Z2

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 1
Preface and Introductions
I would like to start right off the bat by letting you
know- this book is actually the work of a viewer on
my YouTube Channel named Dr. Ayman Kamar.
Ayman is from Egypt, and English is pretty distanced
from his primary language but somehow, he still
managed to put together the bulk of what you have
in front of you. I did not even know he was working
on this project- he literally just presented a draft to
me out of the blue one day and I didn't even know
what to say.
As you can see, this book was a tremendous
amount of work, and you really have Ayman to
thank for it. I only put together the introductions
and some descriptions on the diagrams. This is really
Ayman`s creation and he wanted you to have it as a
resource if you need quick refreshers while in the
field as opposed to trying to search and view a
relevant video from my YouTube channel or Paid
Content channel www.schrodingersboxQM.com.
It is important to note that this book is intended
as a supplement and review to my video content.
You will definitely not be able to just pick up the
book, read it cover to cover, and then be able to do
advanced engine and electrical diagnostics. The

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 2
diagrams will look like hieroglyphics at best until you
understand the concepts quite well. But if you can
understand the diagrams and text that is a great
indication you have a good comprehension of the
material, and the book can be used as a quick review
or reference. There are links to the relevant videos
for every chapter and it will be necessary to
understand the video material to get the most out of
the book, plus I will provide a page-by-page
walkthrough series on my website.
This will be an evolving work in progress so if you
identify any corrections that need to be made or
would like to request specific content, just let me
know and we will see about implementing those in
future editions.
Ayman and I really do hope you enjoy the book and
find it useful in cementing your understanding of
these complex concepts and greatly elevating your
capabilities as an advanced DIY.

Best wishes,
Matt Bernstein – Schrodinger`s Box

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 3
In the world of automobiles, it's easy to get lost in
their designs, and models till at some point I realized
that the real magic is under the hood, With the
development of the automotive industry A car
engine is no longer just mechanical parts But it
became more complicated because PCM monitors
and controls all engine systems. I noticed that many
mechanics don't know many things about the way
sensors work and their relationship to each other.
I searched a lot on the internet until I found
Schrodinger`s Box and I couldn't stop myself from
watching all the videos, Matt has a great talent in
explaining and simplifying information, and I
learned a lot from him. so, I wanted to turn the
enormous data into a simple book that allows
everyone to benefit from Schrodinger`s Box.
Whether you want to save money on costly repairs,
gain a deeper understanding of your vehicle, or
simply enjoy the satisfaction of fixing your own car,
the book is a valuable resource, I hope this book
helps many people on the roads by fixing their cars
in uncomplicated way.
Best wishes
Ayman Kamar

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 4
Schrodinger`s Box Advanced DIY Auto Diagnostics & Repair

Contents

Preface and introduction 1

Automotive terms 6
1 Basic electrical for beginners 7
1.1 Open circuit 10
1.2 Closed circuit 11
1.3 Ohm`s Law 12
1.4 How to measure voltage 13
1.5 Circuits with load and resistance 19
1.6 Voltage drop test 21
1.7 Parallel Circuits 23
1.8 How to measure a current 26
1.9 Diagnosis problems in 3 wire Sensors circuit 31
1.10 Relays 37
1.11 Don`t blow you PCM 44
2 Wiring diagram tutorial 50
3 Engine sensors 55
3.1 Mass air flow sensor 55
3.2 Intake Air Temp Sensor 59
3.3 Throttle Position Sensor 62
3.4 Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor 64
3.5 Oxygen up Stream Sensor 68
3.6 Air fuel ratio sensor 76
3.7 Knock Sensor 80
3.8 Engine coolant temperature sensor 82
3.9 Camshaft position sensor
Crankshaft position sensor 85
4 Fuel trims 92
4.1 fuel injection system 102

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 5
4.2 Fuel trims definitions 103
4.3 Relation between O2S1 & LTFT & STFT 104
4.4 Diagnosis by O2S1 & LTFT & STFT 107
5 Engine systems 111
5.1 Air Injection Reaction 111
5.2 The Evaporative Emission System 113
5.3 Fuel pressure regulator 118
5.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation 120
5.5 The variable valve timing system 123
5.5.1 The main components of a VVT system 125
5.5.2 VVT SOLENOID VALVE POSITIONS 128
5.5.3 HOW TO TEST VVT SOLENOID 132
5.6 Ignition System 136
5.6.1 Concept of ignition coil 136
5.6.2 Waveform analysis 137
5.6.3 Types of Electronic Ignition System 139
5.7 Engine cooling system 143
5.8 Air Conditioning System 147
6 NO Start Engine 152
6.1 Crank No Start 152
6.2 No Crank No Start 161
7 Car History 162

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 6
Engine Fuel System CTS Coolant temp. sensor
FPS Fuel pressure sensor ECT Engine coolant temperature
LTFT Long term fuel trim AC Air Conditioning System
STFT Short term fuel trim EVAP The Evaporative Emission System
AFR Air fuel ratio COP Coil- on - Plug Ignition System
FPR Fuel pressure regulator Basic electrical
Engine Air Intake System DVOM Digital Volt Ohm Meter
IAT Intake air temp. sensor V Voltage
IAC Idle air control actuator (valve) I Current
MAF Mass air flow sensor R Resistance
MAP Manifold absolute pressure sensor GND Ground
TPAP Throttle plate angular position GRD Ground
TPS Throttle position sensor V. VOLTS
WOT Wide open throttle Amp. Amperage (current measuring unit)
VVT variable valve timing Ohm.  Resistance measuring unit
Engine Exhaust system Tº Temperature Fº - Cº

EGR Exhaust gas regulator Diagnosis

O2S1 Oxygen upstream sensor TDC top dead center
O2S2 Oxygen downstream sensor B1 Bank 1

ETS Exhaust temp. sensor B2 Bank 2

OL OPEN LOOP IGN. Ignition
CL CLOSED LOOP IGN-SW Ignition Switch
Engine Sensors & systems DTC diagnostic trouble code
PCM Power train control module psi Pounds per square inch
ECM Engine control module PWM Pulse-width modulation
CPS Camshaft position sensor RPM revolutions per minute
CKPS Crankshaft position sensor
CMP Camshaft position sensor
CKP Crankshaft position sensor
KS Knock sensor

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 7
CHAPTER 1

BASIC ELECTRICAL FOR BEGINNERS

This is by far the most important chapter in the

book. If you can master basic electrical concepts,
you will far exceed even the capabilities of many
professional auto mechanics because most people in
general have a very hard time understanding
electrical. I strongly urge you to do the best you can
to understand not only the concepts but also to be
able to do some of the math equations as well. Most
people just skip over Ohm's Law and all the "math
stuff" but mastering this will help you to achieve the
ultimate mastery of electrical- the ability to
"visualize" it as opposed to following it by
memorization or mechanically like a flow chart.
It really helps to visualize basic electrical by
analogizing it with water. While there are a few
exceptions, 95% of the time thinking about the
behavior of water flowing through hoses or how
rivers flow will be pretty similar to how electricity
works. This will allow you to take a complex concept
like Ohm’s Law: V=IR (V)oltage equals (I)Amperage
times (R)esistance and rather than just calculate it
and follow whatever it says, you will be able to
actually "see" it at work. In the case of a garden hose-

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 8
the water faucet is the battery voltage- the starting
“pressure”. You can imagine if you have good water
pressure from the faucet and a really thin hose- we know
water would shoot out of the end of the hose really far.
This is because inside the thin hose we have high
resistance which causes high pressure. But we also know
that if you wanted to fill up a glass of water with this thin
hose it would take an extra-long time because while the
water shoots out impressively, there isn't all that much
water coming out as opposed to if you just filled the glass
right from the faucet without the hose. So, we can "see"
that increasing (R)esistance reduces flow (I)amperage. We
could also replace the thin hose with a much wider hose
and fill a glass of water about the same as directly from
the faucet, but the water would hardly shoot out of the
end of the hose because a wider hose has less resistance
which increases the flow of water, but pressure is reduced.
You can imagine all kinds of combinations like this that
would allow you to answer what would happen in various
electrical situations. Why does a car with a bad battery
not start? Well, it is because it's like having the faucet only
turned on just a little bit and expecting it to operate a
sprinkler. There is not enough "pressure" and therefore
both flow and resistance are reduced. What if the battery
is good but there is a bad starter cable with lots of
corrosion? The car still doesn't start but it's not for lack of
pressure- remember pressure will be high to the starter
motor because of the resistance, but there will be much
less flow so just the same way the sprinkler would barely

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 9
work if you used a really thin hose with it- we know the
pressure is high because the hose is thin (increases
resistance) but there isn’t enough water flowing through
the sprinkler to make it operate.

Please watch the basic electrical video links and then

when looking at the diagrams in this book- see if it helps
to think about water behavior to understand how
variables impact electrical performance.
BASIC ELECTRICAL VIDEOS LINK
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-part-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-part-2/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-part-3/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-pt-4-dvom-and-testlights/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-pt5-parallel-circuitscemf/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-pt6-applying-concepts/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/basic-electrical-for-beginners-pt7-conclusion/
BOOK WALKTHROUGH
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-pt1-chapter-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-pt2-chapter-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-part-3-chapter-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-part-4-ch1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-pt5-chapter-1-voltage-drop-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-pt6-chapter-1-voltage-drop-2/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-overview-pt7-chapter-1-parallel-circuits/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-overview-1-8-measure-current-with-dvom-
clamps/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-1-9-3wire-sensor-diagnosis-pt1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-1-9-3wire-sensor-diagnosis-pt2/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-1-9-3wire-sensor-diagnosis-pt3/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-1-10-relays-pt-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/book-walkthrough-1-10-relays-part-2/

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 10
1.1 - Open circuit
• Any position BEFORE the open
switch will equal source
voltage because there is no
current (flow). Think of the
water analogy- the open switch is “capping” the hose, so
all pressure is equal before the cap.

• When we calculate voltage

drop across the load (the
lamp) it is zero because there
is no current with switch
open.

• Current is zero Amps

anywhere on the circuit
because there is no electrical
flow with open switch.
• The lamp is not lit in any of
these examples because the switch is open—no current
flow.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 11
1.2- Closed circuit (switch closed)
• The voltage BEFORE the load
(lamp) equals source voltage
but AFTER the load it is zero.
The load uses all the voltage no
matter its resistance. The lamp
is lit because the switch is
closed causing current flow.

• When we calculate voltage drop

across the lamp, it is 12V
because it is source voltage
before the load and 0V after the
load.

• Unlike Voltage, CURRENT

(Amperage or ‘I’) will be the
same across the ENTIRE circuit.
Again, think of water analogy-
water flow is same before or
after a “pinch” in the hose. You
cannot have water flow slower
or faster within different points of a closed system- it’s
all the same.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 12
1.3- Ohm`s Law

V=Voltage
I=Current (Amperage)
R=Resistance

V=IxR

I=V /R
V = 12 V.

R = 50 

I = 12 / 50 = 0.24 Amp.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 13
1.4- How to measure voltage
Example: light bulb

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 14

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 15

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 16
Example: fuel injector

1- Disconnect fuel injector then Test wiring from PCM and fuse box

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 17
2- connect fuel injector then test injector

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 18

back to contents

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 19
1.5- CIRCUITS WITH LOAD AND RESISTANCE
Resistance before load

• I= 0.5 Amp
• R1 = 10  =
RESISTANCE
• R2 = 14 = LOAD
BULB
• At R1 RESISTANCE
• V=I R
• V= 0.5 X 10 = 5
VOLT
• Voltage drop = 5
volt
• Voltage after R1 = 7
volt
• At R2 LOAD BULB
• V=I R
• V= 0.5 X 14 = 7 VOLT
• Voltage drop = 7 volt
• Voltage before R2 = 7 volt
• Voltage after R2 = 0 volt

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 20
Resistance after load

• I= 0.5 Amp
• R1 = 14 = LOAD
BULB
• R2 = 10  =
RESISTANCE

1. At R1 LOAD BULB
• V=I R
• V= 0.5 X 14 = 7 VOLT
• Voltage drop = 7
volt
• Voltage after R1 = 5
volt

2. At R2 RESISTANCE
• V=I R
• V= 0.5 X 10 = 5
VOLT
• Voltage drop = 5 volt
• Voltage before R2 = 5 volt
• Voltage after R2 = 0 volt

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 21
1.6- Voltage drop test
Video link
https://youtu.be/DfLyh43iihM

1 – First way
• Check voltage at device positive terminal vs. battery
negative terminal (Figure 1) and subtract from battery
voltage (Figure 2). The difference is voltage drop across
positive cable. Remember!! THE DEVICE MUST BE
OPERATING! No current flow=no voltage drops.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 22
2- Second way
• Connect +on device to +on source. This shows voltage
drop on positive.
• If shows approximately zero, it means no voltage drop.
>.6V is a little high on a starter motor wiring.
• Repeat second way on Negative side to get voltage drop
on the negative. Again- the circuit MUST HAVE
AMPERAGE FLOW!! Voltage drop will show zero if there
is no current flow EVEN IF THERE IS HIGH RESISTANCE!!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 23
1.7- Parallel Circuits
(See basic electrical series on www.schrodingersboxQM.com for
walkthrough) VIDEOS LINK

• Two parallel resistances circuit

• example 1
• R1=100
• R2=100
• Rt = Total resistance
𝑹𝟏×𝑹𝟐
• 𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
• 𝐑𝐭 = = 𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟏𝟎𝟎
• V=𝐈 ×𝐑
𝑽𝒕 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝒕 = = =
𝑹𝒕 𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑽𝟏 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟐 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎

• example 2
𝑹𝟏×𝑹𝟐
• 𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 ×𝟐𝟓
• 𝐑𝐭 = = 𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟓
• V=𝐈 ×𝐑
𝑽𝒕 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝐭 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝒕 𝟐𝟎
𝑽𝟏 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟐 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟓

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 24
• Example 3

R1= 100 R2= 25

RL=Resistance at load = 5

Rx = Resistance at R1 & R2 circuit

• 𝑹𝒙 = 𝑹𝟏×𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 ×𝟐𝟓
• 𝐑𝐱 = = 𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟓
• Rt = RL + Rx = 5+20=25
𝑽𝒕 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝐭= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝑨𝒎𝒑
𝑹𝒕 𝟐𝟓
• Voltage drop at load =I X R = 0.48 X 5 = 2.4 V.
𝑽𝑳 𝟐.𝟒
• 𝐈𝐋 = = 𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝑨𝒎𝒑
𝑹𝑳
𝑽𝟏 𝟗.𝟔
• 𝐈𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟐 𝟗.𝟔
• 𝐈𝟐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟓
• Ix =I1 + I2 = 0.096 + 0.384 = 0.48 Amp

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 25
• three parallel resistances circuit

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• = + + + … … ..
𝑹𝒕 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 ?
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• = + + = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
𝑹𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝑽𝟏 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟐 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟎
𝑽𝟑 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝟑 = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝑨𝒎𝒑.
𝑹𝟑 𝟓𝟎
𝑽𝒕 𝟏𝟐
• 𝐈𝐭 = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑
𝑹𝒕 𝟏𝟐.𝟓

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 26
1.8 – How to measure current using a basic DVOM.

• Attention :

If you are not familiar with all basics for car electricity,
don't try to measure current in this way because
wrong methods can damage your PCM!! It works by
creating a “jumper” wire between points without a
load!!

• Turn DVOM Meter to a suitable range of

Amperage (green circle ). The solid line over a
dashed line is DC. If you have a meter that has
ranges for amperage (10A, 100mA etc) make sure
to use the range closest to your application. For
most automotive applications it will be 10A. If
unsure, start with 10A and work down if more
sensitivity is needed. (This is same procedure for
selecting voltage if meter doesn’t have automatic
voltage scale selection).
• Make sure to connect the red probe in the
position for measuring high amperage (red circle
). Black lead will be at COM.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 27
• After measuring, don`t forget to return the red
probe back to the Volt/Ohm position!! If it’s in
AMP mode, it’s a jumper wire so if you try to take
a voltage measurement with it in AMP mode you
can damage the circuit or your multimeter!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 28

Here we have the Ammeter (A) correctly placed

IN SERIES in the circuit. This can be done either
before or after the load (M) because remember
current flow is the same everywhere in the
circuit, You could just as well connect between
the (M) and the ground and get same result. “In
Series” means you are “plugged into” EITHER
the positive side OR the negative side ONLY! If
you connect positive to negative you will have a
short circuit!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 29

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 30

In the first wrong method we are trying to measure

amperage on an open circuit. Reading will be zero
because of no flow. The second and third diagrams
are also wrong but also DANGEROUS!! We are
basically “bypassing” the load with a jumper wire
so we create a short circuit and can cause damage.
Measuring VOLTAGE will not do this- but
measuring AMPERAGE will!!!! This is also why its so
important when measuring voltage to be certain
your meter is not in amperage configuration!!!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 31
1.9- DIAGNOSIS PROBLEMS IN 3 WIRE SENSORS CIRCUIT
A -NORMAL CIRCUIT
Can be tested by checking the voltage

At reference = 5 v.

At signal = 0.5 to 5 v.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 32
B – OPEN CIRCUIT

• Check connectivity at all sides Of connection

wire from PCM to sensor
• Check voltage at 2 sides of reference = 5 v.
• Check voltage at 2 sides of signal v1 = v2

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 33
C – SHORT TO GROUND
METHOD 1
• Disconnect sensor or component & disconnect
PCM. This is called “isolating” the circuit. There
should be no connection to ground on an
“isolated” circuit.
• Check cable connectivity to the ground
• If you see O.L. (Out of Limit) that is normal -no
short
• If you see a small reading it`s shorted. The short
is between the component and the PCM.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 34

METHOD 2

• Disconnect sensor or component & PCM as before.

• Connect cable from test lamp to Battery Positive and
touch tip to reference wire. If the light turns on it`s a
short. This is because there is a ground on the circuit
allowing test lamp to light up. Again, an “isolated”
circuit should not have a ground.
• Apply Test lamp to Signal wire. If the light turns on it`s
a short on the signal wire.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 35
D - UNDESIRABLE RESISTANCE (VOLTAGE DROP)
• 1- Check voltage at both sides of the reference
• IF V1 = V2 it`s normal NO VOLTAGE DROP
• 2- Check voltage at both sides of the signal
• IF V1 = V2 it`s normal NO VOLTAGE DROP
• 3-Check MV voltage at both sides of the ground
cable
• If voltage <100 millivolt it`s normal NO
VOLTAGE DROP
• If voltage > 100 millivolt it`s voltage drop.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 36

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 37
1.10- Relays
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gg20X-FwGzg&t=28s&ab_channel=SchrodingersBox

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fxGZIBNTFPE&t=3s&ab_channel=SchrodingersBox

• In a relay regardless of how many pins,

there are essentially 2 sides- control and
load. The idea is to allow a low current to be
able to control a high current which is easier
on a switch and also safer. The control side
is the low voltage side that the vehicle
operator controls with a switch- maybe a
headlamp switch. The relay can also be
operated by the PCM or by another device
turning on or off. In any case, putting
current to the control side energizes a
magnet inside the relay that magnetically
pulls the high current switch (LOAD side) to
close and complete circuit to operate the
load (headlamp device in this example).
Additional pins basically put load to
different parts of circuit.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 38

In the above diagram, we see the low current

CONTROL side with the coil that if switch is closed it
becomes magnetic and will close LOAD side (high
current) side.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 39

You see see the relay on the left is what we

have been talking about. The relay on right
works the same however as the diagram shows
the only difference is that the load side is never
“open”- it just moves power from one circuit to
another. Note that usually the fatter terminals
are Load side.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 40
TESTING RELAYS

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 41

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 42

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 43

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 44
1.11- Don`t blow your PCM
VIDEOS LINK
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/how-to-test-wires-at-the-pcm/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/dont-blow-your-pcm-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/dont-blow-your-pcm-part-2-2/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/dont-blow-your-pcm-part-2/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/dont-fry-your-pcm-final-exam/

One of the main reasons most people never learn how

to diagnose electrical circuits is because of the fear they
will cause more damage than what they are already
facing. They are afraid if they use their volt meter
wrong or if they provide power or ground to the wrong
part of a circuit while trying to test it, they will fry the
circuit. And indeed this is possible and in fact likely if
basic electrical concepts are not understood. The trick
is to understand that EVERY circuit MUST have a load in
it. The load is a part of the circuit that either does some
type of work, produce light, provide resistance—
anything other than just a clean connection from
positive to negative. We have all made the mistake of
touching a battery positive cable to the frame of the car
while the negative terminal is still connected. Or maybe
while trying to remove a starter with battery connected
the ratchet touches the frame. One time I just happened
to lay an oil dipstick across the positive and negative

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 45
battery terminals- on a battery I disconnected for
“safety’! The dipstick turned red and melted in
dramatic fashion plus it shorted the battery requiring it
to be replaced! In any of these cases, the problem is
there was a straight connection made with a conductor
between a positive and negative. Had that oil dipstick
been designed with even a tiny glove box light bulb in
the middle of it, all that would have happened is the
bulb would have lit because it is a load.
It’s not always easy to tell where you are in a circuit
and that’s especially true when dealing with computer
controlled circuits. It’s one thing to test a headlamp
switch by giving it a ground and making the mistake
that you grounded in front of the load by accident and
blew the fuse. It’s a whole different thing if that
headlamp is controlled by a positive-side-switched BCM
and now you fried a $700 module- and even worse, now
the car won’t start because the module was in a “daisy
chain” with other modules that now disables the
vehicle! This isn’t intended to scare you from trying.
It’s intended to just make sure you pay attention and if
in doubt, consult a wire diagram and make sure it
makes sense to you. If still in doubt, maybe try a
different testing method. But in order to learn how to
do this stuff, you simply MUST go past your comfort
zone. This is something all successful people in the

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 46
world have done, whether starting a business, taking a
promotion, going back to school, starting a YouTube channel,
or testing a computer controlled circuit for the first time. You
have to take a risk in order to get past where you are.
Hopefully this chapter and the associated videos will help
mitigate that risk but the bottom line is this- if you are going to
test a computer controlled circuit by giving it a power, you
better be damn certain that power is in front of the load. And if
you are going to test whether a computer is ground side
switching or not by giving the circuit a ground, You better
make absolutely sure that ground is between the load and the
computer and not “jumping” across the load!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 47
IMPORTANT RULES

RULE 1:
• There Always needs to be a load in a circuit! If
there is no load (no resistance) then you have a
short circuit!!

Rule 2:
• DVOM in volts mode is almost always safe.
• Amp clamps are available for DVOM and are
always safe (They loop around a wire externally).

Rule 3:
• DVOM continuity tests are almost always safe.
• It isn't safe if we exceed the amount of amperage
that the circuit can tolerate.

Rule 4:
• LED test lights are virtually fail-safe but
incandescent ones should be used with caution.
An incandescent test light draws 250mA. A LED
test light draws only 50mA. If in doubt, use an
LED. But Incandescent lights can be useful if you
want to operate a circuit with low amperage.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 48
Rule 5:
• 5v. circuits are generally safe.
• 5v. circuits wires are thin wires
• Sensor signal wires can tolerate up to 5v.

Rule 6:
• 12v. circuits should be tested with extra caution!
These are most likely to do damage if shorted

Rule 7:
• DVOM in amps mode should be used with
extreme caution
• It’s potentially very dangerous to PCM since
causing a short circuit on a PCM controlled
switch (transistor) will likely blow it!!!

Rule 8
• Jumper wires are only used In Series on the
same side of a circuit (+ side or – side) to bypass
a switch or an open. Never jumper positive to
negative without a load (such as test light)-
ever!!!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 49
Rule 9:
• Never replace a bad PCM until you find out what
caused it. Most often something shorted to blow
the PCM! The PCM probably didn’t just fail itself.
The new PCM is likely to blow as well!

Rule 10
• If you are unsure of a design, research it first but
even then you probably still won't be sure so if
in doubt, best to not measure it.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 50
CHAPTER 2

WIRING DIAGRAM TUTORIAL

VIDEOS LINK

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/wiring-diagram-tutorial-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/wiring-diagram-tutorial-part-2/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/wiring-diagram-tutorial-part-3/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/wiring-diagram-tutorial-pt-4-case-study/

• Begin with the load you suspect then go back step by

step using highlighters to follow wires. Try using red
highlights for powers and green for grounds.
• Diagrams are usually organized showing power sources
at the top and grounds at the bottom
• If lines go to the end of the page, on the next page you
can identify those same lines with their numbering.
• Diagrams are drawn at rest state with all switches in
normal rest positions (usually off). Some devices are
powered all the time like alarm system and clock.
• A dotted box indicates that there are other components
in this box that do not appear in order to keep diagram
simpler and focused. You may need to find another
diagram to identify all connections.
• On modern vehicles, most devices and relay controls are
ground side switched- often controlled by the PCM or
BCM. Older vehicles like from the 60’s and 70’s often use
power side switches.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 51
• Colors codes
BLACK BLK BK B PINK PNK PK K
BLUE BLU BU U PURPLE PPL PL P
BROWN BRN BN N RED RED RD R
CLEAR CLR CR L TAN TAN TN -
DARK BLUE DK BLU DK DB VIOLET VIO VI -
BU
DARK GREEN DK GRN DK DG WHITE WHT WT W
GN
GREEN GRN GN G YELLOW YEL YL Y
GRAY GRY GY S GROUND GND GN G
LIGHT BLUE LT BLUE LT BU - CONNECTOR C
LIGHT GREEN LT GRN LT GN - REFERENCE REF
ORANGE ORG OG O SKY BLUE SB

BLUE / BLACK L/B YELLOW / Y/G

GREEN
RED / WHITE R/W BLACK / WHITE B/W
RED / YELLOW R/Y WHITE / GREEN W/G
BLUE / YELLOW L/Y WHITE / RED W/R
BLUE / GREEN L/G GREEN / G/Y
YELLOW
BLUE / WHITE L/W YELLOW / RED Y/R
BROWN / WHITE BR/W YELLOW / Y/B
BLACK

• Ground locations codes

G1-- FRONT CAR G7-- LEFT REAR DOOR

G2-- INSTRUMENTAL PANEL G8-- RIGHT REAR DOOR
G3-- PASSENGER SIDE G9-- ROOF
G3-- B CENTER PILLAR G9-- A FRONT PILLAR
G4-- REAR CAR G9-- C REAR PILLAR
G5-- LEFT FRONT DOOR
G6-- RIGHT FRONT DOOR

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 52
• Symbols

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 53

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 54

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 55
CHAPTER 3

ENGINE SENSORS

3.1- Mass air flow sensor

( MAF)
VIDEOS LINK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MHsfAXog-FI&t=14s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zxMxPH5jQmw&t=13s

• The MAF Detects the amount of air entering the

engine by measuring air flow (Grams/Second or
Pounds/Second) and is the main source for
determining air and fuel mixture. On MAF
engines, the MAP (Manifold Absolute Pressure)
sensor is more used as a “reality check” to ensure
the MAF is operating correctly. MAF and MAP
should correlate closely. In the event of either a
MAP or MAF failure where reported data is
illogical, the PCM will use other parameters to see

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 56
which sensor seems incorrect and will code
accordingly. Often a substituted value will be
used to keep the engine running as best as
possible given the lack of data. The Intake Air
Temperature (IAT) sensor is also used in the air
density calculation since cold air is denser and in
the case of a “hotwire” design described below
would also have added cooling effect on the wire
that must be considered.
• Idle = 2 to 7 g/s (Depends on engine size)
• RPM 2500 = 15 to 25 g/s (Again depends on
engine)
• Most models have IAT (Intake air temperature
sensor) integrated with the MAF.
• In a “Hotwire” MAF (most common design), the
PCM controls the temperature of “hot” wire by
holding the wire at a constant temperature above
ambient by putting current through it.
• More air entering the engine passes through the
MAF and cools the wire, so more current is
needed to keep that fixed temperature.
• PCM detects changes in current needed to keep
the wire temperature so it can calculate the
airflow. Also uses IAT since colder air will cool the

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 57
wire more plus colder air is more dense.

• 4 Pin MAF SENSOR

• 5 Pin MAF Sensor

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 58
• Hotwire MAF sensors have two types :
1- Analogue = 0 v. To 4.5 v.

Air voltage WOT (Wide Open Throttle) = 4.5 V.

**NOTE!! A MAF below 4V at WOT often indicates a MAF Problem!!!!**

2- Digital = 2000 Hz to 6000 Hz

• Measure frequency of change

in Volt. from 0 to 5 V (Duty
cycle time)

COMMON MAF SENSOR

FAULT CODES
• MAF circuit malfunction: P0100
• MAF circuit range/performance: P0101
• MAF circuit low input: P0102
• MAF circuit high input: P0103
• MAF circuit intermittent P0104
• MAF sensor faulty or contaminated: P0171

CASE RELATED
• MAF CODE TAHOE
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/tahoe-no-speedo-tach-maf-code-part-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/tahoe-no-speedo-tach-maf-code-part-2/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/03-tahoe-p0101-maf-diagnosis/
• Every engine part changed, still has P0171 P0174 codes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Au49Z1SM8Hg&t=81s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v76bgaouHVY

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 59
3.2- Intake Air Temp Sensor
(IAT(
• Video link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1pOGSCsU-T8

• The IAT is a “Thermistor” (temperature

responsive resistor) that measures the
temperature of the incoming air into the engine
by correlating changes in resistance to actual
temperature. The IAT has several purposes. One
is to help the MAF in more correct calculation of
the air fuel mix by allowing it to compensate for
temperature. The IAT is also important in
“rationalization checks” for other sensors. For
example, if the IAT calculates the air
temperature to be 10 degrees F but the Engine
Coolant Temperature Sensor reads 220F,
something is off. If other sensors like the oil
temperature sensor and transmission fluid
sensor also read about 10F, the PCM will figure
out the CTS reading does not make sense and
will throw a rationality code.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 60

• Can be tested on the bench by applying heat and

measuring the change in resistance as
temperature increased Resistance decreased.
• Can test signal wire for Voltage from 0v. To 5v.
• As Temperature increases, resistance decreases.
An open circuit (infinite resistance) reads -40F
on scantool.

• Some models have MAF integrated within

• Usually a 2-wire sensor- if standalone.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 61

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 62
3.3- Throttle Position Sensor
(TPS)
VIDEOS LINK

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJobCD6y8fk&t=14s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wP1CF4p8FGs

• Used to check the air intake of an engine based on

how open the throttle is. The sensor is usually
found on the butterfly spindle/shaft so that it can
directly check the position of the throttle. Usually, 3
or 4 wire but modern cars use an electronic throttle
body where the TPS and IAC are the same and
controlled by a motor instead of a throttle pedal
cable. This system is called Drive by Wire (DBW).
• Measures angle of the throttle shaft. More
open=higher voltage to signal.
• Can be tested on the bench by rotating it and
measuring the change in resistance between signal
& 5V Reference wire.
• Can test signal wire Voltage ranges from 0.5v to
4.5v as you open throttle. WOT should=4.5V.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 63
• Test REF 5V wire with ignition on. Should see 5V.

• Test signal wire with ignition on. Should range 0.5v to 4.5v
as you rotate throttle.

• Test Ground for voltage drop

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 64
3.4- Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor
(MAP)
VIDEOS LINK

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xutynSVO0xI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mL0B-I6WP6s

The MAP is a potentiometer that changes resistance

based on pressure. Pressure moves a diaphragm in the
sensor which acts as the “sweep” along the variable
resistor, just like any potentiometer’s design. As
described earlier in MAF section, it works in
conjunction with MAF, IAT, and TPS to properly
calculate air fuel mix. Because manifold pressure is a
good sign of engine load, it is also critical in
determining engine load value. Some engines do not
use a MAF sensor and run exclusively on the MAP.
This design is called “speed density.” Many

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 65
supercharged and turbo applications use this design
since manifold pressures are significantly different
than non-forced induction engines.
Many people are confused on “air pressure” vs.
“Absolute Pressure.” The MAP is an “absolute”
pressure sensor. This means it does not actually report
the actual air pressure in the manifold compared to
outside the engine (such as a vacuum gauge would
do). Instead, it reports it using the vacuum in the
engine as a baseline and reports changing from that
baseline- not compared to outside air pressure. As an
example- if you were to take a car at sea level and
measure vacuum with engine running, it would maybe
be about 22inHg. But if you measured that same
engine at the top of a mile high mountain, it would
read about 17inHg because the air pressure at high
altitude is lower. But the absolute pressure in the
engine would be the same.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 66
• Test signal wire same as with TPS (or ANY
potentiometer). Range from 1 v to 5 v as pressure is
put to sensor.
• Idle = 1.5 v

• Increasing throttle opening will increase air

intake which increases pressure in the
manifold which increases volt reading on the
signal.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 67
• Test Reference wire. Should always be 5v (with
ignition ON).

• Test Ground for voltage drop

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 68
3.5- Oxygen Sensor-Upstream
(O2S1)
Videos link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XQYDwIWS6Ho
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8GLH6ubXoc

The Oxygen sensor is one of the most important and

yet misunderstood sensors in the vehicle. While
nowadays upstream (meaning before the catalytic
converter) O2 sensors are being replaced by Air/Fuel
Ratio sensors (AFR’s), the traditional O2 sensor is still
used downstream of the catalytic converter on most
modern vehicles to assess catalyst activity in the
converter, so it is still important to understand them.
Understanding how the O2 sensor functions and how
the PCM responds to it is one of the most important
things you can do to improve your skill in engine
performance diagnostics.
While there is some debate about exactly how an
O2 sensor works (whether it responds to oxygen,
hydrocarbons, or both), the best and most effective

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 69
way to think of it is in a diagnostic sense is to see it
strictly as an oxygen sensor. In the presence of
oxygen (a lean condition) the sensor reduces its
voltage output down to .1V and in the absence of
oxygen (rich condition) it increases voltage output
up to .9V. I usually think of the O2 sensor as a battery
that wants to put out .9V but oxygen inhibits the
voltage. This voltage from the O2 sensor tells the
PCM if the exhaust is rich or lean and the PCM
adjusts injector pulse width accordingly to lean the
rich condition or richen the lean condition. This
constant feedback cycle back and forth between rich
and lean responses is what causes the sine wave
signature of the O2 sensor voltage trace shown
below. Note that a traditional O2 sensor does not
report degrees of leanness or richness. If the sensor
reports under .45V it is reporting a lean condition
regardless of the actual air/fuel mix. If voltage is
over .45V it is reporting a rich condition. For this
reason, the traditional O2 sensor is known as a
narrow-band sensor. Air fuel sensors on the contrary
respond proportionally in degrees of richness or
leanness and thus are known as wideband sensors.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 70

• PCM oscillates reading from O2s1 between 100mv and 900mv to

give “sine wave” waveform reading.
• If the engine is at a stoichiometric ratio, Upstream O2 Sensor will
be oscillating between100mv & 900mv
• Above 450 mv is a rich condition.
• Below 450mv is a lean condition.

The oscillations of the O2 sensor between .1V

and .9V in a stoichiometrically balanced engine are
actually the result of intentional rich/lean conditions
induced by the PCM because the catalytic converter
needs a slightly lean exhaust to optimally convert
some contaminants and a slightly rich exhaust to
convert other contaminants. The O2 sensor is
essentially its own feedback device- when the O2
sensor reports rich (high voltage) the PCM responds
by restricting fuel injector pulse width to create a
leaner exhaust. The O2 sensor then reports this lean

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 71
exhaust through low voltage which triggers the PCM
to increase injector pulse width to create a richer
exhaust and so on - back and forth. As mentioned
before, it is best to visualize a more lean or more rich
exhaust in terms of oxygen content and not fuel. For
example- in the case of a no spark misfire- we would
expect the O2 sensor to respond with a rich signal
because of all that unburned fuel that we can smell
or maybe even see coming out of the exhaust. But
the O2 sensor will actually read lean instead of rich,
because the O2 sensor isn’t seeing the burned fuel. It
is seeing the unburned oxygen from the failed
combustion and that higher amount of oxygen will
drive the sensor lean. Even in the case of a
legitimate rich condition such as a stuck-closed fuel
pressure regulator, the O2 sensor will of course
increase voltage in response to the rich condition but
it is because the excess fuel is displacing the oxygen,
so the sensor is lean because it is seeing less oxygen,
not more fuel. Seeing the O2 sensor responses in
this way can be very helpful in diagnosing air/fuel
mix issues.
We will cover more on the PCM’s response to O2
sensor outputs in Chapter 4- fuel trims which is

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 72
arguably the second most important chapter in this
book.
O2 sensor circuits typically have a .45V “Bias
Voltage” used by the PCM to diagnose if there is a
short or open in the signal wiring. This voltage can
be very useful- if you disconnect an O2 sensor you
should see approximately .45V on a scan tool (or at
the sensor harness using a DVOM). If you do not,
there is likely a wiring issue or even PCM issue.
Conversely, if you see .1V to .9V oscillations from a
sensor on a scan tool, it is virtually impossible that
there is an issue with that O2 sensor. Very often
people change O2 sensors in response to rich or lean
DTC’s (Diagnostic Trouble Codes) but if you change
an O2 sensor that has normal oscillations, you are
virtually guaranteed to not fix whatever issue you are
trying to solve. Understanding Fuel Trims in Chapter
4 will explain why you can have lean or rich codes
such as P0171 or P0173 while still having normal O2
sensor oscillations. In fact, this is usually the case and
replacing the O2 sensor does not fix the issue
because the O2 sensor is merely reporting the
condition, and not causing it.
If an O2 sensor is suspected to not be running

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 73
properly, a very good way to evaluate for O2 sensor
response is to create a rich or lean condition by
adding propane to the intake or causing a vacuum
leak. If for example an O2 sensor is flat lined at .1V,
it is possible this is a real reading because the engine
is so lean the PCM cannot add enough fuel to
compensate. Adding propane to the intake should
make the sensor go rich again. If it does, then it is
most likely the sensor is accurately reporting an
extreme lean condition. If the sensor still does not
respond, check the bias voltage, if bias voltage is
good then most likely the sensor is indeed bad, and
the lean report is the result of the sensor failing to
put out voltage.
O2 sensors typically need to be at about 700oF to
operate. To bring them up to temp as fast as
possible, most O2 sensors have a 1amp heater circuit
to warm them up quickly. O2 sensors with a heater
circuit will have 4 wires- 2 for the sensor signaling
and 2 for the heater circuit, On the sensor pigtail, the
2 wires of the same color (usually black or brown)
will be for the heater circuit. A failed heater circuit is
one of the most common reasons for a legitimately
failed O2 sensor. A continuity test can be done on the

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 74
sensor pigtail to see if the heater element is broken,
also remember to check for voltage and ground on
the corresponding circuit wires on the harness side.
Unlike most other codes that mention an O2 sensor,
heater codes do usually end up being a faulty sensor.

It is important to note that a scan tool is usually not

the best way to look at an O2 sensor’s response time
to changes in variables. This is particularly important
to consider when diagnosing slow sensor response
time codes. Often, a scan tool will give a delayed
response depending on how fast it processes data or
even how fast the engine computer communicates.
In diagnosing any slow response codes, it’s best to
use a lab scope or even a DVOM to look directly at
the sensor signal while creating variables.
Finally, keep in mind that everything discussed here
is for upstream (pre-cat) O2 sensors. An O2 sensor
after the cat operates the same way, but for a
different purpose. A downstream (also called rear,
post-cat, or S2) sensor is used to determine catalytic
converter activity. A catalytic converter uses up all
the oxygen in its chemical reaction. Thinking about
the O2 sensor strictly as an oxygen sensor, this

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 75
means it would read rich after the catalytic converter
because there is no oxygen for it to detect. Indeed, a
post cat sensor should pretty much flat line rich
through all RPM ranges if the catalyst is still
functional. A rear O2 sensor that oscillates like the
front sensor does means the exhaust that is coming
into the catalytic converter is the same as what’s
coming out and thus the catalytic converter is not
doing anything. Even if the front sensor is an air fuel
sensor instead of an O2 sensor, the rear sensor will
generally still be a traditional O2 sensor and the
same principle applies- if it oscillates, the cat is bad.
Some downstream sensors in more modern vehicles
can also have a small contribution to fuel control like
the front sensor, but it’s very minimal and in general
you wont see fuel issues with a vehicle from a rear
O2 unless that sensor is severely malfunctioning.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 76
3.6- Air fuel ratio sensor
(A/F SENSOR)
• Detects Air:Fuel ratio in exhaust then sends
current (Amperage) signal to PCM for control
LTFT &STFT
• Signal from -1.33 (mA) To + 0.41 (mA)
.

Air/Fuel Sensors (Air/Fuel Ratio Sensors or AFRs) are

similar to Oxygen Sensors in that they tell the PCM if
the exhaust is rich or lean so the PCM can adapt fuel
delivery accordingly to keep stoichiometric balance
and to maintain those catalytic converter optimizing
oscillations. AFRs vastly differ in how this
information is generated and reported though.
While O2 sensors generate voltage changes to signal

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 77
rich or lean conditions in a strictly binary fashion,
AFRs use micro amperage to signal the exact air fuel
ratio in a far more quantitative way. The amount of
amperage is exceedingly small- far too small for a
typical DVOM to identify it. A scan tool is the best
method for examining AFR output.

If you are used to O2 sensors, the first time you run

into an AFR it will be a pretty disorienting experience
for multiple reasons. The first reason will be the
unusually high voltages you will see on a scan tool.
Over 3V in some cases. The second will be that the
AFR seems to work “backwards” compared to an O2
sensor- that is, the voltage drops in rich conditions
and increases in lean conditions. The most
important thing to note is that the AFR voltage you
see on a scantool is not actual voltage!! It’s an
arbitrary number that can be vastly different
between manufacturers and models. A scan tool
showing a voltage for an AFR is merely a reference-
the actual sensor voltage is nowhere near that. My
understanding is manufacturers created these

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 78
voltage references because technicians are thought
to be more familiar with voltage than using micro
amperage and polarity to determine sensor
operation which is actually how it’s done. On most
Toyotas with AFRs for example, stoichiometry is 2.2V.
On many Subarus stoichiometry is 3.3V. Other cars
have different baseline voltages but again- there isn’t
actual voltage, it’s processed by the scan tool.

On most Toyotas 2.2V indicates the AFR is in a

stoichiometric condition. If you see 2.3V it’s in a very
slightly lean condition. 2.5V an even leaner condition
and so on. At 2.1V it would be in a slightly rich
condition. Unlike a traditional O2 sensor where it’s
either rich or lean no matter the degree-the AFR
does report the actual degree and thus the actual
exact air fuel mix ratio can be determined for
extremely precise fuel correction by the PCM. What’s
actually happening in the scenario though is there is
never an actual measurable voltage change- it’s all
micro amperage and polarity change. At richer
conditions, the current flow increases in one

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 79
direction and in leaner conditions the current flow
increases in the other direction. If you put a
voltmeter or even an ammeter directly on the AFR
you wouldn’t see anything though. There isn’t any
measurable voltage, and the amount of current is too
small to measure.

Even though the voltage on an AFR appears

constant- there is still the same fluctuation rich to
lean as with an O2 sensor. This is evident in the
oscillating injector pulse width, as well as the short-
term fuel trim wavering between +/-2. If the car has
a bad catalytic converter, you will still see the rear O2
sensor oscillate .1-.9V.

One of the most bizarre cases I ever saw was a car with
extreme fuel trim issues- the car would waiver between max
lean and max rich fuel trims. It turned out the vehicle owner
unknowingly put a traditional O2 sensor in the car instead of
the Air Fuel sensor and somehow it still fit the connector!

back to contents

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 80
3.7- Knock Sensor
(KS)
Videos link
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/knock-sensors-diagnosis-and-understanding-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/knock-sensors-diagnosis-and-understanding-part-2/

• “Knocking” occurs when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites

prematurely. Sustained knocking causes damage
primarily to the cylinder head and overheating.
• The knock sensor identifies the high-frequency engine
vibrations characteristic of knocking and transmits a
signal to the PCM
• PCM adjusts ignition timing until knock disappears.

• Types of Knock Sensor

1. Broadband

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 81

2 – Flat response

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 82
3.8 – Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor
(CTS) (ECT)
Videos link

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-coolant-temp-sensor-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-coolant-temp-sensor-part-2/

Engine Coolant Temperature sensors are used by the PCM

in many different ways. A cold engine being started
needs a richer condition than a warm engine. Coolant
temperature is used to determine when the engine goes
into closed loop. Engine temperature tells the fans to
operate. Cars with an electric thermostat adjust coolant
flow electrically in response to engine temperature. Spark
timing and injector pulsewidth might vary as the
combustion is affected by different engine temperatures.
Engine temperature lets the PCM know when to operate
various emissions functions such as AIR (Air injection
Reaction). It also lets the engine know if various sensors
are not working. For example if the engine temperature is
210F but the transmission oil temperature reads 60F then
clearly something isn’t right. One trick I will often use if I
suspect a temperature sensor may be malfunctioning is to
read all temp sensors after the vehicle has sat overnight.
If you find the Intake Air Temperature, Oil Temperature,

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 83
Transmission temperature, and Exhaust Gas Temperature
all read within 5 degrees of 70F but the CTS reads 125F,
the CTS is clearly malfunctioning. Extreme temperatures
shown on the scantool will usually tell you the type of
fault in a temperature sensor circuit. For example, an
open circuit usually reads -40F and gives a high voltage
PCM code while a shorted circuit may read over 300F and
will give a low voltage PCM code.

COOLANT TEMPERATURE SENSORS FUNCTIONS :

• Reports engine temperature to PCM
• Fan control
• Temperature gauge
• Important for Sparke to advance control
• Important for Secondary Air Injection System
(open\closed loop status)

• FAILURE SYMPTOMS :
• Irrational fan control (over cooling \ heating )
• Failure to enter closed loop.
• Poor fuel economy (rich)
• DTC
• Inaccurate temperature gauge reading
• CASE RELATED
JEEP P0128 TEMP CODE
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/jeep-p0128-temperature-rationality-code-pt1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/jeep-p0128-temperature-rationality-code-pt2/

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 84

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 85
3.9 - Camshaft position sensor (CPS)
Crankshaft position sensor (CKPS)
Videos link

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/cam-and-crank-sensor-basics-part-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/cam-and-crank-sensor-basics-part-2/

A- Camshaft Position Sensor

▪ Determines the location of the camshaft and its angle

relative to crankshaft position.
▪ Signals for spark and fuel when a piston is near the
top dead center compression position.
▪ Determine the duration of the injection pulse
▪ Follows the firing order of the engine cylinders
▪ Reports engine RPM.
NOTE: many of these functions may also be done by the crankshaft
position sensor. See note below under Crankshaft position sensor.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 86
B -Crankshaft Position Sensor (CKPS)

▪ Detects the crankshaft position and sends the signal

for PCM to calculate the injection timing, ignition
timing, and engine RPM.

TYPES OF CAMSHAFT & CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSORS

NOTE: The CKPS and CPS can have any number of duplicate
functions on many vehicles and the PCM on some cars can
“fall back” on the other sensor if one fails. There are many
variations of this. Some vehicles simply will not operate
without both the CKPS and CPS signals. Unplugging one or
the other would cause the engine to immediately die and not
restart. On other cars, unplugging one sensor or the other
won’t even miss a beat- you would only see a check engine
light but no other symptoms. Other vehicles might have a
very long crank time without one sensor as it takes a second
to recognize the missing signal and then “hand off” to the

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 87
other sensor for operation. On some cars the crank sensor
may control spark and the cam sensor controls fuel injection
BUT if one sensor fails the other sensor might handle both to
keep the car operational while other cars would not be able
to operate because spark or fuel would be lost without the
corresponding sensor. An engine with incorrect cam/crank
timing such as a jumped timing belt may cause one or both
sensors to show errors even though one of them is still in
correct time- the PCM often does not have a way to know
which one moved out of position. Finally, it is entirely
possible to have a cam sensor code when actually the crank
sensor is the issue, and vice-versa. The best way to diagnose
a cam or crank sensor signal is to understand the type of
sensors for both cam and crank and confirm if BOTH are
operating properly and if they are, you might then suspect
engine timing may be off.

TYPES OF CPS AND CKPS:

1 - INDUCTIVE SENSOR

▪ This type of sensor is composed of a magnetic core and

copper conductor winding mounted on an isolated coil
that generates an AC voltage sending an alternating
current signal to PCM. This AC wave increases in
frequency and amplitude with speed.
▪ 2 Wires sensor is exact same concept as an inductive
wheel speed sensor (WSS)
▪ 5v or 12v to diagnose any open circuit.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 88
2 - HALL EFFECT SENSOR

▪ Hall-effect sensors generate a digital square wave

signal instead of an analog AC signal.
▪ Three wire sensor (reference voltage, ground, and
signal).
▪ Hall Effect sensors offer the advantage that they can
detect static (non-variable) magnetic fields.

3 – OPTICAL SENSOR
▪ While not very common, some cars use an optical
sensor where the teeth on a reluctor wheel interrupt a
beam of light as opposed to creating a voltage. The
signal is similar to a square wave from Hall Effect
sensor.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 89

TESTING BY OSCILLOSCOPE

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 90
CASES RELATED:
MERCURY CPS CODES
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/mercury-cps-codes/

P0016 CAM CRANK CORRELATION

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosing-the-other-ford-expedition-p0016-cam-crank-correlation-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosing-the-other-ford-expedition-p0016-cam-crank-correlation-part-2/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosing-the-other-ford-expedition-p0016-cam-crank-correlation-pt3/

P0335/P0336 CRANK SENOR DIAGNOSIS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CsoKpqyM2b4&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=117

P1391 CPS CKPS CHEROKEE 2004

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9uRjp4EPx04&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=55

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQ6RzagRYwc&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=56

How to Catch an Intermittent Bad Cam or Crank Sensor

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQN-
GEXjg2g&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=138

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 91
ENGINE SENSOR’S LOCATIONS

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 92
CHAPTER 4

FUEL TRIMS

Link to video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5WnM_NsOtd8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cARQ0jZZ4Qc

Finally, we arrive at my favorite and most often used diagnostic

concept- Fuel Trims. Forgive me if I indulge a bit in this chapter,
but learning this concept literally changed my life and perhaps it
will for you as well. If you can master this concept, you will have
a tremendous advantage in diagnosing engine performance
issues. I probably start 80% of my check engine light diagnostics
with fuel trim analysis because it immediately narrows my
variables in half by seeing if it’s a rich condition or lean condition
issue and then I can further reduce my variables by almost 2/3
by knowing if it’s a whole engine issue, a left bank issue, or a
right bank issue. A sensor or component that affects the whole

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 93
engine such as a fuel pump or MAF sensor can be ruled out if the
issue shows to be on only one bank of the engine. The power of
being able to narrow down this many variables cannot be
overstated and it’s probably why the fuel trim video Dr. Ayman
Kamar linked to above is one of the most watched on my entire
channel and has even been used in some automotive schools as
part of their curriculum for students!!

Understanding the critical concept of fuel trims is not easy, and

it takes a lot of practice. You also have to thoroughly understand
how oxygen sensors (or Air/Fuel sensors) function and how the
engine measures air volume and manages fuel delivery. It’s a
good idea to connect your scantool and do various experiments
on the engine and see the impact on the fuel trim to get a better
understanding of the concept and why the PCM reacts as it does.
Sometimes it may even react in a way that seems
counterintuitive.

To best understand fuel trim, it might help to know how most

people misunderstand it- and this included myself at one time.
More than a decade ago when I first started to get interested in
automotive diagnostics as a hobby, I knew that oxygen sensors
have a low voltage when in a lean environment and a high
voltage when in a rich environment. But for the life of me I
could not understand why I never actually saw that! Time after
time I would see a car with a P0171 or P0174 “Oxygen sensor
lean” code and I would look on my scantool and there’s the
oxygen sensor still oscillating from .1V to .9V just like normal.
Why isn’t it flatlined at .1V? Or .25V for that matter? (Hopefully
you know from the O2 sensor chapter why you would not expect

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 94
to see an O2 sensor flat at anything other than .1V or .9V in
response to a lean or rich condition). Eventually, I started
experimenting with trying to make the sensor go rich or lean so I
could try to figure out what I was missing. So one day I pulled a
small vacuum hose off the intake knowing this should make the
engine run lean. Sure enough, the O2 sensor immediately went
to .1V. Upon seeing this, I reconnected the vacuum hose and the
O2 sensor immediately shot up in voltage and soon returned
right back to oscillating as normal. I of course didn’t think
anything of the high voltage response- I just thought it was
equilibrating. It wasn’t until one day, just by accident, I left the
vacuum hose off the engine for about 30 seconds, and it stayed
lean as expected, but then to my amazement the oxygen sensor
suddenly returned to oscillating all on its own even with the
vacuum hose still unplugged. I of course wondered what sorcery
I was watching, especially after I removed another vacuum hose
and again the O2 sensor went to .1V and held there but after
another few seconds it once again returned to normal
oscillation. I then created a much larger vacuum leak and the
engine barely stayed idling. The O2 sensor of course went to .1V
but this time it stayed there. I noticed the engine seemed to run
better after a while, but I waited and waited for the O2 sensor to
magically return to oscillation like before, but it never did.
When I reconnected the larger vacuum hose (it was a brake
booster hose) immediately the O2 sensor shot up to .8V- held
there for a second or two, and then returned to normal
oscillation. I had a million questions. Why did the O2 sensor
always go to .1V whether I disconnected a large vacuum hose or

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 95
a small one? Why did the O2 sensor seem to fix itself with the
smaller vacuum hoses removed but not the large brake booster
hose? It was my research in answering these questions that I
stumbled upon something called “fuel trim” and my life forever
changed, as it has for many of my viewers.

The first thing I learned before I understood how the O2 sensor

“fixed” itself with the small vacuum leak is why the O2 sensor
did not seem to have a quantitative response to the size of the
vacuum leak. I learned (as hopefully you have in the O2 sensor
chapter in this book) that O2 sensors don’t reduce or increase
voltage proportionately to how lean or rich a condition is. If it’s
lean- it goes to .1V and if its rich it goes to .9V regardless of how
rich or lean the condition is, and thus the “narrow band”
terminology finally made total sense. But then I learned that the
PCM actually reacts to the O2 sensor low or high voltage by
adding or removing fuel to compensate for the lean or rich
condition and immediately I understood how the O2 sensor
“fixed” itself. I learned this adjustment is called ‘Fuel Trim’ and
a whole new world opened up. Things finally began to make
sense. I could now see that the reason those cars with lean or
rich codes showed normal O2 sensor oscillations- it is because
the PCM already corrected for the conditions with fuel trim. But
I still didn’t understand- if the PCM corrected for the condition,
why is there a check engine light on? And why does it keep
coming back if I clear the code? After months of researching this
and experimenting on my own car, it all finally made complete
sense.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 96
A car’s computer always wants to maintain that O2 sensor
oscillation because that means the engine is hovering near
stoichiometry (14.7 parts air to 1 part fuel). As described earlier
in the O2 sensor chapter, those oscillations are intentional as the
PCM adjusts fuel to create slightly lean and slightly rich
conditions to optimize catalytic converter activity. And it’s
pretty easy for the PCM to do this. It knows how much air is
coming in by using the MAF, MAP, TPS and in fact it even knows
the mass of the air coming in because it knows the temperature
of the air from the IAT. Since the PCM knows exactly how much
air there is at any given time, it also knows how much fuel to
add to make a 14.7:1 ratio and it adjusts fuel injector pulse to
provide that balance of fuel. But anytime there is an unexpected
change in this condition- oh…. I don’t know…. let’s say such as
that day when I removed that small vacuum line- the PCM
didn’t “know” that I did this. Yet, it somehow still corrected for
it. When a vacuum line is disconnected, more air enters the
engine than what is being measured. That means the amount of
fuel the PCM was commanding is no longer sufficient for a 14.7:1
ratio. There is too much air for the amount of fuel- a lean
condition. This means the exhaust gas from the combustion will
now contain more oxygen and the O2 sensor will respond with a
voltage of .1V. The PCM sees this, and it knows that if it’s going
to get that O2 sensor back to oscillating, it has to add more fuel
(it can’t do it by reducing the amount of air). So this is exactly
what it does. It will increase the injector pulse width more and
more until the O2 sensor finally indicates the balance has been
restored. This increase in pulse width is known as “short term

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 97
fuel trim” (STFT) and the more fuel that is being added, the
higher the STFT. STFT is measured as a percentage over what
should normally be required for the engine. An STFT of 15%
means that 15% more fuel is required to correct for the lean
condition. An STFT of 25% means that 25% more fuel is required
to restore balance. The STFT will keep increasing and increasing
until that O2 sensor gets off that .1V flatline. At some point
though, there is a limit to how much fuel the PCM will add
because otherwise it would get to the point the injectors are just
always open and the engine would just flood. Ahhhh Ha!!!!!
That’s why when I removed that large brake booster hose, the
O2 sensor never returned to oscillation and stayed at .1V-
because the vacuum leak was so large the PCM reached its limit.
It couldn’t add enough fuel to “fix” the flatline at .1V for such a
large leak.

It also made sense why every time I reconnected the vacuum

hose, the O2 sensor voltage immediately shot up to .8V before
returning to oscillation. During the lean condition, the STFT
corrected it by adding fuel. But then all of the sudden the lean
condition is gone because I reconnected the vacuum hose. The
car doesn’t know this though- all it knows is now the exhaust is
suddenly rich. This is because in reconnecting that vacuum hose,
that extra unmetered air is now gone, and normal air intake is
restored. But the PCM is still adding extra fuel! So now the
exhaust has less oxygen than before. The O2 sensor responds
with an output of .8V. The PCM sees this and reacts by reducing
injector pulse width until fuel is restricted to the point balance is
restored. This reduction in fuel is also commanded by the STFT

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 98
and the number will lower back to where it was before the
vacuum leak (STFT=0).

So, in our vacuum leak example, we know in a lean condition

the PCM’s Short Term Fuel Trim command reacts to the low O2
sensor voltage by adding fuel until stoichiometry is restored and
that amount of extra fuel added is reported as a percentage.
But what if instead of creating a vacuum leak we did the
opposite and created a rich condition by adding unmetered fuel
instead of unmetered air. We could do this by adding some
propane into the intake. The PCM has no idea we are doing this
of course- it can’t possibly measure propane coming through the
intake. So if we do this, the cylinder combustion will now have
more fuel then before – which means there is less oxygen, and
when the oxygen sensor sees less oxygen in the exhaust, the
voltage will increase to .8V. NOW the PCM sees something is
wrong. It doesn’t know what is wrong, it just sees there is a rich
exhaust and thus there must no longer be a 14.7:1 air:fuel ratio.
Again, the PCM can only control fuel delivery- so it will decrease
injector pulsewidth to reduce the amount of fuel until
stoichiometry is again achieved. Because the STFT is subtracting
fuel- the percentages will show as being negative numbers. If
15% fuel is being removed to correct the condition, the STFT will
show -15%. If the PCM needs to subtract 25% of the fuel
delivery, it will show -25%. In either case, whether correcting a
lean condition or a rich condition, the STFT will go positive or
negative to add or reduce fuel delivery to reestablish
stoichiometric balance and keep that O2 sensor oscillating. The
STFT is constantly reacting at all times and under all conditions

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 99
to do this. Now, once the STFT succeeds in finding that “sweet
spot” to correct a rich or lean condition- the STFT will “lock in”
on whatever that exact point is and assign that setting into the
PCM memory so that the PCM knows to adjust fuel for that
condition by default instead of depending on STFT. This
“learned” default setting is called Long Term Fuel Trim (LTFT).
LTFT remains as a fixed setting unless the condition changes
again. LTFT is retained even between drive cycles- it is only ever
reset if the PCM is cleared, if the battery is disconnected for a
long enough time, or if the STFT sets a new LTFT position.

So now let’s go all the way back and re-examine my initial

confusion many years ago with cars that had P0171/P0174 codes
and my vacuum leak experiments, and it all comes together
beautifully. Now it is clear that when a car comes in with
“P0171 Oxygen sensor Lean Bank 1” and “P0174 Oxygen Sensor
Lean bank 2” codes, we know why the Oxygen sensors show
normal oscillation. Let’s say a car with these two codes comes in
and it has a bad fuel pump so it’s running lean because the fuel
pump is not delivering enough fuel to meet the 14.7:1 ratio. We
of course don’t know this. we just know the check engine light is
on and those codes show. We verify the codes and look at the
O2 sensors and they are oscillating normally but now we know
to expect that, and this tells us we don’t have an O2 sensor
problem. So, we look at Bank 1 and Bank 2 STFT and LTFT next
because we expect that the PCM has corrected for the issue
through fuel trim by adding more fuel and it’s the high LTFT
number that is actually setting the check engine code. What will
we expect to see? We would expect to see that the STFT’s are

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 100
near 0% and the LTFT’s are probably going to be a little high at
idle- maybe 10% but they will go really high- over 25%- at higher
engine RPM. Why is that? Because when the fuel pump first
started to fail and not meet fuel demand for the air/fuel ratio
under the baseline injector pulsewidth, the O2 sensor started to
read lean (.1V) and stay there. The PCM reacted via STFT to
increase injector pulsewidth and add more fuel until the O2
sensor responded. Let’s say at idle this was 10% more fuel
required but under load, 25% more fuel was required since more
fuel is needed under load which strained the weak pump more
so than at idle. Because at idle the PCM has “learned” from the
STFT that 10% more fuel corrects the condition, the PCM sets the
LTFT to 10% at idle. This means the STFT can return to zero for
that condition because the PCM is adding that fuel by default
now via LTFT. This allows the STFT to “hunt” for new settings if
conditions change again. But in the higher load condition-
maybe at 2000 RPM, the STFT has found that 25% more fuel is
needed to equilibrate. The LTFT sets at 25% for that specific
condition and STFT returns to zero. On most cars an LTFT of 25%
or more sets the check engine light code for the lean condition.
At 2200RPM there may be even more of an LTFT setting-
perhaps 28% and again the STFT returns to zero when that LTFT
setting locks in. Maybe at 3500RPM and heavy load the STFT
calls for 35% more fuel which is the maximum the PCM allows
and that still doesn’t meet the demand. In this case, LTFT will be
set at 35% but the STFT will not return to zero, as it is still
seeking to equilibrate the condition. Maybe with LTFT at 35%
and STFT at 10%, the O2 sensor returns to oscillation. Or maybe

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 101
the leak is so bad that an LTFT maxed out at 35% and STFT
maxed out at 35% still doesn’t do it and the O2 sensor never
returns to oscillation. By adding the short term and long term
trims we can get a “total fuel trim” number which gives a better
indication of the actual fuel trim. If the STFT is still correcting a
condition even after an LTFT is set, the total fuel trim may give a
more accurate representation of actual fuel addition for that
condition. I once saw a car with total fuel trims of 100 (LTFT at
50% and STFT at 50%). This wasn’t caused by a vacuum leak, but
rather by a failed O2 sensor that was always stuck at .1V and the
PCM tried to bring it up by adding max fuel but couldn’t. Even
though the fuel trims indicated a massively lean condition, the
engine actually was running extremely rich! That is because the
engine didn’t actually have a lean condition from excess air, so
the fuel addition was not balancing the mixture- it was making it
extremely rich. This is called a ”false lean” condition. Air leaks in
the exhaust in front of an O2 sensor can do the exact same thing
as oxygen entering the exhaust from the leak causes the O2
sensor to report lean, but it isn’t from excess air in the
combustion mix.

Fuel trim can also be useful to determine if the car is fixed after
a repair. Once the fuel pump is replaced in our example above,
fuel delivery returns to normal. However, remember the PCM is
still defaulting to that long term fuel trim with increased injector
pulsewidth to deliver more fuel from the lean condition. Well,
now that the new fuel pump is delivering fuel properly, this
means that far more fuel will be added to the combustion and
the engine will run very rich. The O2 sensor detects this and

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 102
shows a high voltage which triggers the STFT that was sitting at
around zero to now go negative to reduce fuel until the O2
sensor returns to operation. In our example above, this means at
idle we will now see STFT go to -10% at idle, -25% at 2000RPM,
and -35% at 3500RPM and eventually the LTFT will follow suit
and return to zero and of course the STFT will then return to
zero now that the LTFT baseline is set. Just seeing the sharp
reduction of STFT on the scantool confirms the new fuel pump
fixed the lean condition.

4.1 – fuel injection system

• PCM receives data from
-MAF (Mass airflow sensor
-IAT (Intake air temperature sensor)
-MAP (Manifold absolute pressure sensor)
-TPS (Throttle Position Sensor)
To detect how much air entered the engine.
• PCM receives data from O2S1 (Oxygen upstream
sensor 1) or A/F sensor (Air fuel ratio sensor) to
detect oxygen & hydrocarbons in the exhaust to
adjust fuel trims.
• The concept of fuel trims is identical in both
O2S1 & A/F SENSOR.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 103
• O2S2 (Oxygen downstream sensor 2) to verify
the optimal activity of the catalytic converter.
• Stoichiometric ratio is Air:Fuel=14.7:1
important for high performance & fuel economy
• PCM uses data from sensors to calculate the
amount of fuel needed to be added to stay in
stoichiometry.
• Fuel regulation via pulse width of fuel injectors.

4.2 -FUEL TRIMS definitions

Short-term fuel trim (STFT % )
Percentage of deviation from a normal amount of
fuel added controlled by PCM to maintain
stoichiometric ratio AFR

Long-term fuel trim (LTFT % )

Steady-state after the change in STFT % and become
new state till a new change in STFT and change again
to newer state and so on to keep stoichiometric ratio
AFR
• Normal range of LTFT & STFT is from -10% to
+10%
• DTC appears if LTFT over +25% or less than -25

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 104
4.3 - RELATION BETWEEN O2S1 & LTFT & STFT
In Case a Vacuum leak
⇨Increase unmetered air ⇨ Lean O2S1
⇨ increase STFT to compensate for air from the leak
⇨ ⇈ STFT= ⇈ Fuel ⇨ ⇈ LTFT until stoichiometry reached.
⇨ 14.7:1 Air fuel ratio⇨ normal O2S1⇨ normal STFT
BUT LTFT remains at corrected position.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 105

Fix the Vacuum leak

⇨stop unmetered Air ⇨ rich o2s1
⇨STFT decrease due to rich condition
⇨⇊ Fuel ⇨ -⇊LTFT ⇨ New steady state of LTFT at
0%
⇨ Normal Air fuel ratio⇨ normal O2S1⇨ normal
STFT

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 106

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 107
4.4 - DIAGNOSIS BY O2S1 & LTFT & STFT

CODE P0171 Engine runs lean bank1.

• STFT = 0%
• LTFT = +25%
• O2S1 = 0.1 V.
POSSIBLE CAUSES

A- AIR VACUUM LEAK

• increasing RPM led to increase “Air intake”.

• % of unmetered air from leak to all “Air
intake” will be decreased.
• So LTFT decreases to normal value.
• If RPM decreased this will lead to increase
LTFT again

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 108
B- WEAK FUEL PUMP

• Increase RPM ⇨ More Fuel Demand ⇨ increase

Fuel Trim to overcome the weakness of the fuel
pump.
• Testing fuel pump pressure is best diagnosis.

C- MAF DIRTY OR MALFUNCTION

• Increasing RPM leads to Increase unmetered air
intake so will be increasing fuel trims- looks
identical to bad fuel pump!!

CASE OF V ENGINE

• LTFT1 =+25% & LTFT2 = 0% ⇨ CAUSE IS VACUUM

LEAK
• LTFT1 = +25% & LTFT2 = +25% ⇨ CAUSE MAY BE
ONE OF A or B or C

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 109
Fuel Trim Diagnostic Tip for Experts- Freeze
Frame Data

• One of the first things I will do on a check engine

light is pull up the “Freeze Frame” data. This is a
snapshot of the generic data at the time the check
engine light code has been set. Just looking at the
freeze frame can give you a major clue as to the
cause of the code. For example, say there is a P0171
code on a 6 cylinder engine and the freeze frame
data shows the following data:
LTFT B1=+27
STFT B1 =+2
LTFT B2 =+23
STFT B2= +1.5
TPS=.5V
MAP: 7.8
RPM=750
IAC: 0 counts
Vehicle Speed=0MPH
Engine Load= 15%
Coolant Temp= 205F

• I know right where I am going first: vacuum leak

affecting whole engine. I am going to set up live data
with just STFT and LTFT on the scantool in graph
format and I am going to increase RPM and watch for

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 110
the fuel trims to drop with RPM proving it’s a vacuum
leak and then I am going to check for any potential
vacuum leak that would affect BOTH banks.
• First- why am I suspecting a whole engine issue
when there is only a code for Bank 1 (P0171 versus
P0171 & P0174)? Because look at that LTFT on Bank
2. It’s 23 which is sky high but just under what is
needed to set a check engine light for that bank. Why
am I suspecting a vacuum leak as opposed to a fuel
pump or dirty MAF sensor? Because look at the RPM,
engine load, TPS (Throttle Position Sensor) and
vehicle speed. This car was sitting still at idle when
the light set from the high fuel trim which indicates
vacuum leak. Here’s another clue- look at the IAC
(Idle Air Control) which is sitting at zero. The IAC is
fully closed, indicating it is trying to limit airflow to
keep the idle speed down. We can see since there is a
MAP reading but no MAF, this is a MAP-only (speed
density) engine and on a MAP-only engine, a vacuum
leak increases engine speed. Everything points to a
vacuum leak affecting the whole engine here.
• Use the freeze frame to “cheat” and get an idea of
the issue before you even collect live data!

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 111
CHAPTER 5
ENGINE SYSTEMS

5.1- Air Injection Reaction System (A.I.R)

Secondary Air Injection System

Videos link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rantuJlJtdc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjfqwjUezPI

A.I.R. injects air into the exhaust to warm up the catalytic converters sooner for better efficiency.

Catalytic
open loop
In cold
Increase temp.
Air injected
until catalytic is
in the
warm.
upstream
way burns
with rich air.

Stop air
Closed
injection.
loop

Air Valve controlled by vacuum which is controlled by Solenoid

Any problem in the system cause DTC
switch over valve controlled from PCM

Secondary air pump controlled from PCM

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 112
• AIR System Tests:

1- AIR PUMP Test by applying 12V.

2. AIR Control Valve Test by applying vacuum

using a vacuum pump. If the vacuum stands,
valve is good.
3. Solenoid Switchover Valve Test Apply 12V
while under vacuum. If it clicks and vacuum
drops, that means it works.
• AIR leak smoke test to check all hoses and valves.
CASE RELATED

AIR PUMP SUBARU

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/subaru-air-pump-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/subaru-air-pump-part-2

P0410/P0300 SECONDARY AIR &RANDOM MISFIRE TAHOE 2001

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jl52bAEGzlM&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64
BgpyZVNryKv5&index=42

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DJFrCtigrZU&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64B
gpyZVNryKv5&index=41

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 113
5.2 -The Evaporative Emission System (EVAP)
Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LYifnstYsx4

• Designed to store and dispose of fuel vapors before they are

released into the atmosphere. Not only does this help the
environment, but it also helps fuel efficiency and keeps the
gasoline smell out of interior.
• These systems are designed to store and dispose of fuel vapors.
• Evap vent solenoid is normally open on most designs.
• Evap purge solenoid normally closed on most designs.
• Usually, solenoids are pulse width modulated to open more or
less depending on engine conditions.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 114

HOW PCM TESTS EVAP SYSTEM

1-TYPE 1 system without evap pump

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 115
• Conditions: a cold start engine & Fuel level from
15% to 85%.
• PCM seals the system by closing evap vent
solenoid.
• PCM opens the purge solenoid and leads to a
vacuum from the engine which draws a vacuum
on the system.
• PCM measures vacuum by fuel tank pressure
sensor until it reaches the desired threshold;
PCM closes purge solenoid and completely seals
the system.
• PCM detects decay in that vacuum in a certain
period of time to decide whether it is due to a
small leak or a large leak.
• If the vacuum is lost relatively quickly that
indicates a large leak, if it's lost over a much
longer period of time, it is a small leak.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 116
2-TYPE 2 System with Evap Pump

• PCM seals system by closing all solenoids.

• PCM activates the pump to fill the system with air and
pressurized it to a certain point measured by the fuel
tank pressure sensor and then turns off the pump.
• PCM determines the decay in the pressure. If the
pressure is lost slowly, it will call a small leak and if the
pressure is lost quickly, it will cause a large leak.
• PCM detects any malfunction in solenoids.
MOST COMMON RELATED DTC

• P0442 - Small leak detected.

• P0445 - System leak detected.
• P0440 - EVAP System
• P0446 - EVAP Vent solenoid valve control

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 117
system
• P0411 - EVAP system control incorrect purge
flow

Case related.

• Gas Pump Shuts Off When Filling Tank -DIY

Diagnosis & Repair

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xHbDzWfBzk&t=31s

back to contents

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 118
5.3 - Fuel pressure regulator (FPR)
VIDEO LINK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTK9-DoGIVY

• Older style Fuel pressure regulator is

vacuum-operated spring-loaded diaphragm
that enables a vehicle's fuel delivery system
to keep a constant pressure.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 119
• At Idle: Vacuum from engine causes FPR
to open allowing more fuel to return to tank
via the return line. Leads to decreased fuel
pressure to injectors (50PSI on most cars).
• At LOAD: Less vacuum from engine caused
lead to close FPR thus restricting fuel return
to tank and increase fuel pressure to
injectors. Each injector pulse delivers more
fuel if under higher pressure.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 120
5.4 -Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
VIDEOS LINK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AVC8qBwQlRw&t=42s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3ob7cqOtXY&t=12s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQL7Wp7RaYc&t=9s

• The EGR system reduces NOx production by

circulating small amounts of exhaust gases
into the intake manifold where it mixes with
the incoming air/fuel charge. By diluting the
air/fuel mixture under these conditions,
peak combustion temperatures and
pressures are reduced, resulting in an
overall reduction of NOx output.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 121
• TYPES OF EGR VALVES

1- Vacuum controlled EGR

• PCM Controls activation of a solenoid that opens to

allow engine vacuum to pull open EGR valve.
• PCM receives data from the EGR pressure sensor and
EGR temperature sensor.
• Test by applying vacuum to EGR valve directly. If
engine stumbles, valve is working. If engine does not
react, valve is not working, or passage may be clogged.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 122
2- Electronic EGR valve

• EGR valve is controlled directly by PCM.

Note:
1. This type of valve is pulsewidth-controlled
usually by PCM ground side switching.
2. Can be tested similar to vacuum controlled-
apply voltage and ground to valve and
engine should react.
3. Usually also contains a potentiometer to
report actual valve position.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 123
5.5 -The Variable Valve Timing System
VIDEOS LINK
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-basics-of-variable-valve-timing-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-basics-of-variable-valve-timing-part-2/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-basics-of-variable-valve-timing-part-3/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-basics-of-variable-valve-timing-part-4/

• The VVT system influences the timing of the

valves with the help of a phase shifter found at
the head of the camshaft. This part is activated
by the engine control unit with oil flow
controlled by the solenoid valve. Basically, VVT
works by changing angle of the camshaft.
• The main advantages of this system are:
1. Reduced fuel consumption

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 124
2. Increased torque and power
3. Reduced emissions

• The VVT system is used to increase engine

torque in the low engine speed range and to
increase power in the high engine speed
range.
• The VVT system means that we may control the
closing and opening times of inlet and exhaust
valves.
• The VVT system is used in place of an EGR
(exhaust gas recirculation)
• Names used for the system varies from
manufacturer to manufacturer, and, although
there may be minor differences, the principle of
operation is practically the same:
1. Honda: VTEC
2. Toyota: VVT-i
3. BMW: VANOS
4. Ford: Ti-VCT
5. Kia-Hyundai: CVVT
6. Porsche: VARIO CAM

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 125

5.5.1 THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF A VVT SYSTEM

1. PCM
2. Camshaft position sensors
3. Cam phaser
4. Camshafts
5. VVT Solenoid valves
6. Oil line

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 126

• The components of a cam phaser

1. Inner rotor: this part is attached to the camshaft.
2. Outer housing (outer rotor): this part is attached
to engine timing sprocket.
3. Galleries (chambers): these are actively filled
with oil on one side or the other of the inner
rotor blades. This rotates the inner rotor
compared to the outer housing, advancing, or
retarding the times at which the valves open.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 127

• The components of the solenoid valve

1. Oil supply line

2. Oil return
3. Oil lines to camshaft
4. Piston
5. Solenoid coil
6. Electrical connector
• VVT solenoid is a part of the variable valve timing
system that manages the oil flow depending on the
engine speed and load.
• VVT solenoid in good working condition improves
performance and fuel efficiency.
• VVT solenoid works with oil pressure, using directions
from the PCM to alter the rotation of the camshaft.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 128
5.5.2 VVT SOLENOID VALVE POSITIONS
1. SOLENOID IN ‘ON HOLD’ POSITION

• The camshafts have camshaft position sensors to tell the

control unit their exact position with respect to the
crankshaft. This way, the control unit can decide the
position of the solenoid valve that is needed at each
moment. It calculates this by comparing input signals (such
as engine speed, throttle position, etc.) with the maps it
has memorized. When the desired advance is reached, the
solenoid is placed in the on-hold position. Thus, it blocks
the oil flow in both directions, in turn holding the camshaft
at a certain angle compared to the camshaft sprocket.
• When the engine is running at an intermediate speed or in
other specific situations, the control unit can figure out an
‘intermediate advance’ position of the camshaft for best
engine operation at that time.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 129

2. SOLENOID IN ‘RETARD’ POSITION

• When the engine is idling, the solenoid valve moves its

internal plunger. This allows oil to flow through to fill one
side of the galleries, while it allows oil to return to the
sump from the other sides. The result is they will open a
little later in the engine cycle.
• It also saves fuel: the engine can continue to run smoothly,
without the idle speed having to be raised.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 130
3. SOLENOID IN ‘ADVANCE’ POSITION

• At high engine speeds, the solenoid moves to the opposite

position. This reverses the oil flow and causes the camshaft
to move to its maximum ‘advanced’ position.
• When the engine is running at high rpm, the cylinder takes
much less time to fill up. So, if we advance the opening of
the valve, we make sure that inlet gas begins to enter the
cylinder even before the piston has reached T.D.C. By
advancing the opening, the closing is also advanced, of
course. But in this case, due to the engine speed, the
cylinder still has time to fill up enough, guaranteeing the
best performance.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 131
• COMMON VVT SOLENOID FAILURE SYMPTOMS
A - Rough Engine Idle
B - Check Engine Light
C - Misfiring engine under loads

▪ Contaminants in the engine oil are the main cause

of the failure of the VVT system.
▪ A failing unit will lead to rough engine idle and
low fuel economy.

P0010 "A" Camshaft Position Actuator Circuit

P0011 "A" Camshaft Position - Timing Over-Advanced or
System Performance
P0012 "A" Camshaft Position - Timing Over-Retarded
P0013 "B" Camshaft Position - Actuator Circuit
P0014 "B" Camshaft Position - Timing Over-Advanced or
System Performance
P0015 "B" Camshaft Position - Timing Over-Retarded
P0016 Crankshaft Position - Camshaft Position Correlation
P0017 Crankshaft Position - Camshaft Position Correlation
P0018 Crankshaft Position - Camshaft Position Correlation
P0019 Crankshaft Position - Camshaft Position Correlation

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 132
5.5.3 HOW TO TEST VVT SOLENOID
A- Test SOLENOID
• Disconnect solenoid.
• Operate it manually by putting 12v.
• If you noticed clicks that indicates solenoid
may be functioning, but still may be clogged
or not fully opening.
• Try to clean solenoid from clogs.

B – Test wiring from PCM

• Should you suspect a fault with the signal,
test the wiring from the Powertrain Control
Module (PCM) to the VVT actuator.
• Disconnect solenoid.
• Connect test lamp.
• Turn on the engine.
• Rev to 3500 RPM
• If the lamp light is on that shows good
wiring

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 133

C- TESTING BY OSCILLOSCOPE & SCAN TOOL

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 134

• The switching frequency is dependent on

engine system variations at the time of
testing, temperature, RPM, etc.
• The switching frequency and duration will
also vary with different vehicle
manufacturers.
• It is commonly supplied with an ignition
live (12 V) and duty-cycled ground
provided by PCM.
• It has a duty cycle control from PCM.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 135
Cases related.
How to Check Valve Timing Without Dismantling Engine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LGTSsj39pRk&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=128

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfwqvHu1x7s&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=130

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q-I1Z0XheG0&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=130

P0012 VVT MUSTANG 05

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosing-yet-another-ford-vvt-issue-05-mustang-p0012-pt1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosing-yet-another-ford-vvt-issue-05-mustang-pt2/

VVT New Information, Case Study, and a Surprise

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/vvt-new-information-case-study-and-a-surprise/

back to contents

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 136
5.6 – Ignition System
Video links
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnoseunderstand-ignition-sys-pt1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnoseunderstand-ignition-sys-pt2a/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnoseunderstand-ignition-sys-pt2ab/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnoseunderstand-ignition-sys-pt3/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnoseunderstand-ignition-sys-pt4/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnoseunderstand-ignition-sys-pt5/

5.6.1 CONCEPT OF IGNITION COIL

• Uses a low-voltage, high current pole to create a high
voltage, low-current pole.
• This is conducted with two different coils of wire. The first
coil is the primary and the second coil is the secondary
• The primary is wound around a core for magnetic
amplification.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 137
5.6.2 WAVEFORM ANALYSIS
Videos link
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-ignition-waveforms-part-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-ignition-waveforms-part-2a/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnosis-and-understanding-ignition-waveforms-part-2b/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnose-understand-secondary-ignition-waveforms-part-3/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/diagnose-understand-secondary-ignition-waveforms-part-4/

• Beginning with waveform (segment A) this is the open-

circuit Voltage (source voltage) because the circuit has
not been completed.
• There’s no current flowing through the primary circuit at
this point.
• The voltage then drops when PCM is turned on because
completing the primary circuit to ground at (segment B)
• Once PCM closes the circuit, current starts to flow
through the primary coil circuit.
• When current flows through a coil, all the current is used
to create a magnetic field.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 138
• As the magnetic field builds, it moves across the
primary and secondary coils inducing a voltage in
both.
• The PCM commands off. This ends the current
flowing through the primary coil.
• The magnetic field then begins to fall across the
secondary coil.
• Leads to increasing the induction within the
secondary coil and the current, (segment G) being
pushed by a high voltage of up to 50kV. Moved to
the spark plug.
• Waveform of current

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 139
5.6.3 TYPES OF ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEMS
1- Wasted Spark Ignition System

• Multiple ignition coils are used – one for each

pair of cylinders.
• These ignition coils fire two spark plugs
simultaneously: one on the compression stroke
and one on the exhaust stroke.
• The spark delivered on the exhaust stroke called
a "waste spark" has no effect.
• This system has several advantages, including
fewer moving parts and more precise control of
spark timing.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 140
2 - Coil- On - Plug (COP) Ignition System

• An ignition coil directly on the top of each spark

plug, which supplies several benefits.
• Because each spark plug has its own dedicated
coil, these systems create hotter, high-voltage
sparks without high-voltage spark plug wires.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 141
2 WIRE COIL

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 142

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 143
5.7 – Engine cooling system
Videos link
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/mystery-coolant-loss-diagnosis-part-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/mystery-coolant-loss-diagnosis-part-2/

1- External Leak
• Radiator
• Radiator cap
• Hoses
• Water pump
• Overflow tank (expansion tank)
2- Internal leak
• Head gasket (compression test)
• Compression chamber (compression test)
• Heater core (under the dashboard)
• Intake manifold gasket leak

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 144
• Transmission oil cooler according to models two types:
1- Separated cooling system
2-integrated with engine cooling system

• Some models have an internal water pump integrated.

With Timing chain like (ford edge v6 3.5l & Taurus …….)

SYMPTOMS OF INTERNAL LEAK:

1- Increase the volume of engine oil

2- Change the color of engine oil to milkshake

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 145
3- Coolant bubbling

• Bubbling shows rising air pressure in the cooling

system.
• One of the most common causes is a blown head
gasket, in which the air pressure inside the
cylinder heads is transferred to the cooling
system.
• Must make a compression test for each cylinder.

4 – Change the color of the transmission oil to a

strawberry milkshake
Water in the transmission fluid is highly
destructive. Contamination of the friction plates in
the transmission will result in the transmission no
longer being able to shift into any gears.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 146

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 147
5.8 – Air Conditioning System
VIDEOS LINK
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/ac-diagnostics-part-1/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/ac-diagnostics-part-2/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/ac-diagnostics-part-3/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/inside-the-box-ac-diagnosis/
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/ac-component-replacement-procedures/

• COMPRESSOR converts LOW-PRESSURE GAS to HIGH-

PRESSURE GAS.
• CONDENSER converts HIGH-PRESSURE GAS to HIGH-
PRESSURE LIQUID.
• EXPANSION VALVE converts HIGH-PRESSURE LIQUID to LOW-
PRESSURE LIQUID (low temperature).
• EVAPORATIVE converts LOW-PRESSURE LIQUID to LOW-
PRESSURE GAS.
• RECEIVER \ DRIER removes moisture and has
refrigerant Oil.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 148

IF THE COMPRESSOR CLUTCH WON’T ENGAGE:

1- The clutch fuse is blown
The cause of a blown clutch fuse is a short to ground.
2 - The clutch relay is faulty

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 149
3- Low pressure shows a low refrigerant charge

HIGH/LOW-PRESSURE TRANSDUCER prevents clutch

engagement.
To protect the AC compressor from damage

4-Thermal fuse or flow control valve is not working or is

blown
The computer checks the flow control valve to ensure
proper refrigerant flow.
If it is clogged, the computer won’t energize the clutch coil.
Likewise, the thermal fuse is used to prevent the clutch
from engaging when the compressor reaches an unsafe
threshold heat level.

5- AC compressor clutch problem

6- low/high-pressure switches or pressure transducer

The low-pressure switch is installed on the low-pressure
line or right on the accumulator.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 150
TESTING SWITCH

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 151

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 152
CHAPTER 6

NO START ENGINE

6.1 - Crank No start

Video link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LuRI8bjjNho&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=25
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oq_LVrhIL6s&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=26
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjwQNT5ExOU&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=27
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MO2cDvDwPp0&list=PLKQS2gNIDMgjECVudYH64BgpyZVNryKv5&index=81

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 153
FASTTEC
Fuel AIR SPARK TIMING (mechanical) TIMING (ignition) EXHAUST
COMPRESSION

1 - FUEL
• Fuel delivery problem

• First simple test:

Using starting fluid. You can simply spray the fluid

in the air intake and try to start the car. If the engine

runs for a moment and shuts down, you have

confirmed there is a problem with fuel delivery.

1-Fuel Pump problem

• Fuse: check fuel pump fuse in fuse box

• Relay: check relay in fuse box (see section 1.10 )

• Alarm system problem PCM prevent fuel pump to work.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 154
• Weak fuel pump: Test by a fuel pressure gauge (See section 5.3)
• Wiring problem open circuit or voltage drop (see section 1.6)

2 - Fuel Injectors problem

• Dirty or Bad multiple injectors

• Wiring problem
• Alarm system PCM prevents injectors from working.
• Crankshaft position sensor problem (see section 3.9)
• Camshaft position sensor problem (see section 3.9)
• Throttle Position Sensor: (see section 3.3)
Holding the accelerator pedal to the floor while cranking an
engine intentionally disables fuel on many vehicles. This is
called “clear-flood mode”. If throttle position sensor (TPS)
sticks in a position that indicates to the PCM that the throttle
is wide open, it may put the vehicle in clear-flood mode
preventing the fuel injectors from firing.

3 - Bad Fuel Filter

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 155
2 – Air

1 – Malfunctioning idle air control valve (IAC)

2 - Throttle position sensor problem: (see section 3.3)

Restrict the airflow into the engine.

3 - Clogged Air Filter

4 - Malfunctioning MAF Sensor (see section 3.1)

Disconnecting MAF will force engine to use

“substituted values” for MAF that may allow engine to

start and run in event of a MAF unit failure.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 156
3 - Spark
1 - Worn Spark Plugs

2 - Bad Ignition Coils or Coil Pack (see section 5.6)

3 - Wiring problem

4 - Alarm system problem PCM prevent injectors to work

5 -Crankshaft position sensor problem (see section 3.9)

6 -Camshaft position sensor problem (see section 3.9)

4 – Timing (Ignition)
1. Ignition switch problem
2. Alarm system/Anti theft
3. Worn or damaged Reluctor Ring or sensor with
improper gap/position.
4. Incorrectly installed distributor.
5. On vehicles with crank reluctor on harmonic
balancer- balancer may have shifted or key may be
worn allowing balancer to slip.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 157
5 – Timing (Mechanical)

1. Loose Timing Belt

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/timing-belt-job-considerations-procedures/

2. Misaligned Crankshaft Pulley

3. Misaligned Camshaft Gear
4. Broken timing chain tensioner or guide
5. Twisted crank or camshaft
6. Worn cam lobes.

6 – Exhaust

• Clogged catalytic converter.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 158
7 – Compression
1 - Loose or broken Timing Belt

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/timing-belt-job-considerations-procedures/

2 – Blown head gasket

12 Ways of How to Test a Blown Head Gasket

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uVn-IDi7da8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwiIpTIrBaE

3 - Worn Piston Rings

• compression test:

Pressure readings are usually above 100 PSI.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 159
Cases
• CRANK NO START CIVIC 99
https://schrodingersboxqm.com/1999-civic-crank-no-start-diagnosis-part-1/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/1999-civic-crank-no-start-diagnosis-part-2/

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/1999-civic-crank-no-start-diagnosis-part-3/

• DIY -How to Diagnose No Spark No Start. Bad Crank Sensor?

FREE SBQM VIDEO
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucGPjmBR6gQ&t=43s

• Cranking No-Start Real Time Diagnosis -Ford Focus

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2upDh6-FMo&t=71s

• Crank No Start That No One Could Fix SBQM Free Video!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMztyQnkHG8&t=806s

• No Start Diagnosis: My way is WRONG! A Better Method??

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6LuAPVgq9E&t=260s

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 160

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 161
6.2 - No Crank No start
Video link

https://schrodingersboxqm.com/no-crank-no-start-2000-trans-am/

CAUSES : 1- Dead battery

• Check battery terminals.

• Check voltage at the battery, it must be over 10v.

• Causes of dead battery:
1 - A bad battery
2 - A bad alternator
3 - A parasitic draw (Battery Drains Overnight)
SEE VIDEOS BELOW
Improved Methods to Find Parasitic Draw (Battery Drains Overnight)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRso1A0VScw
Diagnosing a car battery that drains overnight.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VcRG-XBzk7U

2 – Bad starter check terminals and starter

3 – Bad ignition switch back to contents

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 162
CHAPTER 7

CAR HISTORY
The history of cars dates to the late 19th century when the first
automobiles were invented. The development of cars can be traced
through various milestones and advancements in technology.

In 1886, Karl Benz is credited with building the first practical

automobile powered by an internal combustion engine. This marked
the beginning of the modern automobile industry. Shortly after,
other inventors and companies started producing their own versions
of automobiles.

The early 20th century saw significant advancements in car

manufacturing. Henry Ford introduced the assembly line production
system, which revolutionized the industry by making cars more
affordable and accessible to the public. This led to the mass
production of automobiles and the establishment of major car
companies like Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler.

Throughout the 20th century, cars continued to evolve with

advancements in design, engineering, and technology. The
introduction of features like electric starters, hydraulic brakes, and
automatic transmissions made driving safer and more convenient.
The 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of iconic car designs and the
introduction of muscle cars, which became popular among car
enthusiasts.

In recent decades, the focus has shifted towards making cars more
fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly. Hybrid and electric
vehicles have gained popularity as alternatives to traditional
gasoline-powered cars. Additionally, advancements in autonomous
driving technology have paved the way for self-driving cars, which
are expected to shape the future of the automotive industry.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 163
1886 – The first car is invented
Karl Benz invented the first true automobile in the 19th
century. It was powered by an internal combustion engine
and had three wheels.

1908 – Ford produced Model T

Ford’s Model T was the world’s first car produced by
assembly line. This great leap in technology made the car
much cheaper and therefore more affordable,

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 164
1911 – Electric ignition starters
Electric ignition starters were invented to replace manual
hand cranks and to start the engine with a button instead.
The first electric starter was used on a Cadillac in 1912 and
they were soon widely adopted.

1930 – Car radio

The first car stereo was created in 1930 in monophonic AM
frequency.

1949 - Car keys

Looking for a better way to get the car running, Chrysler
invented a technology to start both the electric starter and
the ignition. It placed this power inside a key and soon
everyone was using one.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 165
1951 – Power steering
Power steering first appeared on a Chrysler Imperial

1953 – Air conditioning

The Chrysler Imperial was the first production car to have
air conditioning as an option.

1958 – Cruise control

Cruise control is a system developed to allow the driver to
maintain a constant speed without the use of the
accelerator. It was first used in another Chrysler Imperial

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 166
1959 – Seatbelts
The modern three-pin seatbelt was invented by Nils Bohlin,
Volvo’s first safety engineer. Volvo decided to give away
the patent to other carmakers for free,

1969 – Intermittent windshield wipers

Until this point, windscreen wipers had only had one
speed, no matter the weather. Ford changed this to adjust
the speed.

1971 – ABS technology

ABS or Anti-Lock Braking System, is a clever technology
that stops the wheels locking up during sharp braking,
preventing skidding. It was originally used on trains and
Concorde aircraft, before being adapted for a Chrysler
Imperial.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 167
1973 – Catalytic converter
This technology was designed to clean up polluting
exhaust fumes by reducing toxic emissions created by the
engine. Catalytic converters became compulsory in petrol
cars from 1993.

1974 – Digital dashboard displays

Move over analogue dials! The first digital dashboard
display appeared in an Aston Martin Lagonda. It included
trip computers, speed and temperature readings and fuel
economy measures.

1992 – Electromagnetic parking sensors

Electromagnetic parking sensors alert you to hazards
when parking. They were “re-invented” from previous
technology that hadn’t taken off in the 1970s.

1996 – On-board diagnostics II

OBD-II became the nationwide standard in 1996.
The standard OBD-II specifies the diagnostic connector
and the corresponding pinout has electrical signal
protocols and includes a messaging format.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 168
1996 – Connected cars
General Motors launched connected cars with its OnStar
system, which used your mobile phone to call 911 in an
accident. Today the technology links with the phones’ GPS
location to guide the emergency services straight to the
car.
2000 – GPS sat nav
There were versions of GPS sat nav systems built in from
the early 90s, but the US military added interference to the
signals as they guarded the technology closely. In 2000,
US President Bill Clinton ordered the military to stop
scrambling GPS signals and open the technology up to
everyone. Sat navs were quickly developed, though it was
several more years before they were more accurate.

2000 – Hybrid cars

Adding a hybrid motor to a petrol engine was first dreamed
up in the 19th century, but the idea was deemed
unworkable. Toyota picked it up again at the turn of the
century and invented the Prius, taking the world by storm.
Today every carmaker is working on hybrid cars.

2002 – Reversing camera

This technology has prevented many a reversing mishap.
Little cameras stream live footage of the area behind the
car as you reverse. The technology was first used outside
of America in a Nissan Primera.

Confidential - Company Proprietary

 169
2003 – Automatic parking
Toyota was first to launch this tech with its Intelligent
Parking Assist that helped drivers parallel park. In 2006,
Lexus added a self-parking system to the LS model.
Automatic parking is now available on many new cars.

2020 – Self driving car

Waymo became the first service provider to offer
driverless taxi rides to the general public.

2023- Schrodinger`s Box Advanced DIY Auto

Diagnostics & Repair
Thank you for completing the book. We hope that you have
gained a comprehensive understanding of the subject
matter and are now equipped with the knowledge and skills
to excel in the field of auto diagnostics.
www.schrodingersboxQM.com

Confidential - Company Proprietary