heavy-duty tiles are either thicker
(8 mm to 10 mm) or made with a higher cement/sand ratio (see chapter II, section IV).

Four tests are available to check tile strength. Three tests concern the tile itself and one the tile
nib.

All strength control tests should be carried out after three to four weeks of curing.

1. Ring test
The tile is held by the nib and tapped lightly with a coin. It should have a clear and sharp ring. In
the presence of micro-cracks the tile sounds a dull note.

2. Impact test

The impact test is carried out with a 200 g ball. The tile is placed flat on a table. The ball is
dropped from a height of 20 cm, from the base of the ball to the surface of the tile (figure 68).

The impact of the ball on the tile should not produce any internal micro-cracks. A second ring
test should then be carried out.

For heavy-duty tiles which must withstand more severe impacts (hailstones, various objects,
fruits, etc.) the ball should be dropped from 50 cm.

II. INFRASTRUCTURE

No special conditions are required for the setting up of a fibre or micro-concrete tile-making unit.
The basic requirements to be met are as follows:

- Easy access to raw materials. Cement and sand are supplied in truck-loads of 7 tonnes or more.
If the distance from the tile-making unit to the sand quarry is short, smaller quantities may be
delivered. Storage places for these materials should be close to roads or tracks suitable for this
type of transport;

- Loading of tiles on trucks or other vehicles should be facilitated by providing access for trucks
to the place where the tiles are kept;

- Sufficient surface for tile storage. Depending on the availability of investment funds, a
sheltered storage place affords better curing conditions. It should also be recalled that in the rainy
season tile production should be carried out in a sheltered place;

- Close access to a water supply system;

- If the unit can be connected to the electrical network, the vibrating tables may operate on 220
volt power through a transformer (the same motor also operates on 12 volt batteries);

- A small covered shed should be available to keep the workers from harsh weather conditions.
The shed will include a well-ventilated workshop with a lock, to serve as a storeroom for cement,
fibres and tools;

- The sand pit should not be too far removed from the tile-making plant (transport costs must be
added to the production cost of tiles).

III. TRAINING
The technology for fibre or micro-concrete tile production is simple. It does not require highly
specialized manpower. However, strict observance of all the production parameters is essential
for a quality product. Most of the problems detected in the course of assessing production units,
particularly in terms of end-product quality, result from non-observance of manufacturing
standards. Mistakes may be made at all stages: incorrect proportioning of raw materials resulting
in incorrect ratios; uneven distribution of fibres in the mortar; insufficient vibration; nib quality
control omitted; incomplete curing, etc.

When developing a new technology in a given environment, success hinges on the appropriate
use of know-how. Whatever care is given to the setting up of the production unit (purchase of
equipment, installation of a site, credit lines, market survey, etc.) high quality training and
constant supervision are essential.

Training of workmen and foremen or managers may be carried out in several ways. An in-depth
study of a production manual can only impart a theoretical knowledge of the technology. On-the-
job training also is vital. On-site training may be dispensed by an expert or a well-trained user.
Training can also be organized in regional centres set up jointly by several plant owners. Finally,
training courses may also be organized in the countries which produce the equipment or
countries where the technology is well established.

Initial training of workers employed in tile-making is not sufficient in the long term. Plant
owners will find it useful to retrain these workers after an initial period of time in order to correct
any deviations which may appear after several months of production. Follow up training may be
carried out in the same way as initial training: consultancy, group training courses, training of
workmen on other production and/or training sites.

In most cases only one skilled worker is required for each production unit. In each firm (or
cooperative) only one foreman or one manager should be sufficiently conversant with the
technology to understand the implications of each production stage and supervise production in
order to ensure a quality product. Workers in charge of such operations as mixing, moulding,
vibrating, demoulding, curing, storing and delivering should be trained specifically for these
tasks. They should be supervised on an ongoing basis. Quality controls carried out on the
finished tiles will identify the defects in the finished product and make it possible to improve
incorrect procedures.

Good management is also of vital importance. The plant manager or president of a cooperative
should also be trained to manage the production unit. He should be capable of working out
production costs, assessing demand, calculating orders for raw materials and managing the stock
of finished products.

IV. MANPOWER

The ratio of direct job creation resulting from a given volume of production depends on the type
of equipment, organization of production and structure of the production unit. The unit should be
managed by a plant manager who is also able to act as a foreman. The average labour-output
ratio depends on a variety of criteria: labour efficiency, quality of training, quality of
management. It is also related to the number of production cycles per day. Table 20 shows the
average labour inputs required for two types of production: one-shift production cycle (i.e. one 8-
hour shift per day) and two-shift production cycle (i.e. two shifts totalling 16 hours per day).

Table 20. Average job: output ratio

Production cycle: one shift Production cycle: two shift

Number of machines Tiles/week Workmen Foremen Tiles/week Workmen Foremen
1 1,000 2 1 2,000 4 2
2 2,000 3 1 4,000 6 2
3 3,000 5 1 6,000 10 2
4 4,000 6 2 8,000 12 4

V.1 General

As in any other production process, work organization should follow the logical sequence of
production stages. Distances between work stations and distances separating the handling of raw
materials from finished products should be kept to a minimum.

Tile production should be carried out away from rain and wind. Tile curing in tanks, PVC
containers or under plastic sheets may be carried out in the open. Finally, the three-week curing
period after which the tiles achieve maximum strength before sale can also be organized
outdoors. However, the tiles should preferably be sheltered from direct exposure to the sun.

II. ROOF DESIGN

There are many different types of roofs: single, double, triple or quadruple pitch roofs, L-shaped
roofs, etc. Fibre or micro-concrete technology implies a number of prerequisites which apply to
all types of roofing. This technical memorandum deals only with single and double pitch roofs
(lean-to and gabled roofs). For more complex roof designs, skilled carpenters will be required.

The lean-to roof (single pitch) (figure 78) is the simplest of all. If the span is reasonable it does
not require cross members. Properly designed trusses are able to span very wide buildings. It is
best, however, to keep the span reasonable. The frame is made of rafters anchored in the higher
and lower walls of the construction. A lean-to roof should be covered with pantiles, or roman
tiles; there are no ridge tiles.

A gable roof (double pitch) is more complex. It can span wider buildings. The frame is
composed of a truss made of several cross members and a tie-beam. The truss presents several
advantages compared with a lean-to structure:

- smaller timber sizes;

- more stable roof structure;
- absence of horizontal loads on the top of walls (the thrust is absorbed by the tie-beam).
However, a gable roof requires more professional skills. Pantiles, roman tiles and ridge tiles
should be used for the cladding.

III. PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT

Promotion of employment is a priority in the developing world. Technologies which require

more labour per unit of production should be encouraged, provided this labour is used efficiently.

It can be shown easily that concrete tile production units generate more employment than
industries processing imported roofing materials (galvanized corrugated iron or asbestos
cement). A survey made in Kenya in 1985 (ref. 7) shows that fibre or micro-concrete tile
manufacturing generates five times more jobs in the country than sheet production and seven
times more than the handling of imported sheet material.

The same study shows that if Kenya were to replace half its current production of corrugated iron
with tile production (clay or fibre or micro-concrete), over 3,000 jobs would be generated
directly, whilst 200 to 300 at most would be lost in the corrugated iron sheet industry, resulting
in a net increase of 2,700 jobs.

The ratio of direct job creation to total output depends on the type of equipment used,
organization of production and structure of the production unit (see chapter VI, section IV).

Concrete tile production technology also has multiplier effects on the national economy, which
vary with the production scale, the origin of the equipment and raw materials used. The
technology has more multiplier effects upstream and downstream than technologies which rely
heavily on imported materials. Part of the equipment and tools may be produced locally, another
source of job creation. The use of locally available raw materials also promotes the maintenance
or creation of new jobs. Finally, the sale and transport of tiles produced in small decentralized
units is also likely to create more jobs than the dissemination of "centralized" materials such as
corrugated iron.

IV. INVESTMENTS - FOREIGN EXCHANGE SAVINGS

The local production of construction materials requiring a high ratio of imported products
(equipment and/or raw materials) contributes to increasing the external debt of developing
countries. The substitution of galvanized corrugated iron or asbestos cement sheets for traditional
materials is very extensive in many countries. Importing these materials results in a sizeable
currency outflow and a direct increase of the foreign debt.

Concrete tile production is based on the optimal use of locally available materials. It minimizes
the need for imported roofing materials, thereby reducing the trade deficit. A survey carried out
in Kenya (ref. 7) shows that the share of hard currency costs in the retail price is:

- 66 to 75 per cent for corrugated iron;

- 17 per cent for fibre or micro-concrete tiles.
Finally, unlike other building materials, fibre and micro-concrete tiles do not require energy for
drying and curing. This removes the need to consume imported fuels or to contribute to
deforestation by burning firewood to fire clay tiles.

In developing countries, start-up capital is usually conceded at very high interest rates. Starting
up a concrete tile unit does not require a large amount of initial capital. A tile production unit
may thus be started by entrepreneurs with very little start-up capital requiring low interest
payments.

The equipment required for tile production is relatively light and simple. Several types of
vibrating tables are available in a price range of US$ 400 to 1,000. The screeding moulds
account for a large share of initial investment. Depending on the material used for the moulds
and place of production, their price ranges between US$ 8 to US$ 15 (the material used is critical
to mould durability). Small equipment and tools are not costly. With regard to infrastructure, the
area required is less than for corrugated iron or clay tile production. For on-site production, the
cost of land is nil. The curing tanks, cement shed, sand boxes are simple constructions. The
working capital accounts for a large share of start-up capital. It should cover two months'
supplies of raw materials and one month's output of finished products.

In summary, be it in terms of currency savings or start-up capital, fibre or micro-concrete tile

production offers obvious advantages over other roofing materials such as corrugated iron and
asbestos cement sheets or indeed clay tiles.

V. TILE PRODUCTION COSTS AND HOUSING CONSTRUCTION COSTS

In developing countries, building materials account for the largest share of overall construction
costs. In the case of economic housing or informal dwellings, the cost of materials may represent
up to 80 per cent of total construction costs. As a consequence, the cost of building materials is
the only major financial item which the builder must take into consideration. It is therefore vital
to promote the production of economic materials, in order to make it possible for low income
groups to build their own houses, and to keep down to a minimum investments by housing
agencies.

Compared with other roofing materials, the retail or wholesale price of one square metre of fibre
or micro-concrete tile cladding is extremely competitive. Table 31 shows the relative cost of
different roofing materials for three African countries:

Table 31. Comparative cost of roofing materials

Kenya1 (Kenyan Madagascar2 (MG. Cd'lvoire3 (CFA

shillings/m2) F/m2) F/m2)
Clay tile 73 3,200 -
Asbestos 161 - -
Corrugated iron 28 g 72 9,500 1,450.60
Corrugated iron 84 g 84 - -
Fibre or microconcrete 6 50 2,550 1,000
mm

VI. CONCLUSIONS

The foregoing sections in this chapter show that there is a good case for promoting fibre, or
micro-concrete tiles as roofing material, particularly for countries suffering from under-
employment and a housing shortage. Fibre or micro-concrete roofing offers increased comfort
(heat and noise insulation) for economic dwellings and public buildings. Lover construction bills
are an incentive to private ownership. An added advantage is the possibility of on-site
production: since the equipment can be moved easily, it may be rented out or lent for informal
constructions. Appropriate training of labour is essential to promote the widespread use of this
material on a commercial basis. In order to further the use of fibre or micro-concrete tiles,
institutions concerned with housing and construction should promote the adoption of the
following measures:

- preparation of standard specifications on fibre or micro-concrete tiles;

- provision of various incentives when fibre or micro-concrete tiles are used, e.g. lower cost of
building permits; publicity for fibre or micro-concrete tiles through advertisements,
demonstrations and model buildings;

- promotion of fibre or micro-concrete tiles for the construction of public buildings, e.g. schools,
health centres, etc.;

- augmentation of taxes on imported materials, thereby making locally produced materials more
attractive;

- promotion of research and development relating to this material, particularly to assess its
quality and durability;

- organization of training programmes.

The measures described above could usefully encourage the production of fibre or micro-
concrete tiles rather than other building materials (particularly galvanized corrugated iron) in
terms of cost, local availability and comfort.

ANNEX I GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Additive: A product which, added to mortar, alters its qualities or improves

performance.
Aggregate: Inert materials used to make mortar (sand, gravel, etc.).
Alkaline: Having the properties of a base (chemistry) (see pH).
Bare (or margin): Part of tile which remains visible after laying.
Batten (or lath): A thin, long strip of wood placed on the rafters and supporting the tiles.
Bulking: The quality of a material to increase in volume, in particular by trapping air
 between its particles.
Channel (of tile): The concave part of the tile serving as a gutter for run-off water.
Clay: A soil composed mainly of hydrated aluminium silicates in combination with
other substances derived from the decay of water-absorbing, impermeable
and soft feldspaths. Particle size under 0.002 mm.
Clinker: Vitrous material collecting the impurities from the gangue which forms at the
surface of molten ore.
Cohesion: The capacity of the components of a material to hold together.
Compacting: Packing densely the components of a material.
Curing: Period during which optimal environment conditions (temperature and
moisture) are maintained in order to enable a process to. reach its final stage.
In this technical memorandum this refers to the mortar setting process, which
should take place in an environment devoid of excess moisture.
Defibration: Removing the fibres from a plant, essentially by stripping the pulp.
Fibre concrete: A composite of mortar (sand + cement) and reinforcing fibres. The fibre acts
as a reinforcement, particularly when the mortar is subjected to differential
strains during setting.
Filler: Micro-particles (in the order of 1 micron).
Granulometry: Measurement of particle or grain size and shape. A method for grading
particles according to size.
Hip rafter (tile): A piece of timber forming the edge of a roof. A tile covering the edge of a
roof.
Interface: A flexible polethylene sheet used as a support for the mortar and as a
separation between the mortar and the vibrating table or frame.
Lean-to: A single-pitch roof resting on or against a wall and supported by pillars or
posts.
Lime: There are 2 types of lime: Calcium oxide (CaO) resulting from limestone
calcination, and calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH)2] obtained by adding water to
quicklime.
Main rafter: Pieces of timber forming the angle of a truss. The 2 main rafters support the
roof sides.
Margin: Edge of a roof. A margin overhang is the extension of roof sides beyond the
gable.
Micro-concrete: A composite of mortar (sand + cement) and reinforcing aggregates.
Milk (of cement): A cement highly diluted in water.
Mortar: A mixture composed of a binder, aggregate and water. This technology uses
sand (0.06-2) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC).
Mould: A solid object on which a pliable substance is applied in order to take its
shape; a solid hollowed-out object in which a mouldable or liquid substance
is poured in order to acquire the shape of the cavity.
Nib: A small protruding part at the lower edge of the tile with which the tile is
fixed to the roof battens.
Ordinary Portland A hydraulic binder composed of lime, silica, aluminium and iron oxide.
cement (OPC): Portland cement is made by heating limestone and clay.
Overlap: That part of the tile which is covered by a neighbouring tile.
Overhang: A roof part, generally lean-to, jutting out over an open-air area in front of an
opening, facade, etc.
Permeability: The quality of being penetrated or soaked through by a liquid.
pH: A symbol signifying the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. If the pH is
over 7, the solution is alkaline. Under 7, the solution is acid.
Pitch (or slope): Angle of roof sides measured in degrees or percentage.
Plasticity The quality of a material to change its shape - pliant, flexible, malleable,
workability: workable.
Porosity: The quality of a material to absorb a liquid. (A material which is full of pores,
or small holes.)
Pozzolana: A volcanic soil formed of loose slag.
Purlin: Cross-piece of timber resting on main rafter and supporting the rafters.
Intermediate purlin, ridge purlin, wall-plate.
Rafter: A piece of timber placed at the same angle as the truss, resting on the purlin
and supporting the covering material. Rafters usually rest on the ridge and
wall-plate.
Ratio: The relation between two dimensions, two quantities of raw materials.
Rejects: When grading an aggregate, that part of the material which does not pass
through the mesh.
Ridge beam: A horizontally placed piece of timber forming the tip of a roof structure.
Rim (of tile): Curved (convex) part of the tile overlapping with the next tile.
Sand: Small grains resulting from the breaking down of sedimentary rocks (quartz,
silica). (Particle size 0.02-6 mm, British Standard.)
Screeding frame: A metal frame of varying depth (6, 8 or 10 cm) used for screeding and
vibrating the mortar. The shape of the vibrated mortar screed follows the
shape of the screeding frame.
Screen (or sieve): Round or square-meshed grid used to grade aggregates.
Setting (of A chemical process (hydraulic binding) inducing the hardening of mortar.
cement):
Settling: Sinking of matter suspended or dissolved in a liquid to the bottom of a vessel.
Shrinkage: Contraction, reduction of mortar volume.
Sisal: A fibre obtained from agaves.
Slag: Non-metallic waste matter obtained when ore is smelted (clinker). Volcanic
clinker-like substance resulting from the cooling down of lava.
Slope(s): The side(s) of a roof.
Span: The distance between the two resting points of a piece of timber supporting a
load or a pressure.
Truss: An assembly of wood (or metal) beams supporting the ridge, purlins and
rafters in a roof structure. Trusses are usually assembled in triangular shape.
They are placed in a vertical plane across the roof length. Triangulation
consists in spreading the load by dividing the total span.
Valley: A concave angle formed by the intersection of two roof slopes.
Valley tile: A concave tile or lead flashing used as gutter for rain-water.
Volumic mass: Weight of one volume unit of raw material.
Wall-plate: A horizontal piece of timber placed on top of the front supporting wall of a
roof slope. The roof wall-plates are placed perpendicular to the trusses and
support them.
Water content: Quantity of water contained in a substance.