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Pedagogy Topic: 7
Educational Research: A Technique to Solve Problems

1. What is Educational Research?

Educational research is a systematic process used to investigate various aspects of
education, including teaching, learning, and educational systems. It involves gathering, analyzing,
and interpreting data to improve educational practices and outcomes. Educational research can
address a wide range of topics, from classroom methods to the effects of educational policies.
The goal is to enhance the quality of education and make it more effective for students, teachers,
and educational institutions. By studying these areas, educational research helps to inform
decisions and develop new strategies for better learning experiences.
2. What is the Purpose of Educational Research?
The main purpose of educational research is to gain a deeper understanding of teaching
and learning processes. It aims to provide evidence that can improve educational practices and
contribute to better academic outcomes. Educational research helps to identify the most effective
teaching methods, curriculum designs, and policies that can enhance student performance.
Moreover, it allows educators and policymakers to make informed decisions based on data.
Ultimately, the purpose is to improve the educational experience for everyone include students,
teachers and institutions. The following are considered as some of the key purposes of
educational research:
1. To Solve Existing Educational Problems: Educational research helps identify the root
causes of challenges such as poor student performance, high dropout rates, and
ineffective teaching methods. By providing evidence-based solutions, research aims to
improve educational outcomes. For example, researches in education can investigate why
a school is experiencing low math scores, looking into factors like teaching methods,
curriculum, or student motivation.
2. To Develop New Teaching Methods: Educational research focuses on creating and
testing new instructional strategies to make learning more effective and inclusive. It
evaluates both traditional and modern teaching approaches to identify the best methods
for enhancing student learning. A research study in education might compare
collaborative learning with lecture-based instruction to see which method better develops
critical thinking skills.
3. To Evaluate Programs and Policies: Educational policies and programs require regular
evaluation to assess their impact and effectiveness. Research provides the tools to evaluate
 such initiatives, leading to informed decisions and necessary improvements. Such as,
researches in education may evaluate the effectiveness of a government initiative like mid-
day meals or digital classrooms in improving student attendance and learning outcomes.
4. To Contribute to Educational Theory: Educational research also advances theoretical
knowledge by developing models that explain how students learn, how teachers teach,
and how educational institutions operate. These theories guide both future research and
teaching practices.
3. Characteristics of Educational Research
According to John W. Creswell, educational research has several key characteristics that
define its purpose and approach. These characteristics ensure that the research is systematic,
reliable, and applicable in educational contexts. The main characteristics of educational research,
as stated by Creswell, are:
1. Systematic Process: Educational research follows a structured and organized process. It
involves clear steps, including identifying a research problem, reviewing relevant
literature, collecting data, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions. This process
ensures that the research is thorough and unbiased.
2. Empirical: Educational research is based on observation and evidence, either through
quantitative data (numerical) or qualitative data (descriptive). Researchers collect data
from real-world settings, such as classrooms, schools, or educational programs, to answer
research questions.
3. Objective: Educational research aims to be objective and impartial. Researchers strive to
eliminate biases and ensure that their findings are based on data rather than personal
beliefs or opinions.
4. Replicable: The research process and methods should be clear enough that other
researchers can replicate the study in different settings or with different groups. This
characteristic helps validate the findings and contribute to the body of knowledge in
education.
5. Goal-Oriented: Educational research seeks to solve specific problems or address
questions related to education. Whether it involves improving teaching methods,
understanding student behavior, or evaluating educational programs, the goal is to
enhance educational practice and outcomes.
6. Theoretical and Practical: Educational research contributes both to theoretical
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 knowledge and practical solutions. It may generate new theories, models, or frameworks
to understand educational phenomena, or it can provide actionable recommendations to
improve educational practices.
7. Contextual: Educational research is often context-specific, meaning the findings and
conclusions are relevant to particular educational settings, populations, or environments.
Research findings may vary based on factors such as culture, resources, or educational
policies.
8. Critical and Reflective: Educational research encourages critical thinking and reflection
on existing practices. It challenges assumptions and promotes the exploration of new
ideas or perspectives. Researchers in education aim to question the status quo and suggest
innovative solutions to problems.
4. What is the significance and Scope of educational research?
The scope of educational research is broad and encompasses various areas that
contribute to improving teaching practices, learning outcomes, and educational policies.
According to Creswell and other educational researchers, the significant and scope includes the
following key areas:
1. Understanding and Improving Teaching Practices: Educational research is often focused
on understanding and improving teaching methods, strategies, and classroom practices.
It aims to identify the most effective ways to teach students, whether it involves new
technologies, differentiated instruction, or specific pedagogical techniques.
2. Student Learning and Behavior: Research in education often investigates how students
learn, including cognitive, social, and emotional development. It examines how factors
like motivation, learning styles, or classroom environment affect students' ability to
understand and retain knowledge.
3. Curriculum Development and Evaluation: Educational research plays a critical role in
curriculum development by evaluating existing programs and suggesting improvements.
Research studies and examine how curricula align with educational standards and student
needs, ensuring they remain relevant, inclusive, and effective.
4. Assessment and Evaluation: Research in education evaluates various assessment methods
to determine their validity and effectiveness in measuring student learning. It helps refine
testing strategies, whether through standardized tests, formative assessments, or
alternative evaluation methods like portfolios and self-assessments.
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 5. Educational Policy and Reform: Educational research contributes to shaping and
evaluating educational policies at local, state, and national levels. It provides evidence-
based recommendations that guide reforms in education, such as changes in curriculum
standards, teacher certification, or school funding.
6. Educational Leadership and Management: Research also focuses on the role of
leadership in schools and educational organizations. This area examines how leadership
styles, administrative practices, and decision-making affect the overall effectiveness of
schools and learning environments.
7. Social and Cultural Influences on Education: Educational research explores how social,
cultural, and economic factors shape education systems and students' educational
experiences. It looks at issues such as equity, diversity, inclusion, and access to quality
education.
8. Technology in Education: The scope of educational research has expanded significantly
to include the integration of technology in teaching and learning. Researchers explore
how digital tools, online learning platforms, and other educational technologies enhance
learning outcomes and improve teaching practices.
9. Teacher Professional Development: Research in this area examines the importance of
ongoing professional development for teachers and the impact it has on student learning.
It focuses on how teachers' skills, knowledge, and professional growth influence their
teaching practices and students’ academic success.
10. Special Education and Inclusive Practices : Educational research also covers the
development of programs and strategies to support students with special needs. It focuses
on creating inclusive learning environments and ensuring that students with disabilities or
learning differences have access to quality education.
11. Global and Comparative Education
Comparative educational research looks at how different education systems around the
world approach similar issues, such as student achievement, teacher training, and
curriculum development. This type of research provides insights into what works well in
other countries and how those practices can be adapted to different cultural contexts.
5. Paradigms of Educational Research
In educational research, paradigms represent different worldviews or frameworks that
guide how researchers approach their studies, collect data, and interpret findings. Paradigm can
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be a window through which problems are viewed. These paradigms reflect the researchers' beliefs
about the nature of knowledge and reality. John W. Creswell and other international researchers
have identified several key research paradigms in educational research, each with its own
philosophical underpinnings, methods, and approaches.
1. Positivist Paradigm (Quantitative Research)
The positivist paradigm, rooted in the natural sciences, asserts that reality is objective and
can be measured and understood through observable facts and data. Researchers operating
within this paradigm believe that knowledge is derived from empirical evidence and that there is
a single, measurable reality that can be objectively studied. This paradigm emphasizes objectivity,
reliability, and validity, and it often involves quantitative data collection methods, such as surveys,
experiments, and statistical analysis. For a positivist, there is a single reality that can be observed
and measured such as 2+2= for is a reality for all.
2. Interpretivist Paradigm (Qualitative Research)
The interpretivist paradigm, also referred to as the constructivist or phenomenological
paradigm, is based on the belief that reality is subjective and constructed through social
interactions and individual experiences. Researchers in this paradigm focus on understanding the
meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to their experiences. Rather than seeking to
measure objective facts, interpretivist research explores the deeper, context-dependent meanings
behind human behavior, often using qualitative methods like interviews, observations, and case
studies. An interpretivist believe that reality is constructed through individual perceptions and
social interactions such as one person can be good for one and bad for another.
3. Critical Paradigm (Transformative Research)
The critical paradigm challenges traditional notions of knowledge and seeks to address
power imbalances, inequalities, and social justice issues. Researchers adopting this paradigm view
research as a tool for social change and empowerment. The aim is to critique and transform
societal structures that contribute to inequality, oppression, and injustice. Critical research often
focuses on marginalized groups and explores how societal forces affect individuals’ educational
experiences. This paradigm is closely linked with social justice, advocacy, and participatory action
research.
4. Pragmatic Paradigm (Mixed Methods Research)
The pragmatic paradigm is rooted in the belief that research methods should be chosen
based on the research question and the nature of the problem being studied. Pragmatists argue
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that there is no single, best method; instead, researchers should use whatever tools and
techniques best address the research problem. This approach often involves mixed methods
research, combining both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the research topic. Pragmatism is flexible and focuses on finding practical
solutions to real-world problems.
5. Postmodern Paradigm (Post-structuralist Research)
The postmodern paradigm challenges established truths and embraces the idea that
knowledge is subjective, fragmented, and constructed. It questions traditional power structures,
dominant discourses, and established norms within society and education. Researchers adopting
this paradigm are critical of universal truths and argue that knowledge is constructed through
language, culture, and power relations. Postmodern research is often deconstructive, questioning
assumptions and revealing hidden agendas within educational systems.
6. Feminist Paradigm (Feminist Research)
The feminist paradigm focuses on gender and power relations within education and aims
to highlight and address gender inequalities. Researchers working within this paradigm critically
examine how education systems perpetuate gender-based disparities, often using qualitative
methods such as interviews, participatory action research, and discourse analysis. Feminist
research is committed to social justice, aiming to empower women and other marginalized gender
groups through research and practice.
6. What are the Types of Research?
According to Creswell, there are 9 types of research that can be conducted in the field of
education. These types are categorized based on the approach, data collection methods, and
analysis techniques used and these types are the following.
1. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research focuses on exploring and understanding human experiences,
behaviors, and social phenomena. It is often used to gain a deep, context-specific understanding
of individuals' perspectives. In qualitative research interviews, focus groups, observations and case
studies are used to collect data to understand meaning and experiences in-depth. for example,
qualitative research can be conducted to analysis the perceptions and experiences of students
about online learning. The major types of qualitative research include;
1. Phenomenology: Phenomenology is a qualitative research approach that focuses on
studying lived experiences. Researchers aim to understand how individuals perceive and
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 make sense of their experiences in a specific context.
2. Case Studies: Case studies involve an in-depth exploration of a single case or a small
number of cases within their real-life context. It is often used to study complex issues in
a specific setting or individual.
3. Ethnography: Ethnography is a research method used to study cultures and communities
through immersion. Researchers observe and interact with participants in their natural
environment to understand their behaviors, beliefs, and social dynamics
2. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data to test hypotheses, identify
patterns, and examine relationships between variables. It aims to provide objective, measurable
results. In quantative research, surveys, experiments, and statistical data analysis are used to
quantify data and generalize results across larger populations. For example, analyzing test scores
to determine the effect of a new teaching method on student performance. The following are the
types of quantitative research:
1. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research focuses on describing the characteristics of a
phenomenon or a group of individuals. It does not manipulate variables but instead aims
to provide an accurate depiction of the situation.
2. Correlational Research: Correlational research examines the relationship between two or
more variables to determine if they are related, without manipulating any of the variables.
It identifies associations but does not establish causality.
3. Experimental Research: Experimental research is used to establish cause-and-effect
relationships by manipulating one or more independent variables and observing the effect
on the dependent variable. Random assignment is often used in this type of research.
4. Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental research is similar to experimental
research but lacks random assignment to groups. It is often used when true experimental
control is not possible, yet researchers still want to investigate cause-and-effect
relationships.
5. Explanatory Research: Explanatory research seeks to explain the causes of a
phenomenon by analyzing variables and their relationships. This type of research is more
focused on understanding the reasons behind observed patterns or behaviors.
6. Longitudinal Research: Longitudinal research involves collecting data from the same
participants over a long period of time to observe changes and developments over time.
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 It is useful for studying trends and long-term effects.
7. Cross-Sectional Research: Cross-sectional research collects data at a single point in time
from different participants or groups. It is useful for comparing different variables or
groups at one specific moment.
3. Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research combines both qualitative and quantitative research
approaches. This approach allows researchers to collect and analyze both types of data, offering
a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. In mixed methods research,
combination of qualitative and quantitative data techniques is used to provide a broader
perspective by integrating both numerical and narrative data. For instance, using surveys and
interviews to assess the impact of a school policy on student engagement. There are four types
of mixed method research that are;
1. Convergent Parallel Design: In this design, both qualitative and quantitative data are
collected simultaneously but analyzed separately. After analysis, the results are compared
and interpreted together to draw conclusions.
2. Explanatory Sequential Design: This design begins with the collection and analysis of
quantitative data, followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data. The
qualitative phase is used to help explain or interpret the quantitative findings.
3. Exploratory Sequential Design: This design starts with qualitative data collection and
analysis, followed by quantitative data collection. The qualitative phase helps to explore
and develop theories or hypotheses that are then tested through quantitative methods.
4. Embedded Design: In an embedded design, one type of data (qualitative or quantitative)
is collected and analyzed within a primarily qualitative or quantitative study. The
embedded data is used to enhance or explain the primary dataset.
8. What is Research Design?
Research design is the blueprint for conducting a study, outlining the methodology, data
collection techniques, and analysis procedures. It helps researchers plan their study
systematically, ensuring that the research questions are addressed effectively. A well-thought-out
research design also helps maintain consistency and control over variables, improving the
reliability and validity of the findings. The design can vary depending on the research question,
with options including experimental, correlational, descriptive, or mixed methods designs.
Proper research design is critical to ensuring that the study results are meaningful and applicable.
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9. What is Population in Educational Research?
In educational research, the population refers to the entire group of individuals or items
that are the focus of the study for the purpose of data collection. For example, if the study aims
to understand the reading habits of high school students, the population would be all high school
students.
10. What is Sample size in educational research?
Sample size refers to the number of participants or observations included in a research
study. A larger sample size generally leads to more reliable results, as it reduces the chance of
random error. In educational research, the sample size must be large enough to ensure that the
findings are statistically significant and reflective of the population being studied. For instance, a
study examining teaching strategies in classrooms might select a sample of 200 teachers from a
district rather than surveying all teachers. The sample size depends on the research goals,
available resources, and the variability within the population.
11. What is Sampling Techniques and its Types?
Sampling is the process of selecting a portion (sample) from a larger group (population)
to participate in a research study. Since it is often impractical or impossible to study an entire
population, researchers use samples to gather data that can be analyzed and generalized to the
larger group. The purpose of sampling is to make research manageable, cost-effective, and time-
efficient. For example, if a researcher wants to study the learning habits of university students
across a country, it would be difficult to reach all of them. Instead, the researcher selects a sample
of 300 students from various universities to represent the larger population.
12. Types of Sampling in Research
Sampling methods are broadly divided into probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Each type serves different research purposes and affects how generalizable the results
are.
1. Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, every member of the population has a known, equal chance of
being selected. This type is more scientific and allows for generalization of results. The following
are the types of probability sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling: In simple random sampling, every individual in the
population has an equal chance of being selected such as randomly picking 50 students
from a list of 500 using a random number generator.
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 2. Stratified Sampling: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups
(strata) based on specific characteristics (e.g., gender, grade level), and samples are drawn
from each group such ad selecting equal numbers of male and female students to ensure
gender balance in the sample.
3. Systematic Sampling: In systematic sampling, every nth member of the population is
selected after choosing a random starting point such as selecting every 10th student from
a school enrollment list.
4. Cluster Sampling: In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters (groups),
and a few clusters are randomly selected for study. All individuals in selected clusters are
surveyed such as, selecting 3 schools randomly from a district and surveying all students
in those schools.
2. Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, every individual does not have a chance of being selected
for the data collection. It is often used when random sampling is not possible or practical. The
following are the types of non-probability sampling:
1. Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling, participants are selected based on their
availability and ease of access. such as surveying students who are present in the library
at the time of data collection.
2. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling: In this type. participants are selected based on specific
characteristics relevant to the study., such as choosing only science teachers to study their
teaching methods.
3. Snowball Sampling: In snowball sampling, existing participants refer new participants.
This method is useful for reaching hidden or hard-to-access populations such as
researching dropout students by asking known dropouts to refer others.
4. Quota Sampling: This type of sampling is similar to stratified sampling, but selection
within each group is not random. Researchers fill quotas for different subgroups such a
Surveying 40% male and 60% female students to match the gender distribution in the
population.
13 What is Research Instrument (Tool)?
A research instrument is a tool or device used to collect data in a research study.
Common instruments include surveys, tests, interviews, and observation checklists. These tools
help gather information that can be analyzed to answer the research questions. For example, a
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researcher might use a questionnaire as a instrument to gather data on student satisfaction with a
particular teaching method.
14. Types of Research Instruments
The following are the types of research instruments:
1. Surveys: Questionnaires that gather data on opinions or behaviors.
2. Interviews: Conversations where participants provide in-depth responses.
3. Tests and assessments: Tools used to measure knowledge or skills.
4. Observations: Watching and recording behavior and action of individuals or events.
5. Document analysis: Reviewing and analyzing existing records or documents.
The choice of instrument depends on the research objectives and the type of data
needed.
15. Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments
In research, the validity and reliability of research instruments are essential to ensure that
the data collected is accurate and meaningful. These two concepts determine how well the
research instrument (e.g., survey, test, or questionnaire) measures what it intends to measure and
how consistent the results are over time.
1. Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is intended
to measure. A valid instrument provides accurate, meaningful, and appropriate results for the
research questions. There are different types of validity such as:
1. Content Validity: Content validity refers to whether the instrument covers all aspects of
the concept it is measuring. This is assessed by expert judgment or a thorough review to
ensure all relevant areas are included. For example, a test designed to measure math skills
must include questions covering all key math concepts, not just one or two areas.
2. Construct Validity: Construct validity refers to whether the instrument truly measures the
concept it is supposed to measure, based on theoretical expectations. It ensures the
instrument is related to the underlying theoretical constructs. For instance, a
questionnaire designed to measure student motivation should truly capture aspects of
motivation, such as intrinsic and extrinsic factors, rather than unrelated traits like anxiety.
3. Criterion-related Validity: Criterion-related validity evaluates how well the instrument
correlates with other measures or outcomes that are known to be indicators of the same
concept.
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2. Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results obtained using a research
instrument. A reliable instrument produces the same results under consistent conditions. There
are different types of reliability such as:
1. Test-Retest Reliability: Test-retest reliability refers to the consistency of the instrument
when it is administered to the same group of individuals at different times. A reliable
instrument will yield the same results when administered repeatedly under similar
conditions such as administering the same survey to a group of students at two different
times and comparing the results. If the results are consistent, the instrument is considered
reliable.
2. Inter-Rater Reliability: Inter-rater reliability refers to the consistency of measurements
when different researchers or raters use the instrument to measure the same
phenomenon. It ensures that the instrument produces similar results across different
individuals such as if two teachers grade the same set of essays using a rubric, inter-rater
reliability ensures they both assign similar grades for the same work.
3. Internal Consistency: Internal consistency measures whether all items within the
instrument consistently measures the same concept. This is usually measured using
statistical tests like Cronbach's alpha such as in a survey measuring job satisfaction, all
items (such as questions about work environment, job roles, and work-life balance)
should be correlated if they are all measuring the same underlying concept.
16 What is data analysis in research?
Data analysis is the process of organizing, interpreting, and summarizing collected data
to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. It involves using statistical or qualitative techniques
to draw conclusions and answer the research questions. For example, in a quantitative study, data
analysis might involve calculating averages or performing statistical tests to determine if a new
teaching method has a significant impact on student performance. Data analysis helps transform
raw data into meaningful information that can guide decision-making and further research.

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