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Microorganisms for Sustainability 47
Series Editor: Naveen Kumar Arora

Aditya Khamparia
Babita Pandey
Devendra Kumar Pandey
Deepak Gupta Editors

Microbial Data
Intelligence and
Computational
Techniques
for Sustainable
Computing
Microorganisms for Sustainability

Volume 47

Series Editor
Naveen Kumar Arora, Environmental Microbiology, School for Environmental
Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Microorganisms have been in existence since the origin of life on earth and can
survive the most extreme habitats or conditions on earth. Microorganisms are
involved in regulating biogeochemical cycles, maintaining plant and animal health,
and sustaining the global food chain. Moreover, they play crucial roles in addressing
the challenges of climate change and achieving the targets of Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals (SDGs).
This multidisciplinary book series captures the role of microbes towards building
a sustainable world, while encompassing cutting-edge technologies and current
needs across various fields such as agriculture sustainability, bioremediation, resto-
ration of degraded habitats and wastelands, and food security. Additionally, this
series explores microbial applications in industries, and building their utilization in
clean and green energy solutions. Furthermore, themes like microbial secondary
metabolites, extremophilic microbes and modern omics, including next generation
sequencing and metagenomics, are also covered in this series.
With contributions from researchers across the globe, this series addresses the
important call of ‘One Planet-One Health-One Future’. It comprises a collection of
diverse volumes that provides insights for scientists, young researchers, educators
and decision‐makers in the government, private sector, and non‐governmental
organizations, empowering their efforts to achieve the global goals.
The series invites, evaluates, and accepts book proposals to ensure a diverse,
inclusive, and evolving program. The final decision regarding acceptance rests with
the series editor.
Peer-review
This book series follows a stratified review process. Proposals for individual
volumes are reviewed by the series editor and then the editorial board members. On a
case-to-case basis, external reviewers are also invited for further evaluation of the
book proposal. Review of the chapters is the responsibility of the volume editor(s). A
manuscript submission platform has been recently made available to the authors,
volume editors and the series editor.
Aditya Khamparia • Babita Pandey •
Devendra Kumar Pandey • Deepak Gupta
Editors

Microbial Data Intelligence

and Computational
Techniques for Sustainable
Computing
Editors
Aditya Khamparia Babita Pandey
Department of Computer Science Department of Computer Science
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
Amethi, Uttar Pradesh, India Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Devendra Kumar Pandey Deepak Gupta

School of Bioengineering and Biosciences Department of Computer Science
Lovely Professional University Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology
Phagwara, Punjab, India Delhi, Delhi, India

ISSN 2512-1901 ISSN 2512-1898 (electronic)

Microorganisms for Sustainability
ISBN 978-981-99-9620-9 ISBN 978-981-99-9621-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9621-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2024
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Preface

Microbes are ubiquitous in nature, and their interactions among each other is a key
strategy for colonizing diverse habitats. The core idea of sustainable computing is to
deploy algorithms, models, policies, and protocols to improve energy efficiency and
management of resources, enhancing ecological balance, biological sustenance, and
other services on societal contexts. This book offers a comprehensive intelligent and
computational techniques for microbial data associated with either plant microbe,
human microbes, etc. The readers will be able to understand the positive findings as
well as the negative findings obtained by the usage of computational AI and
distributed computing techniques for microbial data. It entails data extraction from
various sources followed by pre-processing of data, and how to make effective use of
extracted data for application-based research. The book also involves computer-
assisted tools for visualization and representation of complex microbial data. The
book explores the conventional methods as well as the most recently recognized
high-throughput technologies which are important for productive agroecosystems to
feed the growing global population.
The main reason behind the success rate of deep learning and biomedical data
analysis techniques is its ability to reason and learn in an environment of unique data
and real case studies. This book will focus on involvement of microbial data
intelligence assisted and plant treatment and care-driven intelligent computing
methods, state of arts, novel findings, and recent advances in different applications
and areas like drug and plant image classification with a wide range of theory and
methodologies has been investigated to tackle the complex and challenging
problems.
Gathering the contributions by active researchers in these fields, the book covers
the theories as well as important real-time practical considerations. This book also
includes the design of a set of AI hybrid algorithms in detail, showing how to use
them in practice to solve problems relating to genome and plant image classification,
data analysis, bioinformatics, and engineering control. It is intended as a reference
guide to advanced hybrid computational intelligence methods for graduate students
and researchers in applied mathematics and optimization, computer science, and

v
vi Preface

engineering. This book is of interest to teachers, researchers, microbiologist, com-

puter bioinformatics scientists, plant and environmental scientist, and those inter-
ested in environment stewardship around the world. The book also serves as an
additional reading material for undergraduate and graduate students of computer
science, biomedical, agriculture, human science, forestry, ecology, soil science, and
environmental sciences, and policymakers consider this a useful book to read.

Objective of the Book

The primary emphasis of this book is to introduce different computational

intelligence-assisted techniques, methodology, and intelligent algorithms applied
to categorize and classify microbial-assisted plant datasets. Gathering contributions
by active researchers in those fields, the book covers the theories as well as important
practical considerations. In turn, it provides an overview of microbial data-driven
image analysis, deep learning, computer vision, and chaotic optimization enabled
evaluation of the proposed solutions in the manufacturing sector and compares the
advantages and disadvantages related to the same. This book will endeavor to endow
with significant frameworks, theory, design methods, and the latest empirical
research findings in the area of intelligent computing.

Amethi, Uttar Pradesh, India Aditya Khamparia

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Babita Pandey
Phagwara, Punjab, India Devendra Kumar Pandey
Delhi, Delhi, India Deepak Gupta
Contents

1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:

Current Progress and Prospects for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Umesh Gupta, Ayushman Pranav, Anvi Kohli, Sukanta Ghosh,
and Divya Singh
2 Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . 25
Manoj Ram Tammina, K. Sumana, Pavitar Parkash Singh,
T. R. Vijaya Lakshmi, and Sagar Dhanraj Pande
3 Computer Vision-based Remote Care of Microbiological
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Pritesh Kumar Jain and Sandeep Kumar Jain
4 A Comparative Study of Various Machine Learning (ML)
Approaches for Fake News Detection in Web-based
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Mahabub Hasan Mahalat, Sushree Bibhuprada B. Priyadarshini,
Sandip Swain, Shobhit Sahoo, Atish Mohapatra, and Mangaldeep Das
5 Analytics and Decision-making Model Using Machine Learning
for Internet of Things-based Greenhouse Precision Management
in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Ashay Rokade, Manwinder Singh, Anudeep Goraya, and Balraj Singh
6 DistilBERT-based Text Classification for Automated Diagnosis
of Mental Health Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Diwakar and Deepa Raj
7 An Optimized Hybrid ARIMA-LSTM Model for Time Series
Forecasting of Agricultural Production in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Babita Pandey, Arvind Shukla, and Aditya Khamparia

vii
viii Contents

8 An Exploratory Analysis of Machine Intelligence-enabled

Plant Diseases Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Ashis Pattanaik, Agniva Bhattacharya, and Sushruta Mishra
9 Synergizing Smart Farming and Human Bioinformatics
Through IoT and Sensor Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Sandeep Kumar Jain and Pritesh Kumar Jain
10 Deep Learning-Assisted Techniques for Detection and
Prediction of Colorectal Cancer From Medical Images
and Microbial Modality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Ravi Kumar, Amritpal Singh, and Aditya Khamparia
11 Smart Farming and Human Bioinformatics System Based
on Context-Aware Computing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Sini Anna Alex, T. P. Pallavi, and G. C. Akshatha
12 Plant Diseases Diagnosis with Artificial Intelligence (AI) . . . . . . . . . 187
Syed Muzammil Munawar, Dhandayuthabani Rajendiran,
and Khaleel Basha Sabjan
13 Analyzing the Frontier of AI-Based Plant Disease Detection:
Insights and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Mridula Dwivedi, Babita Pandey, and Vipin Saxena
14 Fuzzy and Data Mining Methods for Enhancing Plant
Productivity and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Khalil Ahmed, Mithilesh Kumar Dubey, Devendra Kumar Pandey,
and Sartaj Singh
15 Plant Disease Diagnosis with Artificial Intelligence (AI) . . . . . . . . . 217
Muhammad Naveed, Muhammad Majeed, Khizra Jabeen,
Nimra Hanif, Rida Naveed, Sania Saleem, and Nida Khan
16 Sustainable AI-Driven Applications for Plant Care
and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Muhammad Naveed, Nafeesa Zahid, Ibtihaj Fatima, Ayesha Saleem,
Muhammad Majeed, Amina Abid, Khushbakht Javed,
Rehmana Wazir, and Amina Qasim
17 Use Cases and Future Aspects of Intelligent Techniques
in Microbial Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Muhammad Naveed, Zaibun-nisa Memon, Muhammad Abdullah,
Syeda Izma Makhdoom, Arooj Azeem, Sarmad Mehmood,
Maida Salahuddin, Zeerwah Rajpoot, and Muhammad Majeed
Contents ix

18 Early Crop Disease Identification Using Multi-fork Tree

Networks and Microbial Data Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
S. S. Ittannavar, B. P. Khot, Vibhor Kumar Vishnoi,
Swati Shailesh Chandurkar, and Harshal Mahajan
19 Guarding Maize: Vigilance Against Pathogens Early
Identification, Detection, and Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Khalil Ahmed, Mithilesh Kumar Dubey, and Sudha Dubey
20 Comprehensive Analysis of Deep Learning Models for
Plant Disease Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Narendra Pal Singh Rathor, Praveen Kumar Bhanodia,
and Aditya Khamparia
21 Enhancing Single-Cell Trajectory Inference and Microbial
Data Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Bhargavi Posinasetty, Mukesh Soni, Sagar Dhanraj Pande,
Krishnendu Adhikary, and Dhirendra Kumar Tripathi
22 AI-Assisted Methods for Protein Structure Prediction
and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Divya Goel, Ravi Kumar, and Sudhir Kumar
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Aditya Khamparia has expertise in teaching, entrepreneurship, and research and

development of a decade. He is currently working as an assistant professor and
coordinator of the Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Lovely Professional Univer-
sity, Punjab, in May 2018. He has completed his M. Tech. from VIT University and
B. Tech. from RGPV, Bhopal. He has completed his PDF from UNIFOR, Brazil. He
has more than 100 research papers along with book chapters including more than
20 papers in top journals with cumulative impact factor of above 100 to his credit.
Additionally, he has authored and edited a cumulative of 11 books. His research
interests include machine learning, deep learning, educational technologies, and
computer vision.

Babita Pandey working as an associate professor in the Department of Computer

Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. Her research
interests include biomedical engineering, e-learning, computational intelligence, and
security systems. She has published more than 100 publications and conferences
including more than 40 SCI Indexed Journals.

Devendra Kumar Pandey is currently working as a professor at Lovely Profes-

sional University, India. He obtained his Ph.D. in biochemical engineering from the
Indian Institute of Technology, India. His main area of interest is related to pharma-
cology and toxicology, plant and soil sciences, and molecular sciences. His area of
expertise includes plant biotechnology, plant–microbe interaction, chromatography
techniques, i.e., HPTLC, HPLC, LC-MS, molecular markers and bioactive com-
pound markers for medicinal plants, and bioactive compounds. He has published
more than 100 articles in international journals with papers also in national and
international conferences contributed as author/co-author.

xi
xii Editors and Contributors

Deepak Gupta received a B.Tech. in 2006 from the Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University, India. He received M.E. in 2010 from Delhi Technological
University, India, and Ph. D. in 2017 from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Technical
University, India. He has completed his post-doc from Inatel, Brazil. With
13 years of rich expertise in teaching and 2 years in the industry, he focuses on
rational and practical learning. He has contributed massive literature to the fields of
intelligent data analysis, biomedical engineering, artificial intelligence, and soft
computing. He has served as editor-in-chief, guest editor, and as associate editor in
various reputed journals. He has actively been organizing various reputed interna-
tional conferences. He has authored/edited 43 books. He has published 200 scientific
research publications including more than 100 SCI Indexed Journals.

Contributors

Muhammad Abdullah Biodiversity Park, Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies

(CIDS), The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Amina Abid Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Krishnendu Adhikary Centurion University of Technology and Management,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Khalil Ahmed School of Computer Application, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab, India
G. C. Akshatha Department of CSE (AI & ML), Ramaiah Institute of Technology,
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Sini Anna Alex Department of CSE (AI & ML), Ramaiah Institute of Technology,
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
N. Ashwini Department of Computer Science and Engineering, BMS Institute of
Technology and Management, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Arooj Azeem Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Praveen Kumar Bhanodia Computer Science Engineering, Acropolis Institute of
Technology and Research, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
Agniva Bhattacharya Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
G. Bhavya Department of Information Science and Engineering, BMS Institute of
Technology and Management, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Editors and Contributors xiii

Swati Shailesh Chandurkar Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering, Pune,

India
Mangaldeep Das Computer Science & Information Technology, Institute of Tech-
nical Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, India
Diwakar Diwakar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Mithilesh Kumar Dubey School of Computer Application, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Sudha Dubey Department of Sociology, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab, India
Mridula Dwivedi Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao
Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ibtihaj Fatima Department of Botany, University of Education, Lahore, Punjab,
Pakistan
Sukanta Ghosh SCSAI, SR University, Warangal, Telangana, India
Divya Goel Department of Biotechnology, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar
Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
Anudeep Goraya School of Computer Science and Engineering, Lovely Profes-
sional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Umesh Gupta SCSET, Bennett University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nimra Hanif Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
S. S. Ittannavar ECE Department, Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Belgaum,
India
Khizra Jabeen Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Pritesh Kumar Jain Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Shri
Vaishnav Vidyapeeth Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India
Sandeep Kumar Jain Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Shri
Vaishnav Vidyapeeth Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India
Khushbakht Javed Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Tech-
nology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Aditya Khamparia Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao
Ambedkar University, Satellite Centre, Amethi, Uttar Pradesh, India
xiv Editors and Contributors

Nida Khan Department of Botany, University of Science and Technology Bannu,

Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
B. P. Khot ECE Department, Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Belgaum, India
Anvi Kohli SCSET, Bennett University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ravi Kumar Department of Computer Science Engineering, Lovely Professional
University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Department of Computer Science Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Government Engi-
neering College, Sundernagar, Himachal Pradesh, India
Sudhir Kumar Department of Biotechnology, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srina-
gar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
T. R. Vijaya Lakshmi Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology, Gandipet,
Hyderabad, India
Harshal Mahajan Indira College of Engineering and Management, Pune, India
Mahabub Hasan Mahalat Computer Science & Information Technology, Institute
of Technical Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, India
Muhammad Majeed Department of Botany, University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan
Syeda Izma Makhdoom Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and
Technology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Sarmad Mehmood Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Tech-
nology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Zaibun-nisa Memon Department of Zoology, Shah Abdul Latif University,
Khairpur Mirs, Sindh, Pakistan
Sushruta Mishra Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Deemed to be Uni-
versity, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Atish Mohapatra Computer Science & Information Technology, Institute of Tech-
nical Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, India
Syed Muzammil Munawar Department of Biochemistry, C. Abdul Hakeem Col-
lege (Autonomous), Melvisharam, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Muhammad Naveed Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Tech-
nology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Rida Naveed Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Editors and Contributors xv

T. P. Pallavi Department of CSE (Cyber Security), Ramaiah Institute of Technol-

ogy, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Sagar Dhanraj Pande School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP
University, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India
Babita Pandey Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (Central) University, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Luck-
now, Uttar Pradesh, India
Devendra Kumar Pandey School of Computer Application, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Ashis Pattanaik Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Deemed to be Univer-
sity, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Bhargavi Posinasetty Department of Masters in Public Health, The University of
Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA
Ayushman Pranav SCSET, Bennett University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Sushree Bibhuprada B. Priyadarshini Computer Science & Information Tech-
nology, Institute of Technical Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan
Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
Amina Qasim Department of Botany, Minhaj University Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
Deepa Raj University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Zeerwah Rajpoot Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technol-
ogy, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Narendra Pal Singh Rathor Computer Science Engineering, Acropolis Institute
of Technology and Research, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
Ashay Rokade School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Lovely Profes-
sional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Shobhit Sahoo Computer Science & Information Technology, Institute of Techni-
cal Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, India
Maida Salahuddin Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Tech-
nology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Ayesha Saleem Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Sania Saleem Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad,
Pakistan
xvi Editors and Contributors

Vipin Saxena Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar

University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Arvind Shukla Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (Central) University, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Amritpal Singh Department of Computer Science Engineering, Lovely Profes-
sional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Balraj Singh School of Computer Science and Engineering, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Divya Singh SCSET, Bennett University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Manwinder Singh School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Lovely Pro-
fessional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Pavitar Parkash Singh Department of Management, Lovely Professional Univer-
sity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Sartaj Singh School of Computer Application, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab, India
Mukesh Soni Department of CSE, University Centre for Research & Development,
Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India
K. Sumana Department of Microbiology, JSS AHER, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Sandip Swain Computer Science & Information Technology, Institute of Techni-
cal Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, India
Manoj Ram Tammina Innovation, Bread Financial, Columbus, OH, USA
Dhirendra Kumar Tripathi Sri Satya Sai University of Technology and Medical
Sciences, Sehore, MP, India
Vibhor Kumar Vishnoi College of Computing Sciences and Information Tech-
nology, Teerthanker Mahaveer University, Moradabad, India
Rehmana Wazir Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technol-
ogy, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Nafeesa Zahid Department of Botany, University of Kotli, Kotli, Azad Jammu and
Kashmir, Pakistan
Chapter 1
The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence
to Drug Discovery: Current Progress
and Prospects for the Future

Umesh Gupta , Ayushman Pranav , Anvi Kohli , Sukanta Ghosh ,

and Divya Singh

Abstract The swift progress of artificial intelligence (AI) is fundamentally altering

the terrain of drug discovery, carrying the substantial potential to accelerate the
pinpointing of new drugs and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the drug
development process. Across various stages of drug discovery, AI methodologies
are proving instrumental:
1. Target Identification and Validation: AI demonstrates prowess by sifting
through extensive genomic and proteomic datasets to discern and affirm fresh
drug targets. This computational prowess enables the identification of potential
candidates for therapeutic intervention (Kim et al., Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng
25:895–930, 2020).
2. Virtual Screening: The application of AI extends to efficiently screening vast
compound libraries. AI predictions of binding affinities and pertinent properties
offer a streamlined approach to identifying promising drug candidates
(Sahayasheela et al., Nat Prod Rep 39:2215, 2022).
3. Drug Design: AI’s capabilities span the design phase, aiding in creating innova-
tive drug molecules with specified attributes like enhanced potency, selectivity,
and pharmacokinetics (Blanco-Gonzalez et al. Pharmaceuticals 16:891, 2023).
4. Drug Repurposing: AI breathes new life into existing drugs, uncovering alter-
nate applications. This strategy is a cost-effective and time-sensitive avenue for
developing new treatment avenues (Ren et al., Chem Sci 14:1443–52, 2023).
5. Clinical Trial Design: Leveraging AI, clinical trial frameworks can be opti-
mized. AI empowers the precise selection of patients, appropriate dosages, and

U. Gupta (✉) · A. Pranav · A. Kohli · D. Singh

SCSET, Bennett University, Gr. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Ghosh
SCSAI, SR University, Warangal, Telangana, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 1
A. Khamparia et al. (eds.), Microbial Data Intelligence and Computational
Techniques for Sustainable Computing, Microorganisms for Sustainability 47,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9621-6_1
2 U. Gupta et al.

predictive assessments of trial success probability (Keshavarzi Arshadi et al.,

Artif Intell 65, 2020).
While AI’s integration into drug discovery remains relatively nascent, it holds the
potential to revolutionize the field. Recent strides in AI technology have enabled the
resolution of complex challenges, such as identifying targets for refractory ailments
and engineering drugs with heightened efficacy and reduced toxicity. The trajectory
of AI in drug discovery appears promising. Its influence is poised to intensify,
driving expedited drug discovery, refining the efficiency of the developmental
journey, and hastening the availability of novel treatments for patients.

Keywords Drug discovery · Artificial intelligence · Machine learning · sustainable

computing · Deep learning

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we undertake a detailed exploration that dives into the interdependent
connection between drug discovery and the transformative capabilities of artificial
intelligence (AI). The journey of drug discovery, a complex voyage aimed at
discovering new chemical entities (NCEs) with the potential to drive therapeutic
advancements, traverses a terrain characterized by carefully defined stages. These
encompass the meticulous identification of disease-triggering molecular targets, the
astute curation and refinement of NCEs, the arduous passage through preclinical
scrutiny, and the exacting challenge of human clinical trials. Amid the range of
challenges and uncertainties along this journey, AI’s indelible mark as the conduit
for pioneering treatments remains unwavering. Within this narrative, the emergence
of AI as a catalyzing agent takes center stage, orchestrating enhancements that
streamline process efficiency and augment outcomes. Our expedition unfurls, cast-
ing a luminous spotlight on the manifold ways AI’s prowess resonates across pivotal
dimensions, spanning the domains of target identification, lead discovery, optimi-
zation, preclinical assessment, and clinical trials. Furthermore, we delve into the
resurgence of microbes, hallowed sources of medicinal innovation, as AI infuses a
renewed vitality into their exploration within the realm of drug discovery. As AI’s
trajectory seamlessly converges with the path of drug discovery, it heralds a para-
digm shift—an era in which the fusion of innovation and computational brilliance
forges novel pathways within the domain of therapeutics. This chapter is a testament
to the symbiosis of scientific ingenuity and AI’s transformative potential, poised to
unveil unprecedented horizons within the expansive field of drug discovery.
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 3

1.2 Historical Evolution of Drug Discovery

Conventional avenues of drug discovery have long relied on a trial-and-error

methodology, entailing the meticulous screening of expansive compound libraries
to identify those exhibiting sought-after biological activities. However, this
approach is arduous, time-intensive, and often yields compounds with undesirable
side effects or toxicity.
The landscape shifted with the advent of computational methodologies in the
1990s, which introduced predictive computer models to gauge compound properties
and biological potentials. This infusion of computational prowess expedited drug
discovery and augmented the success rate of subsequent drug development
endeavors.
In recent times, artificial intelligence (AI) has started to gain attention in drug
discovery. The wide array of tools offered by AI, including machine learning and
deep learning, brings forth the ability to analyze extensive data repositories, identify
complex patterns, and generate predictive insights. This convergence of AI and drug
discovery promises to fundamentally revolutionize the process, ushering in
enhanced efficiency and efficacy. Illustrating this synergy are specific instances
where AI is leaving its indelible mark on drug discovery:
• Drug Repurposing
AI assumes a pivotal role in reimagining the potential uses of existing drugs.
By scrutinizing comprehensive datasets, AI identifies drugs ripe for repurposing,
as exemplified by identifying remdesivir, an Ebola-originated drug, for COVID-
19 treatment (Kim et al. 2020).
• Target Identification
AI’s analytical capabilities come to the fore in deciphering the intricate
landscape of disease-associated proteins and molecules. By analyzing vast geno-
mic and proteomic datasets, AI zeroes in on potential drug targets (Sahayasheela
et al. 2022).
• Lead Optimization
AI breathes fresh life into the lead optimization process, tailoring novel
compounds that exhibit heightened potency, superior safety profiles, and boosted
viability in clinical trials (Blanco-Gonzalez et al. 2023).
• Virtual Screening
In virtual screening, AI acts as an accelerator, sieving through expansive
compound libraries with heightened precision to identify compounds more likely
to exhibit desired biological activities (Ren et al. 2023).
Although the incorporation of AI into drug discovery is at an early phase, its
capacity to revolutionize the industry is unquestionable. The capabilities of AI are
poised to bring about a fresh era characterized by enhanced efficiency, effectiveness,
and innovative breakthroughs in the field of drug discovery. As the synergistic
partnership between AI and drug discovery gathers momentum, the future holds
great potential for uncovering new targets and ground-breaking treatments for
various diseases.
4 U. Gupta et al.

1.3 Fundamentals of Artificial Intelligence in Drug

Discovery

Contained within this chapter is an investigation into the fundamental principles of

AI applied within the field of drug discovery. The rapid evolution of AI holds the
transformative potential to reshape various sectors, and drug discovery is no excep-
tion. Integrating AI techniques has opened avenues to streamline intricate processes
such as data mining, virtual screening, and molecular design, accelerating drug
discovery and mitigating the financial burdens of new drug development. Central
to AI’s influence in drug discovery are vital concepts that warrant exploration:
• Machine Learning: A cornerstone of AI, machine learning enables computers to
glean insights from data without explicit programming. By identifying patterns
and making predictions, machine learning algorithms contribute to tasks ranging
from identifying potential drug targets to predicting drug candidates’ efficacy and
toxicity and optimizing the design of novel drugs (Kim et al. 2020).
• Deep Learning: Within the purview of machine learning lies deep learning, a
paradigm utilizing artificial neural networks to glean insights from data. Inspired
by the human brain, these networks unravel intricate data patterns. Deep learning
is essential in drug discovery to dissect molecular data and ascertain potential
drug targets (Sahayasheela et al. 2022).
• Reinforcement Learning: A transformative AI concept, reinforcement learning
enables agents to learn optimal behavior within an environment through trial and
error, reinforced by rewards for favorable actions and penalties for unfavorable
ones. In drug discovery, reinforcement learning holds promise for designing
effective and safe drugs through iterative learning (Blanco-Gonzalez et al. 2023).
The very fabric of AI in drug discovery is interwoven with mathematical foun-
dations encompassing algorithms and statistical methods:
1. Linear Regression: A statistical tool to predict a continuous variable from a set of
independent variables, it finds utility in estimating drug candidate efficacy from
molecular properties (Ren et al. 2023). The equation for linear regression is.

y = mx þ b

where y is the predicted value, m is the slope, b is the y-intercept, and x is the
independent variable.
2. Support Vector Machines: A machine learning algorithm, support vector
machines are adept at classification and regression tasks, effectively identifying
potential drug targets and predicting drug candidate toxicity (Keshavarzi Arshadi
et al. 2020).
The equation for support vector machines is:
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 5

fðxÞ = w  x þ b

where f(x) is the predicted value, w is the weight vector, b is the bias, and x is
the independent variable.
3. Artificial Neural Networks: These are also inspired by the human brain and excel
in learning complex data patterns, presenting a practical approach for tasks such
as image and video processing and natural language processing. Within drug
discovery, they play a pivotal role in molecular data analysis and target identifi-
cation (Jiménez-Luna et al. 2021). The equation for artificial neural networks is:

y = fðWx þ bÞ

where y is the predicted value, W is the weight matrix, x is the input vector, b is
the bias vector, and f() is the activation function.
Exploring the differences between machine learning and deep learning, the
chapter unravels the equations that underpin these approaches, offering a mathemat-
ical insight into their mechanisms. Machine learning algorithms, being more
straightforward, and deep learning algorithms, with their complexity and ability to
learn from unlabeled data, are utilized in various tasks, including classification,
regression, image recognition, and language processing.
In essence, this chapter illuminates the ever-evolving landscape where AI’s
potential converges with the intricacies of drug discovery. AI’s rapid evolution is
poised to revolutionize industries, and its potential in drug discovery is undeniable.
Through computational ingenuity, AI unlocks the door to expedite drug discovery,
propelling innovation and efficiency to unveil novel therapeutic avenues.

1.4 Data-centric Approaches in Artificial Intelligence

for the Field of Drug Discovery

• The significance of extensive datasets in drug discovery (Kim et al. 2020;

Sahayasheela et al. 2022; Blanco-Gonzalez et al. 2023)
The intricacies of drug discovery, characterized by its duration and costs, often
confront hurdles due to limited accessible data. Integrating big data can prove
transformative, furnishing researchers with deep insights into drug targets, dis-
ease mechanisms, and potential candidates. This repository of information can
drive the identification of novel drug targets, enable the design of fresh pharma-
ceuticals, and optimize the developmental trajectory. For instance, the infusion of
big data can facilitate:
– Identifying novel drug targets via comprehensive analyses of genomic,
transcriptomic, and proteomic datasets
6 U. Gupta et al.

– Design of innovative drugs by sifting through extensive compound libraries to

identify those interacting with specific targets
– Enhancement of the developmental trajectory through the utilization of data
for predicting the safety and effectiveness of prospective drugs
• Preprocessing and normalization of data: Mathematical frameworks (Kim et al.
2020; Ren et al. 2023):
Before employing big data for drug discovery, the preparatory steps encom-
pass data pre-processing and normalization. This entails refining the data, purging
errors and anomalies, and adapting it to a format amenable to machine learning
algorithms. Several mathematical models are instrumental in data pre-processing
and normalization, including:
– Principal Component Analysis (PCA): A statistical technique that condenses
dataset dimensionality while conserving crucial information
– K-means clustering: A machine learning algorithm that clusters similar data
points together
– Gaussian Mixture Models (GMMs): A class of probabilistic models
representing data point distributions
• Overfitting mitigation and regularization through mathematical equations (Kim
et al. 2020; Keshavarzi Arshadi et al. 2020):
In machine learning for drug discovery, overfitting arises when a model
excessively learns from the training data, hampering its capacity to apply that
knowledge to new data and resulting in inaccurate predictions. To counter
overfitting, an array of regularization techniques exists, including:
– L1 Regularization: Penalizes models for substantial coefficients, curtailing
overfitting by curbing reliance on training data
– L2 Regularization: Discourages significant squared coefficients, curbing
overfitting’s impact on training data
– Dropout: A technique that randomly eliminates certain features during train-
ing, ensuring that no single feature is relied upon
The mathematical formulations underpinning these regularization techniques are
as follows:
• L1 Regularization:

J ðθÞ = LðθÞ þ α θ 1

where J(θ) is the cost function of the model. L(θ) is the loss function of the
model. α is the regularization parameter. θ is the vector of model parameters
• L2 Regularization:
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 7

J ðθÞ = LðθÞ þ α θ 2

• Dropout:

PðdropoutÞ = 1 - p

where P(dropout) is the probability that a feature will be dropped out. p is the
dropout rate
The ascendancy of data-driven methodologies in drug discovery is palpable.
These approaches surmount the challenges intrinsic to the drug discovery process,
such as data scarcity and overfitting. By synergizing big data with machine learning,
researchers expedite the quest for novel pharmaceuticals, amplifying the efficiency
and efficacy of drug discovery processes.

1.5 Data-driven Approaches in AI for Drug Discovery

Microbial Natural Products (MNPs) encompass various compounds synthesized by

microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae. These compounds exhibit a
spectrum of biological activities, spanning antimicrobial, anticancer, and antiviral
properties. With a history rooted in traditional medicine, many MNPs have found
their place in modern therapeutic practices.
Exemplary MNPs include:
• Penicillin: A renowned antibiotic effective against diverse infections
• Taxol: A cancer-fighting agent used in breast cancer and other malignancies
• Artemisinin: An antimalarial weapon combatting malaria
• Sirolimus: An immunosuppressive tool aiding organ transplant acceptance
• The Transition: Traditional vs. AI-Powered Discovery from Microbial Sources
Historically, the discovery of MNPs relied on a blend of screening and
bioactivity tests, a time-intensive and resource-demanding endeavor often hin-
dered in identifying novel MNPs with desired attributes. Artificial intelligence
(AI) has recently become a driving force in accelerating the discovery of MNPs.
AI can mechanize several steps of traditional drug discovery, encompassing:
– Screening extensive compound libraries for bioactivity
– Predicting MNP structures and properties
– Identifying potential MNP targets
– Designing novel MNPs with specific characteristics
• The Contribution of Mathematical Models in Microbial Drug Discovery Driven
by Artificial Intelligence
The exploration of AI-driven microbial drug discovery pivots on using math-
ematical models. These models enable:
8 U. Gupta et al.

– Bioactivity prediction based on MNP chemical structures

– Prediction of MNP target proteins
• Tailoring MNPs with desired attributes
Prominent mathematical models in this domain encompass:
– Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) models: Leverage MNP
chemical structures to predict bioactivity
– Molecular docking models: Anticipate MNP-protein binding affinities
– Virtual screening models: Screen extensive compound libraries for potential
bioactivity
• AI’s Applications in Microbial Natural Product Drug Discovery
AI catalyzes MNP discovery through diverse avenues, including:
– Automated Screening: AI automates compound library screening, reducing
time and costs.
– Target Identification: AI identifies potential MNP targets, streamlining
research efforts.
– MNP Design: AI aids in designing MNPs with desired properties, enhancing
effectiveness and safety.
– Drug Repurposing: AI identifies new uses for existing drugs, accelerating
treatment availability.
• Navigating Challenges and Opportunities
The usage of AI in microbial natural product drug discovery has its own chal-
lenges and opportunities: data availability, MNP complexity, and the evolving
nature of AI techniques. Opportunities encompass accelerated drug discovery, new
drug target exploration, and tailored drug design. AI holds immense potential in
reshaping microbial natural product drug discovery. Through addressing challenges
and leveraging opportunities, AI stands as a transformative force, poised to expedite
the development of novel drugs to combat a myriad of diseases.

1.6 Hurdles and Prospects in Artificial Intelligence

for the Field of Drug Discovery

1.6.1 Navigating Challenges and Embracing Prospects

in AI-driven Drug Discovery

The traditional drug discovery processes are lengthy, expensive, and frequently
inefficient, entailing a significant span of 10–15 years of research and finally getting
a new drug on the shelves. However, AI holds the transformative potential to
expedite this labyrinthine process through task automation, encompassing:
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 9

• Data Mining: AI’s prowess in sifting through vast biological and chemical
datasets to unearth potential drug targets and candidates
• Virtual Screening: Leveraging AI to comb through extensive compound libraries
in search of promising drug candidates
• Molecular Modeling: AI’s ability to forecast drug candidate structures, proper-
ties, and their interactions with target proteins
• Drug Design: Employing AI to craft novel drug candidates tailored to specific
properties

1.6.2 Pinpointing Bottlenecks in Traditional Drug Discovery

The traditional drug discovery process faces several roadblocks:

• Escalating Costs: Research and development costs are on a relentless upward
trajectory, exacerbated by the escalating complexity of the entire process.
• Time Intensive Journey: A new drug’s journey to the market spans 10–15 years,
contending with arduous regulatory hurdles and extensive clinical trials.
• Merger Success Rate: Only a minute fraction of drug candidates that tread the
clinical trial path receive FDA approval due to the intricate challenges of devel-
oping safe and efficacious drugs.

1.6.3 Untangling AI Implementation Challenges

While AI has the potential to alleviate some of the challenges, it presents its own set
of hurdles in drug discovery implementation:
• Data Dearth: AI models thrive on copious volumes of high-quality data, a luxury
often absent in the drug discovery arena.
• Process Complexity: Drug discovery is a multifaceted process demanding
nuanced representation in AI models to ensure efficacy.
• Model Interpretability: AI models can be enigmatic, complicating trust and
usability in drug discovery due to the opacity of their predictions.

1.6.4 Glimmers of Possibilities Unleashed by AI

In the face of challenges, AI heralds transformation by:

• Expediting Drug Discovery: Automation empowered by AI slashes time and
costs, expediting the journey from lab to market.
10 U. Gupta et al.

• Elevating Success Rates: AI identifies safer and more effective drugs, improving
the probability of successful outcomes.
• Personalizing Medicine: Tailoring drugs to individual patient needs becomes
feasible through AI’s predictive capabilities.
• Tackling Neglected Diseases: AI’s potential extends to crafting treatments for
challenging diseases, including rare conditions.

1.6.5 A New Dawn in Drug Discovery

AI, a symbol of innovation, has the capacity to reshape the narrative of drug
discovery. By confronting challenges head-on and embracing opportunities, AI
can streamline the process, bringing novel and efficacious treatments to patients
faster and more efficiently.

1.7 Case Study: AlphaFold’s Acceleration in Drug

Discovery

Within the dynamic realm of biomedical research, the ground-breaking protein

structure prediction tool AlphaFold, created by DeepMind, a subsidiary of Google
AI, has emerged as a revolutionary influence. Unveiled in 2020, its extraordinary
aptitude for accurately predicting protein structures has established it as a potent
accelerator in drug discovery. The AlphaFold stands ready to transform the tradi-
tional course of drug development by interpreting protein structures and unveiling
their enigmas.

1.7.1 Significance of AlphaFold

The importance of AlphaFold is fundamentally tied to its capacity to transform the

landscape of drug discovery. The conventional route to developing a new drug is
laborious, marked by extensive timelines and substantial expenses. AlphaFold
emerges as a promising beacon, aiming to accelerate this journey by providing
researchers with precise forecasts of protein structures. This fresh understanding
carries the potential to revolutionize the identification of drug targets and the creation
of novel medications. The arrival of AlphaFold signifies a pivotal moment, intro-
ducing a more streamlined and cost-effective pathway to advancing therapeutic
innovations.
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 11

1.7.1.1 Mathematical Mastery Behind AlphaFold’s Prognostic Abilities

AlphaFold’s exceptional predictive ability is built upon a sophisticated deep learning

model, carefully refined through exposure to an extensive collection of established
protein structures. Comparable to a virtual expert in proteomics, this model identifies
the recurring patterns that interconnect various proteins. This mastery equips
AlphaFold with the capability to foresee the structure of any protein, including
those that have never been observed before. The essence of AlphaFold’s predictions
lies in understanding the physics of protein folding. Proteins, the building blocks of
life, are intricate compositions of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Folding, a
central phenomenon, is governed by the interactions among these amino acids.
AlphaFold employs its deep learning model to predict these interactions, ultimately
creating a blueprint of the protein’s structure.

1.7.2 Elevating Drug Discovery: The AlphaFold Impact

on CDK20 Inhibitor Discovery

A noteworthy case study highlights AlphaFold’s transformative role in drug discov-

ery. An innovative application was witnessed in the realm of cancer treatment,
specifically targeting CDK20 (Ren et al. 2023), a protein pivotal in cell division
and the proliferation of cancer cells. AlphaFold’s predictive prowess was harnessed
in this study to unravel CDK20’s structure. Armed with this crucial information,
scientists crafted a small molecule inhibitor tailored to bind to CDK20 and impede
its activity. The outcome was promising: the inhibitor effectively restrained cancer
cell growth in vitro, illuminating AlphaFold’s potential in hastening drug discovery.

1.7.3 AlphaFold’s Multi-dimensional Drug Discovery Impact

Beyond CDK20, AlphaFold’s footprint in drug discovery extends across various

diseases, encompassing Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and cancer. For instance,
AlphaFold’s insights into the structure of tau, a protein implicated in Alzheimer’s
disease, enabled the design of molecules that counteract harmful aggregations.
However, AlphaFold’s journey is far from complete. Still evolving, it has already
engendered a seismic shift in drug discovery. As its capacities continue to grow, it
stands ready to play an even more crucial role in shaping the trajectory of upcoming
drug development.
12 U. Gupta et al.

1.7.4 Navigating Challenges and Seizing Opportunities

However, as AlphaFold strives to revolutionize drug discovery, it faces particular

challenges. Its high computational demands can pose an obstacle to expansive drug
discovery initiatives. Additionally, its predictions are not immune to errors, occa-
sionally resulting in misinterpretations that could lead to ineffective drug designs.
Nonetheless, the potential encapsulated by AlphaFold remains resolute. Equipped
with its strengths and the insights gained from overcoming challenges, AlphaFold
remains an invaluable resource for researchers in drug discovery. As it progresses
and evolves, its transformative influence is destined to grow stronger.

1.7.5 The Eclipsing Horizon

In conclusion, AlphaFold has surpassed its status as a mere computational instru-

ment. It symbolizes optimism, heralding a revolutionary shift in drug discovery.
Through its capacity to unveil protein structures and steer drug design, AlphaFold
has indelibly influenced the realm of pharmaceutical advancement. As it progresses,
it carries the potential to expedite the creation of innovative therapies, ushering us
into a future where drug discovery is not only accelerated but also remarkably
efficacious.

1.8 AI in the Era of Pandemics: Case of COVID-19

The global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has been deeply distressing, causing
numerous fatalities and widespread economic turmoil. Amid these difficult times,
artificial intelligence (AI) emerged as a powerful weapon in the battle against the
pandemic, providing efficient solutions to tackle the challenges presented by the
virus.

1.8.1 Overview of the COVID-19 Pandemic

SARS-CoV-2, the virus behind the respiratory ailment that caused the world to shut
down in 2020, is a highly contagious pathogen. It primarily spreads through respi-
ratory droplets, often released when an infected person coughs or sneezes or when a
person encounters a contaminated surface. The illness presents a range of symptoms,
from mild to severe, including fever, cough, shortness of breath, and fatigue. In
critical instances, COVID-19 can lead to conditions like pneumonia, acute respira-
tory distress syndrome, and even fatality. Emerging in Wuhan, China, in December
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 13

2019, the virus rapidly crossed borders, escalating into a worldwide emergency by
March 2020. By March 2023, over 600 million individuals had contracted COVID-
19, with the virus claiming the lives of more than 15 million people worldwide.

1.8.2 AI’s Crucial Role in Drug Discovery and Vaccine

Development

In the dark times of the pandemic, the cutting-edge solutions offered by AI made it a
formidable weapon in the fight against COVID-19, yielding significant contribu-
tions, particularly in the realms of drug discovery and vaccine development.
• Drug Repurposing: One pivotal application of AI lies in drug repurposing, where
existing drugs are identified and evaluated for their potential efficacy against
COVID-19. For instance, the drug remdesivir, initially formulated for combating
the Ebola virus, has proven effective in treating COVID-19 patients.
• Virtual Screening: The formidable computational power of AI has facilitated the
virtual screening of vast databases of potential drug molecules. The approach
accelerates the drug discovery timeline by swiftly identifying compounds with
the potential to combat COVID-19.
• Structural Biology and AI: The proficiency of AI in structural biology has
facilitated the exploration of the complex framework of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
This comprehension is crucial for identifying potential drug targets and providing
a clear path for drug design.
Moreover, AI benefited greatly in the faster development of the COVID-19
vaccines. Among these, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine relies on mRNA technology
and was developed using AI methodologies. This represents a remarkable fusion of
innovation and medical science.

1.8.3 Leveraging Mathematical Models for Drug Prediction

Alongside its contributions to drug and vaccine development, AI has fostered the
creation of intricate mathematical models to predict the potential effectiveness of
drug molecules against COVID-19. These models, driven by AI algorithms, play a
pivotal role in sifting through extensive compound libraries to identify those with
promising therapeutic attributes. An exemplary instance is the DeepDTA model,
which employs deep learning techniques to predict the binding affinity of
drug molecules to the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The help of this model in predicting
drug efficacy led to faster, more cost-effective client delivery of several promising
drug candidates. Another notable mathematical model is the aforementioned
AlphaFold, which employs deep learning to forecast the three-dimensional
14 U. Gupta et al.

structures of proteins. In the context of COVID-19, AlphaFold’s predictions have

facilitated the identification of potential drug targets by unraveling its structural
complexities.

1.8.4 A Glimpse into the Future

In summary, AI proved its utility in drug discovery during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Its multifaceted applications encompass expediting drug and vaccine discovery,
shaping predictive mathematical models, and enhancing diagnostic and treatment
approaches for COVID-19 patients. As the pandemic endures, the role of AI is
poised to expand even further. AI’s potential to hasten the development of novel
treatments and vaccines, improve patient care, and deepen our comprehension of the
virus holds tremendous promise. In the quest to conquer COVID-19, AI stands as a
symbol of innovation and a steadfast ally in the collective endeavor to overcome the
challenges posed by the pandemic.

1.9 Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery

The urgent need for solutions to the worldwide health crisis of antibiotic resistance is
undeniable. Conventional methods for discovering antibiotics are marked by their
slow pace and substantial expenses. Recently, the adoption of artificial intelligence
(AI) methods, particularly deep learning, is gaining traction as an approach to
accelerate and improve the efficiency of the processes of traditional methods.
1. Deep Learning: Deep learning, a subset of machine learning, harnesses artificial
neural networks to learn intricate patterns from data. Inspired by the human brain,
these networks excel in deciphering complex data patterns. Across diverse
domains, deep learning has demonstrated ground-breaking achievements, from
image recognition and natural language processing to drug discovery.
2. Leveraging Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery: Deep learning’s potential in
antibiotic discovery is multifaceted and promising:
(a) Identification of Novel Antibiotic Targets: Deep learning models can
identify potential antibiotic targets by analyzing extensive protein datasets.
These models are trained to predict whether a protein could serve as an
antibiotic target.
(b) Design of Enhanced Antibiotics: Deep learning facilitates the design of
antibiotics that combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria more effectively. Models
can predict essential properties like binding affinity to antibiotic targets and
toxicity.
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 15

(c) Prediction of Antibiotic Properties: By learning from known antibiotic

datasets, deep learning models predict crucial antibiotic properties, including
binding affinity to antibiotic targets and toxicity.
(d) Efficient Antibiotic Screening: Deep learning expedites antibiotic screening
by evaluating massive compound libraries for potential antibiotic activity.
Models predict the likelihood of a compound possessing antibiotic
capabilities.
3. Advantages of Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery: Several merits underscore
the deployment of deep learning:
(a) Big Data Analysis: Deep learning efficiently analyzes vast bacterial datasets
and their interactions with antibiotics, which is pivotal for effective antibiotic
discovery.
(b) Pattern Recognition: Deep learning excels in discerning complex patterns,
thereby aiding in identifying fresh antibiotic targets and creating innovative
antibiotics.
(c) Rapid Screening: Deep learning accelerates antibiotic screening, enabling
quick identification of potential candidates.
4. Challenges of Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery: While promising, deep
learning in antibiotic discovery faces challenges:
(a) Data Quantity: Deep learning mandates substantial data for model training,
which can be arduous and costly.
(b) Complexity and Interpretability: Complex models pose challenges in
interpretability, hindering the comprehension of decision-making processes.
(c) Bias Concerns: Deep learning models can exhibit bias, leading to inaccurate
predictions.
Despite these hurdles, deep learning is a promising avenue to address the global
antibiotic resistance crisis, given its potential to expedite antibiotic discovery and
counteract antibiotic-resistant strains.
1. Diverse Deep Learning Techniques and Models: Several deep learning tech-
niques and models serve antibiotic discovery:
(a) Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Particularly adept at image rec-
ognition, CNNs scrutinize protein structures to identify potential targets for
antibiotics.
(b) Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): Specializing in sequential data,
RNNs predict new antibiotic properties, aiding the design of novel
compounds.
(c) Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): GANs generate new data and
can be applied to screening antibiotics by generating new compounds likely
to possess antibiotic activity.
2. Mathematical Foundations of Deep Learning Predictions: The predictive power
of deep learning models hinges on essential equations:
16 U. Gupta et al.

(a) Loss Function: Measures model performance, minimized during training

(b) Optimizer: Algorithm updating model parameters during training
(c) Backpropagation: Calculates gradients of the loss function regarding model
parameters, pivotal for the optimizer’s updates
3. Conclusion: Deep learning’s integration into antibiotic discovery holds immense
promise. Its potential to hasten the identification of antibiotics and combat
antibiotic resistance is unparalleled. Despite obstacles, the combination of deep
learning’s computational prowess and antibiotic discovery’s urgency suggests a
symbiotic relationship that could reshape the landscape of antibiotic research and
offer hope in the face of escalating antibiotic resistance.

1.10 AI Techniques in Antibiotic and Antiviral

Development

In the rapidly evolving landscape of drug discovery, a slew of cutting-edge AI

techniques is taking center stage, offering ground-breaking solutions for the formi-
dable challenges posed by the development of antibiotics and antiviral agents. These
emerging AI techniques can potentially revolutionize the future of medicine by
expediting drug discovery, tailoring treatments to individuals, and ushering in a
new era of predictive mathematical models.
1. Emerging AI Techniques in Drug Discovery: Drug discovery has been revolu-
tionized with the introduction of Artificial Intelligence methods such as
(a) Machine Learning (ML): Harnessing ML algorithms, extensive datasets
containing biological information and chemical compounds can be scruti-
nized to identify potential drug targets and design novel drug molecules.
ML’s prowess spans from target selection to compound optimization,
streamlining the discovery process (Kim et al. 2020; Sahayasheela et al.
2022; Blanco-Gonzalez et al. 2023; Ren et al. 2023; Keshavarzi Arshadi
et al. 2020; Jiménez-Luna et al. 2021; Paul et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2017).
(b) Deep Learning (DL): Nested within ML, DL employs artificial neural net-
works to glean insights from data. Renowned for tasks like image recognition
and natural language processing, DL is increasingly applied to drug discov-
ery. It exhibits remarkable potential in forecasting drug toxicity and gauging
the binding affinity of drugs with their intended targets, thus expediting
optimization processes (Jiménez-Luna et al. 2021; Paul et al. 2021; Zhang
et al. 2017).
(c) Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): A subset of DL, GANs generate
fresh drug molecules akin to existing compounds while boasting enhanced
properties. This innovation facilitates the creation of drug candidates with
improved attributes (Jiménez-Luna et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2017).
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 17

(d) Bayesian Optimization: This statistical method is pivotal in experiment

design optimization. In the context of drug discovery, Bayesian optimization
identifies promising drug compounds for clinical trials, optimizing resource
allocation (Jiménez-Luna et al. 2021; Paul et al. 2021).
(e) Natural Language Processing (NLP): The interplay between computers and
human languages constitutes the essence of NLP. Its potential in drug dis-
covery lies in dissecting medical literature and clinical trial data to unearth
potential drug targets and evaluate the safety and efficacy of novel drugs.
These emerging AI techniques epitomize the promise of rapid innovation in
drug discovery. As AI advances, we can anticipate even more revolutionary
applications in drug discovery.
2. Potential of Personalized Medicine Through AI: AI holds the transformative
power to revolutionize personalized medicine, which hinges on tailoring medical
interventions to suit individual patient needs. AI interventions encompass:
(a) Precision Patient Selection: By analyzing genetic data, AI identifies genes
linked to specific diseases. This knowledge, in turn, aids in identifying drugs
that are likely to be effective for treating the identified disease.
(b) Treatment Response Prediction: AI employs patient data to forecast individ-
ual responses to drugs, enabling the optimization of treatment regimens for
better patient outcomes.
(c) Customized Dosages: Leveraging AI’s analytical prowess, personalized dos-
ages can be calculated based on an individual’s unique characteristics and
responses to treatment.
The realm of personalized medicine, buoyed by AI, promises to enhance
treatment outcomes, minimize costs, and reshape medical care by tailoring
therapies to individual patients.
3. Predictive Mathematical Models Shaping Drug Discovery: Predictive mathemat-
ical models are a cornerstone of modern drug discovery. These models facilitate
the antimicrobial drug compound properties, revolutionizing the process. Key
predictive models include:
(a) Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR): By utilizing statistical
approaches, Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) models
establish connections between the structures of drug compounds and their
biological functions. This process assists in foreseeing toxicity and effective-
ness across a diverse range of drug compounds.
(b) Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulations: Through computational models,
MD simulations predict the behavior of molecules within biological systems.
These simulations extend to forecasting drug-target binding and the effects of
drug compounds on biological entities.
Predictive mathematical models offer profound insights into the behavior of drug
compounds, streamlining drug development and facilitating target identification.
18 U. Gupta et al.

In conclusion, AI’s influence on antibiotic and antiviral development is transfor-

mative. The convergence of emerging AI techniques like ML, DL, GANs, Bayesian
optimization, and NLP facilitates the identification of drug targets, the design of
novel molecules, and the personalization of drug treatments. Alongside these,
predictive mathematical models enrich drug discovery by anticipating compound
properties. As AI’s horizons expand, its potential to hasten the development of
innovative and effective drugs addressing many diseases shines ever brighter. The
interdependent partnership between AI and drug discovery is on the brink of
reshaping the healthcare landscape.

1.11 Applications of AI in Drug Discovery

The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed the field of drug
discovery, pushing for the beginning of a fresh era characterized by heightened
efficiency and effectiveness. AI-powered technologies are revamping multiple
stages of drug development, encompassing tasks ranging from identifying and
validating targets to screening and designing compounds.

1.11.1 Target Identification and Validation

AI leverages vast genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic datasets to identify and

validate novel drug targets. AI algorithms delve into disease-specific genetic muta-
tions and intricate biological pathways, shedding light on potential therapeutic
avenues. Additionally, AI assesses the multidrug targets’ structural and functional
attributes.

1.11.2 Compound Screening and Design

The power of AI is evident in its ability to sift through expansive compound

libraries, pinpointing these with a high likelihood of interacting with target proteins.
AI also plays a role in designing new compounds with heightened effectiveness and
minimal side effects. Predicting binding affinities to target proteins and assessing
compound toxicity are among AI’s contributions.
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 19

1.11.3 Clinical Trial Optimization

AI optimizes clinical trials through refined patient selection, streamlined protocol

design, and advanced result analysis. Among AI’s functions are predicting patient
responsiveness to specific treatments and determining optimal drug dosages. By
enhancing trial efficiency, AI accelerates the pace of drug development.

1.11.4 Concrete Examples of AI’s Impact

In 2020, AI spotlighted a potential drug target for Alzheimer’s disease, the protein
BACE1, integral in forming amyloid plaques characteristic of the ailment (Kim et al.
2020). In 2021, AI was pivotal in designing a compound to combat drug-resistant
tuberculosis. The algorithm factored in target protein structure and the properties of
effective tuberculosis drugs to craft the compound (Sahayasheela et al. 2022). In
2022, AI optimized a clinical trial for a novel cancer drug, expertly identifying
promising trial participants and refining trial protocols (Blanco-Gonzalez et al.
2023). These instances merely scratch the surface of AI’s role in drug discovery.
As AI’s capabilities burgeon, its potential to reshape and expedite drug development
remains boundless.

1.12 The Future of AI in Drug Discovery

Artificial intelligence (AI) is swiftly reshaping the landscape of drug discovery,

offering the potential to expedite processes, enhance efficiency, and bolster the
efficacy of novel drug development.

1.12.1 Emerging AI Techniques in Drug Discovery

Several cutting-edge AI techniques are currently making strides in drug discovery:

• Machine Learning (ML): ML algorithms analyze vast chemical and biological
datasets, unveiling new drug targets and potential candidates (Kim et al. 2020).
• Deep Learning (DL): A subset of ML, DL algorithms excel in deciphering
intricate data patterns. Their effectiveness spans tasks like predicting compound
toxicity and identifying new drug targets (Sahayasheela et al. 2022; Blanco-
Gonzalez et al. 2023).
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP techniques dissect textual data from
medical records and scientific literature, revealing drug targets and potential side
effects (Ren et al. 2023).
20 U. Gupta et al.

• Computer-Aided Drug Design (CADD): CADD employs simulations to predict

properties like pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity of potential
drug compounds (Keshavarzi Arshadi et al. 2020).

1.12.2 The Potential of Personalized Medicine via AI

AI’s potential extends to enabling personalized medicine—tailoring drug treatment

for individual patients. AI scrutinizes genetic profiles, medical histories, and more to
pinpoint optimal and safe drug treatments (Jiménez-Luna et al. 2021).

1.12.3 Predictive Mathematical Models Shaping Drug

Discovery’s Future

AI is instrumental in crafting predictive mathematical models for drug discovery.

These models forecast promising drug targets and candidates and the success or
failure of new drug development programs (Stokes et al. 2020; Melo et al. 2021;
Askr et al. 2023; Volkamer et al. 2023; Luukkonen et al. 2023).
• Anticipating the Future Role of AI in Drug Discovery
• The usage of AI in drug discovery remains in its nascent stages but holds
revolutionary potential. Its current acceleration of drug discovery is just the
beginning, with prospects for further transformation. The following is a glimpse
into AI’s future impact on drug discovery:
• Discovering Novel Drug Targets: Researchers will uncover new drug targets by
harnessing AI to analyze vast biological and chemical data. This process, cur-
rently labor-intensive, can be automated, drastically enhancing efficiency
(Kaushik and Raj 2020; Gupta et al. 2022a).
• Designing Effective Drug Compounds: AI’s prowess in screening vast libraries of
compounds will be harnessed to design novel drugs with enhanced efficacy and
safety (Paul et al. 2021; Askr et al. 2023).
• Predicting Development Program Outcomes: AI-driven predictive models will
evolve to project the success or failure of drug development programs. This
information will guide decision-making processes (Zhang et al. 2017; Prasad
and Kumar 2021; Gupta et al. 2021).
• Personalized Treatment: Leveraging AI’s insights into genetic profiles, medical
histories, and other factors, personalized medicine will become more refined and
effective (Prasad and Kumar 2021; Gupta et al. 2022c).
The prospects for AI in drug discovery are promising. As AI advances, its
capacity to transform the field, enhance efficiency, and introduce personalized
medicine will become increasingly evident. The path toward discovering new
1 The Contribution of Artificial Intelligence to Drug Discovery:. . . 21

drugs and advancing personalized treatments is set to benefit significantly from the
ongoing evolution of AI (Gupta et al. 2021, 2022a, 2022b).

1.13 Conclusion

1.13.1 Revolutionizing Microbial Drug Discovery

with Artificial Intelligence

The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) into the realm of microbial

drug discovery is rapidly gaining momentum, set to redefine the landscape of
novel drug development. AI methodologies are positioned to accelerate every aspect
of the drug discovery journey, encompassing tasks ranging from identifying targets
to designing and refining drugs.
• Target Identification: AI’s potential is showcased in identifying novel drug
targets by scrutinizing extensive genomic and proteomic datasets. AI offers
ground-breaking insights by discerning targets vital for pathogenic microbes’
survival, distinct from those in human cells (Kim et al. 2020; Sahayasheela et al.
2022; Luukkonen et al. 2023).
• Drug Design: The power of AI extends to crafting new drugs that optimize
efficacy and mitigate side effects. AI empowers the screening of vast compound
libraries, identifying candidates with sought-after attributes (Blanco-Gonzalez
et al. 2023; Ren et al. 2023).
• Drug Optimization: AI-driven drug optimization thrives in perfecting crucial
attributes like solubility, stability, and pharmacokinetics. By enhancing these
properties, AI contributes to the safety and efficacy of novel drugs (Keshavarzi
Arshadi et al. 2020; Volkamer et al. 2023).

1.13.2 Anticipating Future Trends and Breakthroughs

The trajectory of AI in microbial drug discovery is brimming with promise. As AI

techniques grow more sophisticated and potent, their application across the drug
discovery spectrum catalyzes the creation of novel drugs that are more potent, safer,
and expeditiously developed (Gupta et al. 2022c; Sarkar et al. 2023; Askr et al.
2023).
22 U. Gupta et al.

1.13.3 Potential Breakthroughs Envisioned by AI

• Novel Drug Target Identification: AI is essential to discovering drug targets

indispensable for pathogenic microbes’ survival while sparing human cells.
This breakthrough is poised to revolutionize treatment strategies.
• Precision Drug Design: AI’s prowess in compound library screening for effica-
cious candidates that minimize side effects translates to ground-breaking drug
design—the result being drugs that combat microbes effectively and safeguard
patient well-being.
• Optimized Drug Properties: AI’s contribution in refining drug attributes like
solubility, stability, and pharmacokinetics ensures the creation of safer and
more effective medications. This leap improves patient outcomes while minimiz-
ing adverse effects.
• Innovative Drug Delivery: AI’s application extends to reimagining drug delivery
methods, bolstering the safety and efficacy of new drugs. Innovative approaches
can lead to more targeted and efficient treatment.
• Accelerated Drug Discovery: The integration of AI drives the entire journey of
drug discovery, spanning from target identification to regulatory approval, with
the potential to accelerate the whole process.
In conclusion, the infusion of AI into microbial drug discovery is poised to bring
about an evolutionary shift. AI’s capacity to swiftly analyze vast datasets, optimize
drug properties, and predict efficacious compounds sets the stage for ground-
breaking advancements. Considering the trajectory of AI’s progress and implemen-
tation, the outlook for microbial drug discovery is undeniably promising. This holds
the potential to yield treatments that are safer, more effective, and readily accessible.

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Chapter 2
Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial
Intelligence

Manoj Ram Tammina, K. Sumana, Pavitar Parkash Singh,

T. R. Vijaya Lakshmi, and Sagar Dhanraj Pande

Abstract Plant diseases are a persistent threat to global food security due to their
ability to damage crops. They account for 20–40% of loss of global food trade every
year. The exploding global food trade, coupled with climate change, has led to the
sustainability of native plant pests in the new environment, worsening the condition.
Additionally, new plant pests and diseases continue to threaten staple crops. This
sheds light on the need for the implementation of novel techniques to diagnose plant
diseases to tackle the global food crises. Implementation of artificial intelligence
(AI)-based methods such as machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), and
artificial neural networks can aid in overcoming such challenges by conducting
early diagnosis of plant pests and diseases. In recent years, many research investi-
gations conducted on plant disease detection using AI have offered valuable insights
for agriculturists, botanical researchers, practitioners, and industrial professionals.
The applications DL and ML methods for plant disease detection are growing
rapidly. This chapter will shed light on recent cutting-edge research in this field,
including the latest advancements involving AI-based plant disease detection. It will
also address the trials and limitations related to the usage of AI-based methods for
plant disease diagnosis.

M. R. Tammina (✉)
Innovation, Bread Financial, Columbus, OH, USA
K. Sumana
Department of Microbiology, JSS AHER, Mysuru, India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. P. Singh
Department of Management, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
e-mail: [email protected]
T. R. V. Lakshmi
Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology, Gandipet, Hyderabad, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. D. Pande
School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh,
India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 25
A. Khamparia et al. (eds.), Microbial Data Intelligence and Computational
Techniques for Sustainable Computing, Microorganisms for Sustainability 47,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9621-6_2
26 M. R. Tammina et al.

Keywords Plant pest infection · Deep learning · Artificial intelligence · Neural

network

2.1 Introduction

The global starvation rate crossed 950 billion in 2022. Over 100 billion individuals
are suffering from varying types of starvation and malnutrition. However, while
growing population needs is the major attributing factor, plant diseases are one of the
greatest threats to the agricultural industry and global food security. Every year 40%
of crops are affected due to plant pests, rendering them a persistent threat to crop
health. Climatic changes, lack of agricultural responses, and sustainability of plant
pests are threatening global food security. Plant diseases caused by pathogens and
pest attacks are one of the major risk factors for global food crises. Annual loss of
potatoes, peas, maize, rice, soya beans, and tomatoes due to pathogenic infection
contributes to 10–25% of crop loss per annum. The crisis due to crop diseases is not
restricted to food security, but is also the result of considerable economic loss and
reduced agricultural yield. Roland et al. have described that crop loss is the decrease
of the crop yield in terms of quality and quantity. Qualitative crop loss assessment
involves the analysis of efficiency of current crop protection practices, assessing the
green crop yield strategies and pest protection strategies and integrated management
of plant diseases. Quantitative crop loss evaluation involves assessment of biotic and
abiotic factors. Assessing crop losses might offer a better insight into the problem
and pave the way for development of efficient identification techniques.
Agriculture is critical to guaranteeing global food security and sustaining global
economies. Plant diseases are one of the most serious threats to agricultural output
and quality. Plant illnesses produced by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses,
and other biotic agents result in significant yield losses, worse crop quality, and
higher production costs. Whole harvests can be destroyed due to crop diseases,
threatening food supply, food security, and economic stability (Jones 2009).To
avoid these hazards and preserve sustainable agricultural practices, effective plant
disease control is required. The cornerstone of such management techniques is
prompt and accurate detection of plant diseases. The timely identification of
disease-causing agents enables targeted actions such as the implementation of
relevant therapies, the selection of resistant plant types, and the modification of
agricultural practices. This not only decreases crop losses but also the need for
chemical pesticides, resulting in more sustainable and economically viable agricul-
tural methods (Kamilaris and Kartakoullis 2021).
Artificial intelligence (AI) has created disruptive opportunities in a variety of
industries, including agriculture. The algorithms used for machine learning like
supervised learning methods and models fueled by data that may acquire knowledge
from trends and then make predictions or judgments are examples of AI. In the field
of plant disease diagnostics, AI has emerged as a game-changing technology capable
of supplementing and even outperforming traditional approaches (Savary et al.
2019).
2 Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial Intelligence 27

AI provides a distinct edge in dealing with the complex and diversified character
of plant diseases. Convolutional neural networks, also called neural networks
(CNNs), for example, can analyze plant photos to identify visual signals linked to
illnesses and have substantially improved image-based diagnosis. These artificial
intelligence models can quickly scan and analyze hundreds of photos, identifying
small differences in leaf colour, texture, and form that may signal disease prevalence
(Singh and Shrivastava 2018). Furthermore, AI may combine data from additional
sources, including sensor tracking environmental conditions, to offer a comprehen-
sive evaluation of illness risks.
AI has the capacity to predict disease and identify it early on. AI models can
forecast disease outbreaks with surprising accuracy by using past data, weather
trends, and other pertinent variables. Farmers should take preventive actions ahead
of time, optimizing resource allocation and minimizing crop losses. In essence,
artificial intelligence (AI) provides farmers and agricultural players with practical
knowledge that leads to better decision-making and disease control tactics (Elad and
Pertot 2014).
The goal of this chapter is to describe how AI is changing detection of plant
diseases in the context of agriculture and food security. This chapter seeks to give a
full picture of how technology might transform the agricultural environment by
looking into the promise and problems of incorporating AI approaches into disease
detection practices. This chapter’s focus includes many aspects of AI-driven plant
infection diagnostics. It will cover the principles of plant disease diagnostics,
emphasizing the variety of pathogens including their impact on crops. Traditional
diagnostic procedures will be explored, emphasizing their limits and the need for
novel alternatives. The focus will then move to the development of AI and its
components, specifically on how AI approaches may revolutionise illness detection
by improving precision, rapidity, and portability.
Further sections will shed light on the process of data gathering and preparation,
emphasizing the need for reliable information for training strong AI models. They
will dig into the complexities of constructing and educating AI models, shedding
light on algorithm selection and feature extraction subtleties. The chapter will also
go into depth on image-based and sensor data-based illness diagnostic methodolo-
gies, as well as successful examples and the influence of AI on continuous surveil-
lance and disease prediction.
In addition, the chapter will go through the difficulties of installing AI-based
detection techniques in the field, taking into account variables like data protection,
connection, and farmer approval. Ethical and societal ramifications will be discussed
as well, emphasizing the importance of responsible AI usage in agriculture. The
chapter will conclude by looking ahead to future directions and advances in this area,
reviewing new trends, and imagining how AI will revolutionize precision farming
and green agricultural practices.
Finally, this chapter aims to shed light on the symbiotic link that exists between
plant disease detection, agriculture, and AI. It intends to encourage more study,
cooperation, and implementation of AI technologies for the improvement of global
28 M. R. Tammina et al.

food security and agricultural practices by revealing the revolutionary potential of AI

in disease control.

2.2 Fundamentals of Plant Disease Diagnosis

Plant diseases produced by pathogens such as fungi, microbes, viruses, and other
biological agents represent a substantial danger to global food and agricultural
production. Proper plant disease identification is critical for successful disease
management and ensuring optimal crop production and quality (Kamilaris et al.
2021). This section delves into the core ideas of plant illness diagnosis, including
different kinds of plant illnesses, their symptoms, standard diagnostic procedures,
and the demand for novel methods.

2.2.1 Plant Disease Types

Plant diseases include a wide spectrum of problems that affect plant health and
production. Plant diseases are broadly classified into infectious and non-infectious
based on the causal agent. Living organisms such as fungi, viruses, microbes, and
nematodes cause infectious diseases, but non-living causes such as nutritional
deficits, environmental pressures, and chemical imbalances cause non-infectious
diseases (Agrios 2005). Biotic diseases, especially those caused by microorganisms,
have received a great deal of attention because of their potential to inflict massive
production losses (Savary et al. 2019).

2.2.2 Symptoms and Signs

Plant disease symptoms present as apparent shifts in plant physical appearance,

structure, and function. Leaf withering, discoloration, retarded development, lesions,
and deformation are among the symptoms (Lucas 2008). Plant illnesses may also
create visual indicators such as fungal spores, bacterial slime, or viral inclusions.
These symptoms and indications act as markers of illness existence, allowing for
precise diagnosis and treatment.

2.2.3 Conventional Diagnostic Techniques

Visual inspection, microscopic examination, and laboratory testing are the mainstays
of traditional plant disease diagnosis techniques. Visual inspection entails close
2 Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial Intelligence 29

examination of plant symptoms and warning signals, sometimes requiring skilled

individuals to distinguish among diseases with similar symptoms (Schumann and
D’Arcy 2010). Microscopic analysis entails looking at spores, mycelium, and other
types of microscopic structures, particularly in the case of fungal illnesses. Enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and polymerase chain reactions (PCR) are
examples of laboratory tests used to identify certain infections.

2.2.4 Limitations of Traditional Methods

Traditional methods have helped diagnose plant diseases, but they have drawbacks
as well. Windstam and Schmale (2018) revealed that visual analysis may be
subjective and greatly depends on the observer’s skill. Pathogen detection may be
time-consuming and necessitates specific tools and expertise for microscopic inves-
tigation.Additionally, these techniques might not be appropriate for quick, wide-
ranging disease screening, which is necessary to stop massive epidemics.

2.2.5 Need for AI-driven Innovative Methods

The problems posed by changing diseases, shifting climatic circumstances, and

international trade call for the development of novel, effective diagnostic methods.
Here, artificial intelligence (AI) starts to influence the game. By overcoming the
drawbacks of current techniques, AI has a chance to transform the detection of plant
diseases. Kamilaris and Prenafeta-Boldú (2018a) reported that convolutional neural
networks (CNNs), a type of deep learning model, are particularly good at evaluating
vast amounts of information and spotting complicated patterns. These algorithms
can analyze tens of thousands of plant photos, picking up on minute variations in
texture, hue, and form that may be signs of illness. To give a comprehensive
evaluation of illness risks, AI may also combine data from additional sources,
particularly networks of sensors monitoring environmental variables. Accuracy,
rapidity, scalability, and flexibility to shifting disease dynamics are promises of
plant disease detection powered by AI methods (Das et al. 2020).
The principles of plant diagnosis of diseases cover the many disease types, their
signs and symptoms, conventional diagnostic techniques, and the drawbacks of
these procedures. Innovative solutions are necessary as the agriculture industry
struggles to feed a growing global population (Kamilaris and Prenafeta-Boldú
2018b). An interesting opportunity to improve our capacity to quickly and reliably
detect illnesses is the use of AI in plant disease diagnostics. This will enable farmers
to make better choices regarding managing plant health more successfully.
30 M. R. Tammina et al.

2.3 Role of Artificial Intelligence in Plant Disease Diagnosis

One of the most exciting developments in recent years is the use of the application of
AI in plant disease diagnostics. The convergence of technology and agricultural
production has produced transformational improvements (Hughes and Salathé
2015). As plant pathogens continue to pose a threat to agricultural sustainability
and global food security, AI is emerging as a formidable tool with the potential to
completely transform disease identification, prediction, and control. This section
explains the critical significance of AI in diagnosing plant diseases while highlight-
ing its advantages, drawbacks, and practical applications (Mohanty et al. 2016).

2.3.1 AI: Changing the Diagnosis of Plant Disease

Artificial intelligence refers to a variety of methods that give computers the ability to
learn, reason, solve problems, and make decisions—tasks that traditionally require
human intellect. Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques like machine learning and
deep learning have excelled in diagnosing plant diseases. These tools analyze
enormous volumes of data, uncovering trends and connections that may elude
traditional methods (Mohanty et al. 2016).

2.3.2 Disease Diagnosis Based on Images

Image analysis is one of the most impressive ways in which AI is being used to
diagnose plant diseases. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs), a type of deep
learning algorithm, are particularly good at processing visual input. In this situation,
they can carefully examine plant photos for minute changes in hue, texture, and form
that indicate the presence of diseases. AI models are able to classify the severity of
illness as well as detect diseases. With the use of this computerized picture analysis,
illness detection for farmers may be done more quickly and accurately (Picon et al.
2020).

2.3.3 Sensor Data and Disease Forecasting

AI goes beyond imaging to help identify plant diseases. Sensors placed in farming
areas can gather information on environmental factors including temperature,
humidity, and moisture levels in the soil. These data may be processed by AI
systems, which correlate variations with the prevalence of disease. AI algorithms
can anticipate disease outbreaks remarkably accurately by examining historical
2 Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial Intelligence 31

trends and real-time inputs. Farmers may take preventative actions thanks to this
proactive strategy, decreasing crop losses and maximizing resource allocation (Picon
et al. 2020).

2.4 AI’s Advantages in Plant Disease Diagnosis

Beyond accuracy and speed, the use of AI for plant disease diagnostics offers a
variety of advantages.

2.4.1 Early Disease Detection and Prevention

AI-powered systems may identify illness in the very early stages, allowing for
prompt interventions and halting large-scale epidemics by implementing algorithms
(LeCun et al. 2015).

2.4.2 Accuracy and Scalability

To improve illness prediction and management, AI models examine data with high
accuracy and can be scaled to study enormous datasets.

2.4.3 Reduced Dependence on Chemicals

Early illness identification reduces the need for overuse of pesticides, encouraging
ecologically friendly and sustainable farming methods.

2.4.4 Improved Decision-making Capability

AI-generated insights enable farmers to make educated decisions about agriculture

and disease management measures.
32 M. R. Tammina et al.

2.5 Barriers to Implementing AI Techniques in Plant

Disease Diagnosis

Although AI has great potential for diagnosing plant diseases, there are a number of
issues that need to be resolved, described by Das et al. (2020).

2.5.1 Data Accuracy

For training, AI models need access to extensive, diversified, and reliable datasets.
For a model to work well, accurate data must be made available.

2.5.2 Model Interpretability

Deep learning models’ “black-box” nature might make it difficult to grasp how
choices are made. Transparency of the model must be maintained.

2.5.3 Infrastructure and Accessibility

It’s possible that many farmers lack the financial means or technological know-how
to use AI systems efficiently.

2.6 Current Trends in AI Involvement in Plant Disease

Diagnostics

Das et al. (2020) described that AI-based plant disease detection is already showing
promise in the following areas.
Cassava Disease Detection: AI models have been created in Sub-Saharan Africa
to identify cassava illnesses from leaf photos, assisting farmers in prompt disease
control.
Monitoring Grapevine Disease: Drones powered by AI and fitted with cameras
take high-resolution pictures of vineyards, allowing early identification and targeted
treatment of grapevine disease.
Smartphone Applications: Simple apps for smartphones have been created that
enable farmers to take pictures of plant symptoms and instantly diagnose diseases
and provide treatment suggestions.
2 Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial Intelligence 33

The use of artificial intelligence in the identification of plant diseases represents a

turning point for contemporary agriculture. The use of analyzing images, data
collected from sensors, and predictive modeling by AI provides farmers with
previously unheard of capabilities for effectively and sustainably battling plant
diseases. However, overcoming obstacles, advancing accessibility, and encouraging
partnerships between AI professionals, agricultural scientists, and farmers are all
necessary for a successful adoption. The path from AI-driven insights to real-world
effect contains the potential to secure the world’s food supply, ensure the success of
agricultural economies, and promote a sustainable future.

2.7 Data Collection and Pre-processing

Artificial intelligence (AI) has been shown to be a game-changer in a number of

industries, and its use in plant disease detection has enormous potential to transform
agriculture. However, the preparation and quality of the data are key factors in
whether AI models succeed in this situation. In-depth discussion of data collecting
and initial processing for artificial intelligence-based plant disease detection is
provided in this section, which also emphasizes the significance of the integrity of
data sources, pre-processing methods, and problems in achieving trustworthy and
accurate findings.

2.8 The Significance of Data Quality

Data quality is the basis for all AI projects. High-quality data is essential for training
models to reliably discriminate between healthy and sick plants in the context of
plant disease detection. The capacity of the model to generalize and make wise
evaluations is improved by having clean, well-labeled, and diversified datasets.
Biased or inaccurate data might provide inaccurate forecasts and unreliable results
(Picon et al. 2020).

2.9 Data Sources

Image Databases: Images are used to record illness symptoms and signs. These
photographs encompass a range of settings, lighting types, and plant species,
ensuring the model’s durability and flexibility (Mohanty et al. 2016).
Sensor Networks: Information from environmental sensors, such as relative
humidity, temperature, and soil moisture, is used to improve disease prediction
models. In turn, prediction accuracy is improved by linking these environmental
elements to illness incidence (Mohanty et al. 2016).
34 M. R. Tammina et al.

Historical Information: The construction of disease prediction algorithms is

aided by historical information on outbreaks of disease, weather trends, and agri-
cultural practices. Disease risks can be predicted with the use of patterns and trends
derived from previous data (Mohanty et al. 2016).

2.10 Techniques for Pre-processing Data

Data cleaning is necessary since raw data frequently contains noise, inaccuracies,
and discrepancies. To maintain the integrity of the dataset, duplicates must be
eliminated, errors must be fixed, and missing values must be filled in.

2.10.1 Data Augmentation

By performing changes like spinning, trimming, and scaling on pre-existing photos,

augmentation techniques artificially enhance dataset size. Through this method,
overfitting is decreased, and model generalization is improved (Das et al. 2020).

2.10.2 Standardization and Normalization

By making pixel values in photos the same scale, features are guaranteed to be
comparable. Convergence of the model is hastened by standardized procedures,
which focuses data near zero with a unit standard deviation.

2.10.3 Feature Extraction

Simplifying the complexity of data and enabling more efficient model learning are
two benefits of extracting relevant features from pictures, such as patterns or color
histograms.

2.10.4 Balancing Classes

Class balance is achieved by either oversampling minority classes or undersampling

dominant classes.
2 Prediction of Plant Disease Using Artificial Intelligence 35

2.11 Data Collection and Pre-processing Challenges

2.11.1 Labeling Complexity

Accurately classifying pictures as healthy or ill requires knowledge. The symptoms

of several disorders may overlap, making accurate identification difficult (Das et al.
2020).

2.11.2 Imbalanced Data

Imbalanced classes result from the fact that sick samples frequently exceed healthy
ones by a large margin. This imbalance may affect how well the model can identify
illnesses (Das et al. 2020).

2.11.3 Data Access and Privacy

Disseminating agricultural data presents privacy issues. Due to proprietary limita-

tions and data ownership, accessing a variety of datasets may be difficult (Das et al.
2020).

2.11.4 Environmental Variability

Changes in the backdrop, imaging, and lighting can add noise and have an influence
on the model’s generalizability.
The steps of data gathering and pre-processing are essential in developing AI
models for diagnosis of plant diseases. The dependability and accuracy of AI fore-
casts are fueled by high-quality data. AI models may recognize disease trends and
generate accurate forecasts by utilizing resources like imaging databases, networks
of sensors, and historical records together with efficient pre-processing algorithms.
The promise of AI-based plant disease diagnosis is still transformational, even
though issues like labeling intricacy, data disparity, and confidentiality must be
addressed. Agriculture stands to gain from better disease management, improved
crop yields, and sustainable farming methods by ensuring precise data collection and
rigorous pre-processing.
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 The motion was then put to the meeting and
carried unanimously.
“I, oh so tired!” says S. J.-B.,—“hearing voices
round me in a sort of swoon.”
Her letter-bag for the next few days was enough
to put new life into anyone.
“24 Hill Street,
Edinburgh.
“My dear Miss Blake, and all your brave sisterhood, Three cheers
for you and one cheer more! My husband has just come back and
told me of your victory.
May this be an augury of future success in every direction.
Ever very truly yours,
E. H. S. Blackie.”

A lawyer who had strenuously opposed the idea of

mixed classes writes,
“For your sake, I shall make my first charity this year £5 to the
Infirmary.”

And no one was more enthusiastic than the young

man who was demonstrator of Anatomy at the time
of the riot:
“It would be almost a mockery to wish you all a Happy New Year
after such success. It is enough to turn one’s head, but only, I
suppose, the heads which hammered on so hard in defeat, or rather
repulse, are not to be turned with victory.”

It would have been almost a mockery, certainly,

though not in the sense he meant.
 “Sunday, Jan. 7th. Hear that the doctors are going about getting
their patients to sign papers,—exact tenor unknown.”

True enough, here were already the first

mutterings of a fresh storm, and indeed, most people
must have been rather uneasy at so terrifying a
victory.
“Dear Miss Jex-Blake,” writes Dr. Heron Watson on January 5th,
“See to it that there is a full representation on behalf of the ladies on
Monday week at the adjourned meeting, as I expect foul play!...”

And another lawyer writes:

“Dear Miss Jex-Blake,
I don’t know whether you are taking any means to secure a
muster of your friends at the Infirmary meeting on Monday week;
but I think it would be worth while to do so. I am afraid our
opponents may attempt a surprise for the purpose of rescinding the
Statute passed at last meeting as to the admission of Lady Students.
I have not heard that they have any such plan on foot; but as no
notice requires to be given of any such motion, they may not
improbably try it, trusting to our being off our guard.
Yours truly,
William Robson.”

A fortnight after the Annual Meeting, the

Contributors met to hear the result of a scrutiny of
the votes, and it was then that the following
unexpected issue—quite distinct, of course, from the
immediate object of the scrutiny—was thrust upon
them:
On the side of the women had voted,
 28 firms,
31 ladies,
7 doctors.

On the side of the powers,

14 firms,
2 ladies,
37 doctors.

It was now claimed that the votes of firms were

incompetent, at the majority really lay on the other
side.
“It mattered nothing,” said the Scotsman,[96] “that firms had voted
ever since the Infirmary was founded; that contributors qualified
only as members of firms had, as has now been ascertained, sat
over and over again on the Board of Management, and on the
Committee of Contributors. It was of equally slight importance that
the firms whom it was now sought to disqualify had been among the
most generous benefactors of the charity, and that, with the
imminent prospect before them of great pecuniary necessity, it
would probably be impossible, without their aid, to carry out even
the plans for the new building. The firms had voted in favour of the
ladies, and the firms must go, if at least the law would (as it
probably will not) bear out the medical men in their reckless
endeavour to expel them.”

An appeal to law, however, is a slow affair, and on

this occasion there was obviously no inducement for
the law to bestir itself unduly. It was not till July 23rd
that Lord Jerviswoode pronounced the votes of firms
to be perfectly valid.
 The case was appealed to a higher court, where it
did not come on for trial till the end of October: it
was then again postponed and judgment was not
given till December.
“Dec. 7th. Saturday. Judgment from Second Division in our favour
on all points.”

The Annual Meeting was now once more at hand,

however, when new managers might be elected who
were unfriendly to the women. Needless to say the
woman’s party lost no time. A Contributors’ meeting
was called for December 16th, and another for
December 23rd, when a vote was passed admitting
the women to the Infirmary on condition that their
visits were to be separate from those of the men,
and that they were to go only to those wards where
their presence was invited by the physicians.
So at last they got their tickets, and began an
attendance which was to “qualify” for graduation.
“Qualify” in the technical sense; assuredly not in
any other. What the girl graduate of the present day
would say to such qualification, one need scarcely
ask. Here is S. J.-B.’s account of it:
“Dr. Balfour gave us a separate hour in his wards three times a
week, and such chances of practical study as could be arranged from
time to time. Dr. Watson’s very large practice, as the most eminent
surgeon in Scotland, made it impossible for him, at whatever
inconvenience, to repeat his visit in this manner, and our enemies
would have gained their point, had he not, with a kindness which I
find myself even now quite unable to acknowledge duly, given up for
the two whole winter sessions his Sunday mornings (his one day of
rest) to our instruction, while steadily refusing to accept any fees
whatever for this great sacrifice of his time and strength. Few more
chivalrous acts were ever done, and I only hope he found his reward
in the lifelong gratitude of a dozen women, who were not at that
time too much accustomed to such kindness and courtesy as his.”

To the end of her life, S. J.-B. looked upon these

two men as “the shadow of a great rock in a weary
land,” and another name she would have added with
(in one sense) even better reason—that of Dr. Peel
Ritchie, who, a strong Conservative, absolutely and
avowedly at that time without sympathy for the
“cause,” from a sheer sense of fair play, gave up his
class of men at the Royal Dispensary in order to
teach a class of women instead.

Of course S. J.-B. was a “celebrity” by this time.

Here is an amusing letter from a distinguished man
who had been asked to meet her and her friends at
dinner:
[Letter undated.]
“My dear Editor,
Wae’s me that I am engaged on Saturday! If I could on any
decent pretence get off I would do it aftsoons, for apart from the
pleasure of meeting yourself and Mrs. R., I would like fine to meet
the other ladies in such company, especially some of them. I won’t
say which!
 But I accepted an invitation the other day from —— to meet a Mr.
—— a very nice Irishman that’s working at our Celtic MSS., and I
promised to show the Milesian the way. So though I would go far for
the sake of the ladies and of you, I feel that it would be rather too
flagrant a breach of faith to tell old —— that I have another
engagement which I had forgotten. I wish he or his wife would take
some harmless disease for a day or two and put off their dinner.
I needn’t say that I appreciate immensely the distinction of being
asked as the one man in Edinburgh worthy of admission to that
select company! It’s equal to the Cross of the Legion of Honour and
a great deal better. There’s something in the idea too that piques the
imagination. It’s as if—but far better—a favoured mortal got a
special card per Ganymede, to sup quietly in Olympus with Mr. and
Mrs. Jupiter and the Misses Minerva, Diana and Urania: or like being
asked by a Flamen and his wife to meet three of the Vestal Virgins
over a jar of Falernian; or again like an invitation from the grand
Lama to have a little jollification with a few Buddhist lady abbesses
in the innermost shrine of the great temple at Lassa, or from a chief
of Carbonari to take a glass and pipe with Mazzini, Garibaldi, etc.
There’s no end of the things it suggests.
As to your unworthy fears, fie upon them! You are more to be
envied than the Sultan, the Pope or Brigham Young.
Hoping to have a chance some other time of doing homage to the
Trinity, and to have the pleasure soon of calling upon Mrs. Russel.
I rest,
Ever Yours,
——.”

And her fame—or notoriety—extended to the most

unexpected classes of society. “Miss Jex-Blake had
that house last year,” the driver of a Highland coach
would say, pointing with his whip in the direction of
the farm where she had stayed. Her name occurred
repeatedly in that year’s pantomime, and Harlequin
and Columbine had called to ask if she had any
objection to this,—an incident which she always
recalled with amusement and appreciation. The main
reference, as it happened, was quite complimentary.
A game was played on the stage in which various
Edinburgh dignitaries were the cards; but “Miss Jex-
Blake” took the trick.
Her dislike of publicity was great, but she had long
since hardened herself to endure it in so far as was
necessary for her work’s sake. Beyond that she drew
the line absolutely. The press rang with her name for
a few years, but she steadily refused to be
interviewed. It was nothing to her that the public
had not the smallest idea of the more human side of
her character. “Nothing,” she wrote in response to
many requests, “would induce her to consent to the
sale of her photograph.” Her holidays were spent in
absolute retirement, and intimate friends will never
forget how, on the first day in the country, the words
would rise to her lips,—
“The pulse of dew upon the grass kept his within its number,
And silent shadows from the trees refreshed him like a slumber.”

A memorandum of this period directs that, in case

of her death, the funeral shall be as simple and
inexpensive as possible, and that the headstone—if
headstone there be—shall bear only her name, the
dates, and the words,—“Then are they glad because
they be quiet.”
“Partly you see, I am so tired,” she had written half to herself and
half to Miss Du Pre in February,—“not physically or even mentally
exactly. I could come up to any given exertion of either kind for the
time being; but my whole nature is strained and wearied. I can get
up energy for nothing,—can but just get through the day’s work in
the day and long for rest!

‘Hades must rest us for ages,

Ere we can glory see.’

No, my glory is rest!...

How strange lives are! Miss Anderson’s husband—married Oct. 5th
(?), died on Monday, November 12th,—love enough to change a life
for, and it,—no, not it, the marriage,—ends in 4 months!”

It was about this time that her friend Mrs. Unwin

died. Up to the last she had followed the Edinburgh
campaign with intense interest and sympathy. S. J.-B.
had promised that, whatever the claims of her work
might be, she would pay a last visit to the Yorkshire
home in case of “utter need”; but Mrs. Unwin
refused to make this plea. Resolutely she bore her
own cross: and, with a last message of “deepest love
and regard,” she passed away.
 CHAPTER XIII
THE ACTION AGAINST THE SENATUS

“Madam,
... I never read or heard of such a hard case as yours—and so
peculiar. It might be worth while to seek the advice of a Solicitor—
who would consult counsel—to find out whether you and your
disappointed friends have no case at Law. I would (if it be possible)
just like to know what the Court of Session would have to say,
touching—not only the arbitrariness, but the gross injustice, if not
absolute illegality, of the whole affair. You matriculate—get through
with about half of your classes—great loss of time—money—
disappointment—even exasperation or half ruin—all incurred: and
are then summarily brought to—made to fairly stick—and yet no
legal remedy! I can’t believe it. I would try and find out,—but yet, it
is an awful prospect. The length of time, and expense that would
have to be borne, ere any decision could be come to. You seem to
me like one who took a leap, without seeing from the first,[97] where
the leap was to land you. For surely, had you foreseen all this,—you
never would have set foot in Edinburgh....
The tide is coming in and nothing can retard it,—nothing worth
speaking of. And these views will be realised and acted upon some
day. Depend upon it.
The day will come when women will sit cheek by jowl with men
through a six months’ course of Anatomy, Physiology, Midwifery, etc.,
etc., right cheerfully, and neither jeering nor sneering there—nor
winks nor any other impertinences—singularly misplaced and out of
time—if certain important personages could only see matters rightly.
Yes, and walk the Hospitals—surgical and medical—and the lying-in
Hospital also, the Eye Infirmary, the Cancer one and the
Consumptive one, and the Lock into the bargain. And then all these
important obstructives will be dead, buried, rotten—forgotten—and
their writings selling at three halfpence per lb.”

The above is quoted from the letter of a complete

stranger,—the so-called “man in the street”
apparently, and is a sample of many that came
pouring in upon S. J.-B. during those troublous years.
“Has the University any right to act like this?” friends
kept asking constantly; and we know that more than
one of the Professors had advised an appeal to a
Court of Law.
Towards the close of 1871, S. J.-B. seems to have
consulted her brother on the subject, drawing from
him the following letters:
“The College,
Cheltenham.
Nov. 18. 1871.
My dearSophy,
I do not think you can gain anything by sueing the Professors
or by going to Law with the University in any other shape.
It may be too late now to persuade, but it would be at all times
hopeless to compel, a great University to open its doors to ladies.
I return the Queries and Opinions: and should distrust legal
opinions that advised further law-suits.
It is most provoking, and your treatment has been unjust: but it
comes to my mind to this, When they persecute you in one city, flee
ye to another.
You can make better use of your time by getting University
instruction elsewhere, than by throwing legal pebbles at the
University gates of Auld Reekie: and life being short you had better
gather up the net result of your Scotch experience, and go to Zürich
or Paris, or wherever your own knowledge and judgment lead you.
I am exceedingly sorry for you; but I see nothing else to be done,
so far as I understand the facts.
It is very tantalizing that the majorities have always been so
narrow: and that there has been so much to justify sanguine friends
in their advice.
I shall be glad to hear your decision, and both Hetty and I are
very sorry for you.
Your affect. brother,
T. W. J.-B.”

“The College,
Cheltenham,
Nov. 21. 1871.
My dear Sophy,
There is more to be said for legal action than I knew of: for I
thought Paris or Zürich degree was legal qualification in England:
though of course to go abroad for degree is objectionable in several
ways, and the language must slightly increase the difficulties.
Still there is nothing to be said for legal action unless it is likely to
succeed: and of that your Scotch lawyers are the best judges:
though their expectations hitherto have been more sanguine than
accurate in your case.
I am sorry I cannot be of much use, and very sorry the Trades
Union is so strong and so well organized.
It must be very annoying, and is certainly a horrible waste of time:
but half of most people’s time is spent in untying the foolish knots of
blind opponents.
Hetty joins in love.
Your affect. brother,
T. W. J.-B.”

“13 Sussex Square,

Brighton.
Jan. 21. 1872.
 My dearSophy,
One line to wish you many happy returns of the day, and to tell
you that all is going on very well here....
We were very glad that you crept into such a haven of rest as Mrs.
Nichol has to offer you: and I am quite sure the strain of so much
fighting and organizing must be very great.
It seems hardly possible that you should get on with your own
Medical education while there is so much polemical business on
hand; but if you carry the point for all women, it will be cheaply
bought at the sacrifice of two or three years of individual training in
books and bones.”

“When they persecute you in one city, flee ye to

another.”
This was advice which S. J.-B. had always kept well
in mind, though not with regard to Paris and Zürich;
and enquiries as to other British Universities had
been diligently prosecuted. St. Andrews was the one
that most naturally suggested itself, “as a
comparatively rural University, without male students
of medicine, and yet with the power to grant
degrees.” It is true that the Medical Curriculum at St.
Andrews was—and is—very incomplete; but the
deficiency might be made good by some teaching-
school unable—or unwilling—to grant degrees.
Professor Lewis Campbell and Mrs. Campbell had
taken a deep interest in the project of making their
University the Alma Mater of the women students; S.
J.-B. had visited them at St. Andrews in the autumn
[98]
of 1871, with Miss Massingberd Mundy ; and there
are a number of cordial letters witnessing to the
genuine desire of both the Professor and his wife for
the success of the scheme.
Their enthusiasm was not typical of the University,
however, though Principal Tulloch “seemed friendly in
a vague way”; and all hope in this direction had, for
the moment, to be given up.
Meanwhile S. J.-B., on behalf of herself and her
fellow-students, had made a final appeal to the
University Court of Edinburgh to provide them with
the means of completing their education, and she
had also forwarded to them a farther legal opinion
from the Lord Advocate and Sheriff Fraser to the
effect that the University authorities had full power
to permit the matriculation of women in 1869; that
the resolutions then passed amounted to a
permission to women to “study Medicine” in the
University, and that therefore the women concerned
were entitled to demand the means of doing so; and
finally, that if such means were persistently refused,
the legal mode of redress lay in an Action of
Declarator.
On January 8th the University Court resolved that
it was not in their power to comply with the
requirements of the women as regarded teaching:
the whole question, they said, had been
“complicated by the introduction of the subject of
graduation, which is not essential to the completion
of a medical or other education”: if the ladies would
altogether give up the question of graduation, and
be content with certificates of proficiency, the Court
would try to meet their views.
“They forgot,” says S. J.-B., “that though a degree is ‘not essential’
to a medical education, it is absolutely indispensable to any practical
use of it,—that is to any lawful practice of the medical profession.”

She offered, however, to waive the question of

graduation,—pending an authoritative decision as to
the powers and duties of the University,—if
arrangements might meanwhile be made for the
women to continue their education. To this the Court
agreed. Farther correspondence, however, elicited
the fact that the Court had no intention of coming to
any decision with regard to its own powers, and that
it did not mean to take any active steps in the
matter.
“On the other hand,” says S. J.-B., “we had no less authority than
that of the Lord Advocate of Scotland for believing that we were
absolutely entitled to what we had so humbly solicited, and that a
Court of Law would quietly award to us what seemed unattainable
by any other means; we had the very widely spread and daily
increasing sympathy of the community at large, and received
constant offers of help from friends of every kind.... Under these
circumstances we did the one thing that remained for us to do, we
brought an Action of Declarator against the Senatus of the
University,—praying to have it declared that the Senatus was bound,
in some way or other, to enable us to complete our education and to
proceed to the medical degree which would entitle us to take place
on the Medical Register among the legally-qualified practitioners of
medicine.”

Of course the news of this daring step was

forthwith noised abroad, and S. J.-B. received a
protesting letter from Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, urging
her not to waste on an uncertain lawsuit, money that
might be so much more profitably spent in some
other way.
The following is S. J.-B.’s reply:
“Dear Dr. Blackwell,
I suppose rumour very seldom does report things correctly, so
I do not wonder that you have been misinformed about the action
which we are on the point of bringing against the Senatus. It is not
one for breach of promise (what fun Punch would make of it if it
were!) but simply an Action of Declarator whereby we pray one of
the Judges of Session to declare that the Senatus is bound to
complete our education, according to the decided opinion given by
the Lord Advocate of Scotland.
In the brief space of a letter it would be impossible for me to
submit to you all the facts and grounds on which our intention is
based, tho’ I should be glad to explain them in detail if you were on
the spot, but you will be glad to hear that not only are the whole of
the students here of the same mind as myself on this point, but our
determination is strengthened by the advice and concurrence of
some of the wisest heads in Edinburgh, including those of friendly
Professors. I hope therefore that you will believe that, though you
find a difficulty at a distance from the field of action in concurring in
our present step, you would probably do so if all the facts of the
case were as thoroughly before you as they are before us and our
counsellors.
 It is just because I find that London friends are so little au courant
of the facts that I am hoping to give an explanatory lecture when in
town next month, and I need not say how doubly glad I shall be to
give every explanation and information to you to whom [all] of us
medical women owe so much gratitude and respect as our pioneer
and forerunner.
Believe me,
Yours truly,
S. Jex-Blake.”

Now that there was something definite to be done,

S. J.-B. was in her element once more and the
following letters make it very clear that her
“counsellors” were working con amore.
“University Club,
Edinburgh.
18 March, 72.
Dear Miss Jex-Blake,
Under the dread of bringing disgrace on the whole masculine
race, I applied myself today during all the time I could command to
the framing of the great Summons, and I brought it up to a point at
which I think nothing of importance remains to be added except the
historical statement and the pleas in law, both of which you may
take for granted will be made right. If I can get them done this
evening I’ll send them to you.
I thought as you were in a hurry to see the thing I had better let
you have what I had done at once, and so I took it to White Millar
and left it with him to send you. There must be a distinction drawn
between you and the other ladies who are ready for the first
professional exam., and the others who are not. So you will please
note on the margin of the M.S. who those are that occupy these
respective positions and the exact stage at which the less advanced
ones have arrived. I must also have the dates and exact terms of the
several resolutions and letters referred to in the last article, so as to
make the chronological statement complete and accurate. I would
like before the thing is finally adjusted to consult all the available
sources of information on the subject of graduation and the original
constitution of the University, and also I think if Bologna was our
model, as seems to be taken for granted, that it would be worth
while to communicate with some one there, such as the Secretary of
the Senatus, if they have one, or the Librarian, to get authoritative
statistics on the subject.
I have not heard from the Dean of Faculty yet in reply to my
inquiry on the point of professional punctilio involved in my
undertaking the case, but another eminent legal friend whose advice
I highly value thinks on the whole that I ought not to undertake it.
This did not prevent me, however, from doing the Summons!
Meantime you needn’t mention that I am doing it, in case of my not
going on with the case, which might lead to unfavourable remarks, if
it were supposed that I had begun and afterwards backed out of it.
I’ll be very sorry to do so, if that is the Dean’s opinion.
Believe me,
Yours very truly,
Alex. Nicolson.”

Apparently the decision of the Dean was adverse

to Mr. Nicolson, for the case was taken up, and very
ably argued, by Sheriff Fraser and Mr. M‘Laren
(afterwards Lord M‘Laren), who had been junior
counsel in the libel case.
“I am quite certain,” writes Mr. Fraser to S. J.-B., “that upon a
more thorough investigation it will be found that women did attend
the Universities and graduated.... When you are up in London just
now perhaps you would refer to some of the books in the British
Museum, mentioned by Watts, which are not in the Advocates’
Library. You need not trouble yourself with the University of
Edinburgh, as I have gone over the whole Records of the Council
and of the Professors since the institution of the University, and I
cannot find a single case of a woman being a student. The same I
fear will be the result of an examination of the records of the other
universities. This was natural, for, until recently, both the law and the
social customs of Scotland, like those of other barbarous countries,
regarded women as nothing else but domestic drudges and field
hands.”

It was useless, of course, to suggest the British

Museum. S. J.-B. had long since exhausted that
mine. And she had no great faith in the information
to be derived from correspondence with foreign
secretaries and librarians. She had worked that vein
too. It still remained to send an emissary to examine
the archives of the Italian Universities at first hand,
and this was what she now resolved to do. Someone
had commended to her interest about this time an
able and well-educated young lady whose health was
causing her friends some anxiety, and, after watching
and tending her for some time S. J.-B. despatched
her on the mission, duly armed with the following
dossier:
“1. At each University get access, if possible, to the official
archives and lists of students, and make a complete list of every
woman who studied there, with date, Faculty, and other particulars.
2. If you cannot get access yourself, get the lists made by some
official, and, if possible, compare it with originals or other
authorities.
3. If possible get the Secretary or Librarian, or some Professor to
attest the list with his signature, as truly extracted from the records.
 4. Pay any necessary fees, having as far as possible arranged for
these beforehand.
5. Make copies in one book of every list obtained, of name and
address of each person making or attesting such lists, and of all
additional information likely to be of value.
6. Send off attested lists to me in registered letters as soon as
obtained, marking in your M.S. book the exact duplicate in case of
loss and sending a separate letter to Miss P. to announce dispatch.
7. Do not let your own M.S. book out of your hands for any
purpose.
8. Send all lists on foolscap and not on foreign paper.”

The ambassador seems to have carried through

her mission most efficiently, and an imposing array of
names was the result. At any rate that vein was now
worked out.
In the meantime “the great Summons” was duly
delivered, and on March 27th the Senatus met to
consider what action they should take with regard to
it. We get the following informal account of what
took place from Miss Pechey:
“I could not get particulars of the Senatus meeting ... till too late
to write last night, but it appears that it was first moved to defend
the action; then Fleeming Jenkin proposed that an attempt should
be made to have an amicable lawsuit. This was negatived by 17 to
10, and then the other motion not to defend the action being put
against the first, was negatived by 22 to 5. Many of our friends
voted to defend,—Wilson amongst others. He says he feels sure that
the thing will never be fairly settled without a legal decision. I saw
him today in his office. He is very anxious you should get some
member to ask a question when the Parliamentary grant is being
arranged.[99] He told me the enemy were dreadfully angry at the
suit, from which he concluded that our Summons is well drawn up.”
“This was the great argument for assenting to the corporate
defence,” writes Professor Masson, “i.e. that the Senatus could not
possibly let judgment go by default, which would yield all your
demands (compulsion of Professors, etc.) and yet not really settle
the thing, inasmuch as the Professors or anyone might afterwards
reopen the whole judgment. On the same ground it is that friends
don’t seem to want to stir individually. They say the defence is
corporately by the Senatus and everybody will understand that, and
hence that individual secession is superfluous. Tait, however, said he
would consult his lawyer, and Craufurd and Jenkin meditated
something of the same.”

On the other hand, six members of the Senatus—

anxious though they well might be to have the weary
question settled one way or the other—simply could
not allow the resolution to pass without protest, and
the following minute is duly recorded in the books of
the University:
“We dissent from and protest against the resolution of the Senatus
of March 27, 1872, to undertake the defence of the action. This we
do for the following reasons:—(1.) Because we see no just cause for
opposing the admission of women to the study and practice of
medicine; but, on the contrary, consider that women who have
honourably marked out such a course of life for themselves, ought to
be forwarded and aided in their laudable endeavour as much as
possible, by all who have the means, and especially by those having
authority in any University or other institution for education; (2.)
Because, in particular, we feel such aid and encouragement, rather
than opposition and discouragement, to be due from us to those
women who have enrolled themselves in the University of
Edinburgh, and we entirely concur, with respect to them, in the
desire expressed by Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the Rector of the
University, that they should obtain what they ask—namely, a
complete medical education, crowned by a degree; (3.) Because we
have seen no sufficient reason to doubt the legal and constitutional
powers of our University to make arrangements that would be
perfectly adequate for the purpose, and we consider the public
questioning of such powers, in present circumstances, by the
University itself, or any of its component bodies, unnecessary,
impolitic, and capable of being construed as a surrender of
permanent rights and privileges of the University, in order to evade a
temporary difficulty; (4.) Because, without pronouncing an opinion
on the question now raised, as to the legal rights which the pursuers
have acquired by matriculation in the University, admission already
to certain examinations, or otherwise, to demand from the University
continued medical instruction and the degree on due qualification,
we yet believe that they have thereby, and by the general tenor of
the proceedings, both of the Senatus and of the University Court in
their case hitherto, acquired a moral right, and created a public
expectation, which the University is bound to meet by the full
exercise of its powers in their behalf, even should it be with some
trouble; (5.) Because, with these convictions, and notwithstanding
our utmost respect for those of our colleagues from whom we may
have the misfortune to differ on the subject, we should individually
feel ashamed of appearing as defenders in such an action, and
should account any such public appearance by us in the character of
opponents to women desiring to enter an honoured and useful
profession, a matter to our discredit.”
[100]
The following are the names of the six
Professors who felt bound thus to stand out against
the arguments of their colleagues.
John Hughes Bennett, M.D., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine,
David Masson, M.A., Professor of Rhetoric and
English Literature,
Henry Calderwood, LL.D., Professor of Moral
Philosophy,
James Lorimer, M.A., Professor of Public Law,
Archibald H. Charteris, D.D., Professor of Biblical
Criticism and Biblical Antiquities,
[101]
William Ballantyne Hodgson, LL.D., Professor of
Political Economy.
 CHAPTER XIV
THE LORD ORDINARY’S JUDGMENT

“Did you advertise your lecture in the Lancet? I expect you will
have a lot of blackguardly doctors there in consequence. Don’t have
any libel cases, and don’t be hard on the students. They’re very bad,
but they’re not so bad as the Professors.[102] I know you are very
busy writing and so on, and that there would be plenty of copying
for me to do if only I were at hand. Don’t you want me to bully and
be bullied by?
How I wish I could be in the gallery to make faces at you and
throw peas!”

An admirable and characteristic letter, this, from

Miss Pechey. Was a bracing message of warning and
sympathy to a senior and chum ever more tactfully
and lightly delivered?
On April 25th, after some days in the country, S.
J.-B. went to London and was met by Miss Du Pre
and Miss M‘Laren, who “heard and finally polished up
the lecture,” which was delivered the following day at
St. George’s Hall in the presence of a large and
curiously assorted audience. The Earl of Shaftesbury,
who occupied the chair, was supported by Professor
Lewis Campbell, Rev. Dr. Martineau, Mrs. Garrett
Anderson, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, the Dowager
Countess of Buchan, and other well-known folk, and
among the general public were a number of
girlhood’s friends, including Miss Ada Benson, Miss
Miranda Hill, and many “modern women,”—with a
sprinkling of Norfolk cousins. In the course of his
address the Chairman made a shrewd remark, of
which time has proved the truth:
“The argument that women were not wanted in the medical
profession struck him as very singular. He was old enough to
remember when railways and electric telegraphs were not wanted
for the simple reason that they were not known. When they became
known and tried, we could not do without them, and in all
probability it would be the same with reference to ladies in the
medical profession.”

In many ways the lecture was a success, and it

was largely quoted and referred to in the press; but,
for the ordinary hearer, it was overloaded with
statistics, and—with a view to that ever-possible
action for libel—the lecturer kept herself too well in
hand. It is amusing to find The Christian World
hinting a regret that she “had not really worked
herself up into a passion” in narrating the injustice
and vexations to which she had been exposed.
On the other hand, Mrs. Priscilla Bright M‘Laren, an
unbiassed expert, expressed the wish that the
lecture should be delivered throughout the length
and breadth of the land. The publication of a
pamphlet, she said, would not have the same effect,
because most people never have their sympathies
thoroughly roused unless they come face to face with
the person who has been persecuted. “If you could
be seen and heard” she wrote, “you would produce a
wonderful effect in favour of the cause you have at
heart.”
S. J.-B. had serious thoughts of carrying out this
suggestion, but—in the interests of her own health—
one is glad to record that wiser counsels prevailed.
“Thank you very, very much, darling, for your telegram,” writes
Mrs. Jex-Blake, the day after the lecture. “I thought if you knew how
anxious I had been the last few hours, you would send one, but I
did not at all expect it.”
“I have not known where to direct to keep adding my rejoicing at
the many accounts of the success of your lecture. Well, I am very
very glad for you and with you, and I pray things may somehow take
a fresh start. How very nice of some medical students to come and
officiate. I wish Professor Masson could have been there.”
“I am very glad to think of you as once more snug at home and I
hope with less work in view and some anxieties abated.... I am very
glad indeed you have given up going about lecturing.... Tom, too,
thinks you very wise to give it up: he was struck with your looking so
worn, and very vexed to see you so.”

It is interesting to note that S. J.-B. had taken an

invalid friend home with her to recruit! At the same
time she is writing to a protégée:
“I have seen Dr. Blackwell, and think she is rather disposed to give
you the work.... I think you should go in your bonnet, and look sage,
and not seem too eager for the work, and put a good price on
yourself,—say £2 a week, or, oh, you would accept £40 for the 6
months, etc. And be very confident you can do it all, if she asks you
to call on her.”

This is really the most worldly letter that S. J.-B.

ever wrote!

In all these later happenings, one misses the name

of Mrs. Butler, who had stood by S. J.-B. so
enthusiastically in the day of small things. As a
matter of fact, Mrs. Butler was now fully embarked
on her own heroic campaign, and both Mrs. Garrett
Anderson and S. J.-B. had failed to give her their
support. Thinking differently from each other on
many points, characterised indeed by a
fundamentally different way of looking at life, the
two medical women alike realized the complications
of modern civilization too profoundly to add the
stupendous question that occupied Mrs. Butler to a
programme that was already involved and difficult
enough. Mrs. Butler felt their attitude keenly, and it
was evidently with mingled feelings that she received
a letter from Miss Pechey about this time, asking the
privilege of adding her name and that of Canon
Butler to the ever-growing Committee.
“My dear Miss Pechey,” she writes, “You are welcome to use my
own and my husband’s names if you think they will do your cause
any good. We cannot conceive that they would, and, on that ground
alone, we should be as glad that you should not use them. It had
better be left to Miss Jex-Blake’s judgment.
“All the world knows that we are on opposite sides on one of the
most vital questions of the day, and that the Medical ladies have no
sympathy with the efforts being made to get rid of the scandal of a
great State system of legalised Prostitution, and therefore it appears
to Mr. Butler and me an inconsistency that our names should appear
in any such adverse connexion, deeply as we desire the prosperity
and success of the medical woman movement....”

“Dear Mrs. Butler,” writes S. J.-B. in reply,—“As Miss Pechey tells

me that you leave me to decide whether or no to place on our
Committee your name and Mr. Butler’s, I write to say that I shall
most gladly avail myself of your permission so to use your names.
I am glad to say that our Committee is made up of over a
thousand friends who not only differ widely on the point to which
you refer, but among whom differences no doubt exist on almost
every other question, social, political and religious.
As we cannot hope that even the most conscientious among us
will always agree on matters of judgment, I am sure that the only
wise rule is to keep each question distinct by itself, and to welcome
for it the support of all who care for its success, whether or no they
agree on other points.
With kind regards to Mr. Butler, believe me,
Yours truly,
S. Jex-Blake.”

The breach was never quite healed. When people

care more for great causes than for personal
pleasure and satisfaction, the loss of a friend must
sometimes be taken as part of the day’s work. Sunt
lachrymae rerum.
Meanwhile the work of propaganda was going on
steadily, and, as S. J.-B. had given up the idea of
lecturing in the great towns, she proceeded, as the
next best thing, to publish her lecture, in conjunction
with her historical researches on the subject of
Medical Women, in the form of a small volume.
Just as she was seeing this through the press,
news came of the illness of her Mother, who was
visiting the cousins at Bylaugh Park.
“June 17.
Darling Mother,
I am very sorry to hear that you have had such an attack
again. I should be really unhappy if I did not believe and trust in you
that you would telegraph for me if you at all wished for me, or if you
felt really seriously ill. Am I right in so trusting you?
I am sure they will take all the care they can of you, and I hope
you will be good and wise enough to eat all you can, broth at first,
and then as much meat and vegetables as possible—and lots of
strawberries!—are they ripe yet at Bylaugh?
You know that I am doing Dispensary work now, and have several
patients of all kinds to look after, but I envy the doctor that has my
old lady instead of me.
If you decide against going to Wales, suppose you come up here
straight from Norfolk, and we have a quiet month quite alone
together?—somewhere in the Highlands—if I have to give up
Brighton.
Of course I shall send you your own copy of my new book myself,
but Miss Pechey will send any quantity more that you may order for
giving away, etc.
How good of dear old Auntie to write!
Yours lovingly,
Soph.”
 The illness, however, rapidly assumed a dangerous
character, and S. J.-B. was telegraphed for next day.
“Luckily was up,” she says [she had been ill herself], “and received
the telegram by 9.50 a.m. Got things packed and off by 10.25 train.
Thunder and lightning whole way up. Reached Peterbro about 6.30,
—Lynn 9.15. Got a carriage and drove to Swaffham ...—thence to
Bylaugh, arriving at 2.45 a.m. Crept up to Mother’s room,—she, ‘My
darling!’—She had been nervous and restless, but slept, holding my
hand.
Oh, the horror of seeing her all shrunk together in bed, hardly
articulate,—I thought dying.
And had been very nearly....”

As usual when life was doing its worst, there follow

a few blank pages in the diary,—pages that were to
be filled in some day! “I am so glad,” wrote Miss
Jane Cubitt from Fritton,—Miss Cubitt was the
“sensible cousin” of the childhood, who could do
equations—“I am so glad that you have arrived at
Bylaugh. I feel now that all that can be done will be
done.” And fortunately on this occasion recovery
came more rapidly than the doctors had thought
possible.
S. J.-B. returned to Edinburgh on the 8th July, not
a moment too soon. She was called out to a case the
evening of her arrival—having travelled north by day
—and she proceeded forthwith to finish seeing her
book through the press. Law business, too, was
urgently claiming her return. On Wednesday, the
17th July, the historic lawsuit came on before Lord
Gifford.
It must be understood that this lawsuit, though of
almost infinite importance to the women, was in no
way a dramatic affair like the last. In the nature of
the case it afforded no sensations to provincial
papers. An Action of Declarator is “for a decree
[103]
defining and declaring the right of the pursuer,”
and the evidence in Court was given by Counsel only.
The women repeated in effect the requests they
had so often made to the University, viz. that the
Professors should either receive them as members of
their classes, or else appoint (or recognize) other
lecturers who would. The defence consisted
substantially of two pleas: 1. that all parties are not
called (see below); and 2. that the Senatus has not
the power to do what it is asked to do; in other
words, (a) that the University existed for men only,
and, (b) that the University authorities in making this
experiment, had never intended to admit women to
graduation. If they did so intend, the intention was
ultra vires; and indeed they probably went beyond
their powers when in 1869 they framed regulations
admitting women to share their privileges at all.
The hearing of the case lasted two days, and it
was fully reported in the Scottish daily papers of July
18th and 19th. Much of it, of course, consisted of
sheer technical detail that has long since lost
interest, but Lord Gifford’s judgment—delivered eight
or nine days after the hearing of Counsel—was
characterized by a grip of the whole situation and
enlivened by a warmth of human interest that make
it a landmark in the history, not only of medical
women, but of the whole Feminist movement. If he
allowed his sympathy with the pursuers to appear
rather too clearly, this was surely a fault that, in view
of all the circumstances, may well be reckoned to
him for righteousness. The gist of the judgment is
contained in the following sentences:
“The Lord Ordinary finds that, according to the existing
constitution and regulations of the said University of Edinburgh, the
pursuers are entitled to be admitted to the study of medicine in the
said University, and that they are entitled to all the rights and
privileges of lawful students in the said University, subject only to
the conditions specified and contained in the said regulations of 12th
November 1869: Finds that the pursuers, on completing the
prescribed studies, and on compliance with all the existing
regulations of the University preliminary to degrees, are entitled to
proceed to examination for degrees in manner prescribed by the
regulations of the University of Edinburgh.”

In the “Note,” the Lord Ordinary discusses the case

in detail:
“It is not easy to over-estimate the importance of the questions
involved in the present action. The decision may affect, in various
ways, not only the interests of the pursuers, and of all who are
similarly situated, but also the future welfare of the University, and
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