TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 09 February 2023

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

Connecting foreign language

OPEN ACCESS enjoyment and English proficiency
levels: The mediating role of L2
EDITED BY
Ahmet Güneyli,
European University of Lefka, Türkiye

REVIEWED BY
Mostafa Janebi Enayat,
motivation
University of Maragheh,
Iran
Anita Habók,
Haihua Wang , Lin Xu * and Jiaxin Li
University of Szeged, School of Foreign Languages, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
Hungary

*CORRESPONDENCE
Lin Xu To further understand the connections between positive emotions, in particular
[email protected] foreign language enjoyment, second language (L2) motivation, and English
SPECIALTY SECTION achievement, the present study investigated how foreign language enjoyment and
This article was submitted to
L2 motivation contribute to learners’ English achievement and the mediating role of
Educational Psychology,
a section of the journal motivation in the pathway. A questionnaire was employed to collect quantitative data
Frontiers in Psychology from 512 university students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in China. The
RECEIVED 27September 2022 results showed that the higher the language proficiency level, the higher the foreign
ACCEPTED 20 January 2023 language enjoyment level and the stronger the L2 motivation. Participants reported
PUBLISHED 09 February 2023
a significant difference in the private factor of foreign language enjoyment, the ideal
CITATION
L2 self, and the L2 learning experience among different language proficiency groups.
Wang H, Xu L and Li J (2023) Connecting
foreign language enjoyment and English Overall, foreign language enjoyment has a positive predictive effect on L2 motivation;
proficiency levels: The mediating role of L2 however, the influence of different dimensions varies among language proficiency
motivation. groups. Foreign language enjoyment is a positive predictor of English achievement,
Front. Psychol. 14:1054657.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657 and motivation partially mediates this pathway. These findings provided an in-depth
profile of foreign language enjoyment and L2 motivation of Chinese EFL learners at
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Wang, Xu and Li. This is an open- different language proficiency levels, highlighting the connections between positive
access article distributed under the terms of emotion, motivation, and English achievement, and the contribution of foreign
the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC language enjoyment and L2 motivation in English learning. Based on these findings,
BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in
other forums is permitted, provided the original pedagogical implications are suggested for English teaching and learning in Chinese
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are tertiary education.
credited and that the original publication in this
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution or KEYWORDS
reproduction is permitted which does not foreign language enjoyment, L2 motivation, language proficiency, foreign language
comply with these terms.
learning, tertiary education

1. Introduction
“Language learning can be very emotional, as anyone who has ever tried to learn or use another
language (L2) will attest” (Plonsky et al., 2022, p. 1). Indeed, research on emotions has a long history
in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). However, the accumulated literature has exclusively
focused on the negative affective factor: anxiety. The depth and breadth of research on this negative
emotional factor in SLA are evident from the fact that Scovel (1978) reviewed research on anxiety
as early as more than 40 years ago, and three decades later, Horwitz (2010) again combed through
the timeline of theoretical and empirical research on anxiety. With the introduction of Positive
Psychology (PP) into SLA (MacIntyre and Mercer, 2014), we see that the scope of emotion research
in SLA is not limited to negative emotions; rather, it has a broader world. The full spectrum of
emotions related to L2 development is under investigation now (Plonsky et al., 2022). PP emphasizes
the positive aspects of an individual’s emotions and characteristics, which does not mean that
negative emotions are ignored or even discarded in research, but rather aims to take a holistic

Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

perspective on human emotions. Riding on the wave of PP, L2 research terms as playing games. It may be a pleasure to win a game, while one
on positive emotions is blooming and booming. A group of scholars, may feel enjoyable even losing a game if “one has performed better than
represented by MacIntyre and Dewaele, have done a sizeable amount of expected against a superior opponent” (p. 217), revealing that enjoyment
research on the role of positive emotional factors in L2 learning and is related to both the process and the outcome. When it is related to the
performance from the PP perspective. The research topics address broad outcome, it tends to be more self-related. Later on, Teimouri (2017)
aspects of positive emotions, such as love (Pavelescu and Petrić, 2018), specified such a positive emotion in the L2 research realm as “language
grit (Wei et al., 2020), and the most frequently discussed enjoyment learners experience in the process of learning or using the target
(e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014, 2016; Dewaele and Alfawzan, 2018; language either within the boundary of a specific instructional context
Jiang and Dewaele, 2019; Dewaele and Li, 2021; Tahmouresi and Papi, or in authentic real-life situations” (p. 689).
2021; Li and Wei, 2022). The findings in these studies demonstrate that It needs to be clarified that the shift in the focus of research on
positive emotions play an important role in learners’ motivation, emotional factors influencing EFL learning does not mean a trade-off;
interest, performance, and achievement. The two basic theoretical rather, it means a shift from the particular focus on anxiety (MacIntyre
frameworks that underpin the understanding of positive emotions in and Gregersen, 2012; Li et al., 2018) to “the full spectrum of emotions
SLA are the broad-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) and the investigated in relation to L2 development” (Plonsky et al., 2022, p. 1).
control-value theory (Pekrun, 2006). The broad-and-build theory The last decade has seen the emergence of a large number of studies that
suggests that positive emotions could help learners’ effectiveness in examine both positive and negative emotions (e.g., MacIntyre and
absorbing input, thereby facilitating the L2 learning process (MacIntyre Gregersen, 2012; Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014, 2016; Dewaele et al.,
and Gregersen, 2012), and offsetting the effects of negative emotions. 2017, 2019b; Boudreau et al., 2018; Reeve et al., 2018; Dewaele and Li,
The control-value theory, on the other hand, proposes that learners’ 2021; Li et al., 2021; Tahmouresi and Papi, 2021; Li and Wei, 2022).
perceived control of the task and the degree of valuing the outcome of Among those, the study conducted by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014)
the activity affect the students’ emotions during the learning process, stands out since it was probably the first one to research on FLE in the
and these emotions play a role in motivating learning. Both theories L2 context and the effects of two emotional factors, enjoyment and
explain well the contribution of positive emotions to L2 performance. anxiety, on L2 learners and the learning process were also carefully
The previous focus on developing learners’ cognitive abilities in L2 depicted. In their study, 1,746 foreign language learners were enrolled
research, and the flourishing studies on positive emotions now, have with a wide range of demographic backgrounds (sex, age, education,
fruitful results, but there is less exploration of L2 learners’ emotional language being studied, foreign language mastery, relative standing in
factors and their interaction with motivational factors (Dewaele and Li, peers, nationality, and languages acquired). The results revealed that FLE
2020). Positive emotions, in particular enjoyment, and motivation have and FLCA were negatively correlated, but “enjoyment and anxiety
been proved to have a positive effect on L2 performance (e.g., Saito et al., appear to be independent emotions, and not opposite ends of the same
2018; Jiang and Dewaele, 2019; Tahmouresi and Papi, 2021). dimension” (p. 261). Participants reported significantly more enjoyment
Nevertheless, there is still uncertainty about the intrinsic connections than anxiety in L2 classes. Of note, compared with males, the female
between enjoyment, motivation, and language proficiency. To this end, participants scored higher on both FLE and FLCA. Moreover, higher
deeply probing into this set of uncertainty might contribute to casting levels of FLE were linked to multi-languages, relative standing in peers,
light on the interaction between positive emotion, motivation, and higher foreign language proficiency, older age, and learning experience
language proficiency. Using a sample of 512 Chinese tertiary students, in tertiary education. In addition, North American learners showed the
the present study aims to profile the foreign language enjoyment and L2 highest level of FLE, and Asian participants reported the opposite
motivation of EFL learners at different language proficiency levels, pattern. Furthermore, they conducted an in-depth investigation into the
investigate the connection between foreign language enjoyment and L2 factors that make students feel enjoyable in foreign language classes.
motivation, specifically the possible proficiency differences lying in the Through open-ended questions, participants gave feedback that
connection, and figure out the pathway by which enjoyment and supportive peers, teachers’ humor and encouragement, and creative
motivation affect English achievement. classroom activities were the main sources of learning enjoyment.
Since then, studies have been conducted on FLE, as well as on the
connections between FLE and other emotional and learner factors.
2. Review of literature Connecting FLE and learner variables, research was carried out with
different demographic variables (e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014,
2.1. Foreign language enjoyment 2016) and various populations, including but not limited to Chinese
secondary and tertiary EFL learners (e.g., Li, 2019; Li et al., 2019),
As the positive counterpart of foreign language classroom anxiety Japanese high school students (Saito et al., 2018), British high school
(FLCA; Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014), foreign language enjoyment students (Dewaele et al., 2017), Romanian high school learners
(FLE) is becoming a popular topic in SLA emotion research. Enjoyment (Pavelescu and Petrić, 2018), British pupils and Saudi undergraduates
was broadly described as the feeling when people enjoy something, or (Dewaele and Alfawzan, 2018), Saudi Arabic university students
simply the pleasure. Decades ago, Csikszentmihalyi (2004) made a (Alrabai, 2022), Spanish EFL learners (Dewaele et al., 2019b), and
distinction between two similar concepts: enjoyment and pleasure. university students in Iran (Tahmouresi and Papi, 2021), etc.
Pleasure refers to the sense of satisfaction people experience when they Considering the populations that have been mentioned above, even
believe that the standards set by biological programs or social training though differences exist, those studies clearly demonstrate the positive
have been reached while enjoyment is when people’s abilities are role of FLE in foreign language learning. One study worth mentioning
stretched beyond what they previously believed they were capable of, or was conducted by Dewey et al. (2018), because first, the research setting
when they feel a sense of forwarding mobility and accomplishment. was a study-abroad program taking place in Jordan, and second, it was
Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016) used an analogy to illustrate this pair of one of the few longitudinal studies (e.g., Dewaele and Dewaele, 2017;

Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

Elahi Shirvan and Taherian, 2018; Saito et al., 2018), as opposed to the motivation and attitude toward the teacher are all positively correlated
majority of cross-sectional studies in this field. Similarly, in their with students’ perception of the teachers’ happiness (Moskowitz and
14 weeks study, they found learners grew more comfortable in the Dewaele, 2021). Considering the existing studies, it seems that teachers’
classroom when they experienced more enjoyment and less anxiety in characteristics, as well as the class environment they foster, could have
the setting of studying abroad. The positive force was also found in the an effect on FLE. Teachers’ friendliness, encouragement, support, and
connection between FLE and experience abroad (Thompson and Lee, not-too-strict requirements, along with the relaxed, joyful, and creative
2014), willingness to communicate in class (Khajavy et al., 2018; Saito class environment will boost learners’ FLE.
et al., 2018), and emotional intelligence (Li and Xu, 2019). There are also The evidence presented thus far indicates that FLE has a positive
in-depth studies looking at the intersection of FLE with cognitive factors influence on L2 learners and the L2 learning process. It has been found
and motivation (e.g., Teimouri, 2017; Papi and Khajavy, 2021), revealing that FLE is significantly and positively correlated to L2 achievement
the predictive role of motivation on FLE. The research mentioned above (e.g., Saito et al., 2018; Jiang and Dewaele, 2019; Tahmouresi and Papi,
appeared to cover a diverse population in multiple aspects of emotion, 2021). For example, the findings in the study by Saito et al. (2018)
but the actual width and depth of research on FLE are still limited revealed a significant relationship between FLE, motivation, and L2
compared to studies on anxiety, and some findings need further speech performance. Dong and Liu (2022) attribute the positive effect
validation. Taking Chinese EFL learners as an example, Jiang and of FLE to two main reasons: firstly, FLE can influence learners’ language
Dewaele (2019) suggest that Chinese EFL learners are to some degree learning behaviors, such as maintaining L2 learning engagement (Saito
“unique” compared to the international sample in Dewaele and et al., 2018), regulating L2 learning strategies (Shao et al., 2019), and
MacIntyre (2014), who also found that FLE and FLCA coexist in foreign continuing L2 learning process (Dewaele et al., 2019b); secondly, FLE
language learning and were significantly negatively correlated. This can also act on motivation (MacIntyre et al., 2019), and enhance
result was verified in a sample of 1,307 high school students in China learners’ L2 self-expectations (Shao et al., 2020).
(Li, 2019) but could not be generalized to the sample of foreign language Taken together these studies reviewed so far provide important
learners aged 16–18 years in London (Dewaele and Dewaele, 2017). insights into FLE as a typical positive emotion in various contexts. The
Therefore, FLE, as an emotional factor, that has only received attention evidence seems to suggest a relationship between FLE and other
in recent years needs to be further expounded in various contexts, emotions, learners’ internal and external variables, and the learning
including Chinese EFL learners, the largest EFL population in the world process and performance. Unfortunately, there remain several aspects
(You and Dörnyei, 2016), in order to verify and complement the of how FLE impacts L2 motivation, and whether FLE of learners at
existing research. different proficiency levels differs, which is unclear and not
Among the aforementioned blossoming research themes, one thoroughly explicated.
research branch that must be mentioned is the conceptualization and
measurement of FLE (e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014, 2016; Li
et al., 2018). In the pioneering study on FLE, Dewaele and MacIntyre 2.2. L2 motivation
(2014) adapted seven items from Ryan et al.’s (1990) interest/
enjoyment subscale and developed the Foreign Language Enjoyment Motivation is one of the frequently discussed learner variables in
Scale with 21 items. Later on, they refined this scale into 14 items and SLA literature. Ellis (1994) described L2 motivation as “the effort that
constructed a two-factor structure, i.e., FLE-Social and FLE-Private learners put into learning the L2 as a result of their need or desire to
(Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2016). The scale continued to be modified learn it” (p. 504). Through ongoing efforts, L2 motivation researchers
and refined in the following study, resulting in three dimensions: have developed several theoretical frameworks (e.g., Deci and Ryan,
FLE-Social, FLE-Private, and Peer-Controlled versus Teacher- 1985; Gardner, 1985; Higgins, 1987; Dörnyei, 2009) to profile the
Controlled positive (Dewaele and Dewaele, 2017). The important motivation of EFL learners. Nourished from the fertile ground of SLA
twist came in 2018 (Li et al., 2018) when an FLE scale based on data and psychology, the L2 motivation self-system (L2MSS), an integrative
of Chinese EFL learners emerged. The Chinese-localized Foreign synthesis of L2 motivation constructs and approaches, “represents a
Language Enjoyment Scale contains 11 items in three dimensions: major reformation of previous motivational thinking by its explicit
FLE-Private, FLE-Teacher, and FLE-Atmosphere, which was believed utilization of psychological theories of the self ” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 9). It
to better understand the conceptualization of Chinese EFL learners’ consists of three principal dimensions: the ideal L2 self (IL2S), the
FLE. According to Li (2019), FLE-Private was explained as “positive ought-to L2 self (OL2S), and the L2 learning experience (L2LE). IL2S is
feelings boosted by fun, accomplishments, and interesting things in “the L2-specific facet of one’s ‘ideal self ’” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 29), referring
EFL learning” (p. 5); FLE-Teacher could be summarized as the to the image L2 learners imagine themselves to be when they complete
positive feeling from teachers’ “encouraging and supportive attitudes” their studies and become successful learners. It is usually considered the
(p. 5), and FLE-Atmosphere refers to the positive EFL learning intrinsic motivational factor of L2 learners. For example, when they
atmosphere in which learners could feel enjoyable. study abroad, they would be able to comprehend lectures in English,
Regarding the fertile sources of FLE, research findings show that the understand English movies, and communicate with foreign friends
teacher factor in the scale is the pivotal one (e.g., Dewaele et al., 2017; effectively. However, there is a gap between the real self and the imagined
Jiang and Dewaele, 2019; Jiang, 2020). For instance, the study conducted self sometimes, and it is where motivation comes in. OL2S is defined as
by Dewaele et al. (2019b) with Spanish EFL learners reported that “the attributes that one believes one ought to possess to meet
teacher characteristics predict stronger FLE than FLCA, and teachers’ expectations and to avoid possible negative outcomes” (Dörnyei, 2009,
friendly behavior is the strongest positive predictor of FLE. In the same p. 29). In contrast to IL2S, this dimension can be understood as the
vein, Jiang and Dewaele (2019) carried out a study to explore the external factors that influence the learner’s motivation, such as the desire
enjoyment and anxiety of Chinese EFL learners. Results indicated that to meet parental expectations, and not to disappoint the teacher. L2LE
FLE was more likely to be triggered by teachers. Additionally, students’ refers to “‘executive’ motives related to the immediate learning

Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

environment and experience” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 29), such factors as the predicts foreign language test performance both through a direct
teacher, the peers, the curriculum, or the experience of success. pathway and indirectly via learners’ L2 use and expectancy component
It is believed that motivation is linked to “an individual’s personal of motivation. Despite the achievements of previous studies, the
core, forming an important part of one’s identity” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 9). connection between FLE and L2 motivation and the mediating role of
Thus, using this theoretical model, a large number of studies have been L2 motivation still need further investigation.
conducted on different populations (e.g., Taguchi et al., 2009; Csizér and
Lukács, 2010; Lamb, 2012; Islam et al., 2013; You and Dörnyei, 2016;
Teimouri, 2017; Saito et al., 2018; Papi and Khajavy, 2021). These studies 2.3. English proficiency test
not only documented L2 learners’ motivation characteristics in different
contexts but also tested the validation and adaptiveness of the The College English Test (CET) is a nationwide standardized
framework. Under the L2MSS framework, previous studies showed examination aiming at promoting the teaching of English at universities
consistent results indicating that compared with the weak effect of OL2S, in China, and providing an objective and accurate measurement of the
IL2S and L2LE shared a stronger predictive power (e.g., Taguchi et al., English language proficiency of university students. Beginning in 1987,
2009; Papi, 2010; Papi and Teimouri, 2012, 2014; You and Dörnyei, 2016; the CET, which consists of Band 4 (CET-4) and Band 6 (CET-6), has
Teimouri, 2017; Wong, 2020; Papi and Khajavy, 2021). gone through about 35 years. It is a norm-referenced and criteria-related
There are now studies that have applied the framework in research proficiency test, with high reliability and validity, and a positive
on Chinese EFL learners (e.g., Magid, 2009; Taguchi et al., 2009; Li, backwash effect on English teaching at the tertiary level in China. The
2014), notably among which is the study carried out by You and Dörnyei norm-referenced scores from 220 to 710 are reported in CET-4 and
(2016). They conducted a large-scale survey of 10,000 Chinese EFL CET-6 tests. To enrich the interpretation of test scores, the National
learners. The sample was stratified according to geographical region College English Testing Committee conducted an alignment study to
(eastern, central, and western), teaching context (secondary school with link the CET scores to the Common European Framework of Reference
a sub-category of urban and rural, and university with two sub-categories for Language (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2020). CEFR describes the
of key and ordinary, English and non-English majors). Some main linguistic, sociolinguistic, and pragmatic abilities required for language
findings are: (1) Chinese learners tend to have positive ideal self-images learners or users to complete communicative activities, and categorizes
with English; (2) Chinese learners are not primarily instrumentally language learners into three broad levels: basic users (A1, A2),
motivated as widely believed; (3) OL2S scores lowest; (4) female L2 independent users (B1, B2), and proficient users (C1, C2). International
learners score significantly higher than male learners; (5) there is an and regional exams such as TOEFL (Tannenbaum and Wylie, 2008), and
east–west disparity because of economic stratification; and (6) the more IELTS (Taylor, 2004), have been aligned with the CEFR to make the tests
advanced or specialized one’s education, the stronger ideal image the more widely recognized. Jin et al. (2022) presented the rationale for the
student entertains. These findings provided important information for alignment study and reported the findings: with a reported score of
better understanding the motivation levels and characteristics of 388 in CET-4, students could meet the minimum language proficiency
Chinese EFL learners and for comparing motivational characteristics requirements for CEFR B1 and 549 for CEFR B2, and with a total score
with those of learners in different contexts. of 438 in CET-6, students could meet the minimum requirements for
In addition to the research focus on L2 learners’ motivation levels CEFR B2 and 596 for CEFR C1. This study realized the alignment of the
and characteristics, some researchers have explored the relationship CET with international language proficiency standards, making the CET
between motivation and other learner factors, such as emotional factors, scores referenceable to international standards.
and academic achievement. Existing research noted that students’ higher
levels of motivation and FLE are linked to improved performance in L2
achievement (e.g., Saito et al., 2018; Cocca and Cocca, 2019; Yu, 2019; 2.4. Objectives of the study
Tahmouresi and Papi, 2021). Furthermore, much of the available
literature reviewed until now not only demonstrates the positive effects In light of the review above, it could be seen that neither the
of motivation and enjoyment but also points to the close relationship dimensions of FLE nor the L2MSS were depicted with adequate clarity
between these two variables. For example, Méndez-Aguado et al. (2020) in the context of Chinese tertiary education. Moreover, the relationship
examined the influence of emotions on motivation and performance between FLE as a typical positive emotional factor and L2 motivation as
with a sample of students learning French as a foreign language. Their one of the frequently researched learner variables is still under-
findings indicated that positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment and pride) are researched, especially when taking the difference among various English
positive predictors of motivation, while negative emotions (e.g., anxiety proficiency levels into consideration. In addition, most of the reviewed
and boredom) are negative ones. The findings of Papi (2010) revealed L2 research focused exclusively on how emotions, positive or negative,
that IL2S negatively but OL2S positively predicts anxiety; similarly, influence L2 learning performance, leaving behind the synergistic role
Teimouri (2017) found a positive relationship between IL2S and joy, of other factors, such as motivation in the process. Accordingly, the
whereas OL2S relates to anxiety. Moreover, further pathways have been paucity of research on the mediating role of motivation deserves our
explored regarding FLE, motivation, and learning achievement. Using a efforts to further expound on the close connections between FLE, L2
sample of 335 English major students in China, Zhang et al. (2020) motivation, and English achievement.
proved the positive influence of motivation on language learning and To address these issues, the present study examines whether we can
FLE is an effective path between motivational orientations and L2 extend connections between FLE and L2 motivation to English
proficiency. Nonetheless, only a small number of studies have focused achievement and delves into how FLE can affect L2 motivation and
on the mediating role of motivation, among which Dong and Liu (2022) academic performance, especially the different degrees of influence
examined the effects of FLE on L2 performance and the mediating role among proficiency levels. The current study is intended to answer the
of motivation. Their findings reveal that FLE significantly positively following research questions:

Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

1. What levels of FLE and L2 motivation do Chinese tertiary EFL dimensions (IL2S, OL2S, and L2LE) were used to measure the
learners report? Are there proficiency differences in terms of participants’ L2 motivation. Some of the items were slightly modified to
their FLE and L2 motivation? better fit the local context. High internal consistency was found in the
2. How are FLE and L2 motivation related to each other among scale analysis of the 18 L2 motivation measuring items (Cronbach’s
Chinese EFL learners at four different proficiency levels? alpha = 0.943). The KMO value and p-value of Bartlett’s spherical test are
3. How is the relationship between FLE and English achievement 0.949 and 0.000, suggesting that the L2MSS Questionnaire is of
mediated by the three dimensions of L2MSS? high validity.

3. Methods 3.5. English proficiency measurement

3.1. Participants In the present research, CET-4 scores were used to determine the
participants’ English proficiency levels. No passing line was established
The present study applied convenience sampling. Altogether, 512 for CET-4, and norm-referenced scores (220–710) were reported. The
Chinese non-English majors from a university in northeastern China norm group for CET-4 was selected from ~30,000 non-English major
completed the online questionnaire. The respondents consisted of 344 test takers from 16 colleges and universities nationwide. By referring to
males (67.2%) and 168 females (32.8%), aged between 18 and 20 years. the norm, the raw scores were converted into reported scores. The total
All of the participants were admitted to the university via the National reported score for CET-4 is 710, calculated as follows1:
College Entrance Examination and thus had a comparable amount of
English learning experience. At the time of sampling, all the participants
TotSco =
( X − Mean ) × 70 + 500
were enrolled in the required course for non-English majors, namely SD
College English, designed to help college students enhance their overall
English skills required in College English Teaching Guidelines (National
College Foreign Language Teaching Advisory Board, 2020). They had In the formula, TotSco means the total score; X means the raw total
taken the CET-4 and got the score reports. score of each test taker. CET-4 raw scores of test takers are converted to
reported scores by referring to this norm formula. A percentile rank in
the norm population is assigned to each candidate’s reported score. For
3.2. Instruments example, a candidate with a total CET-4 reported score of 450 has a
corresponding percentile position in the norm group of 25%, indicating
A composite questionnaire with two sections was used as the major that this candidate outperforms 25% of the norm group in English but
instrument in the present study. For a better understanding, the is inferior to 75% of the norm group. Plotting CET-4 scores as a normal
questionnaire was written in Chinese. The first section was composed distribution, the standardized score intervals of CET-4 scores are below
of items about the participants’ background information including 360, 361–430, 431–500, 501–570, 571–640, and above 641. Based on the
gender, grade, and scores of CET-4. The second section was comprised percentile position of the test takers, the participants in this study were
of 27 items measuring the participants’ L2 motivation and enjoyment divided into four groups: Group 1, elementary level (220–430 scores,
concerning English learning. All the items in this section were on a five- n = 91, m = 407.91, SD = 24.319); Group 2, lower intermediate level
point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). (431–500 scores, n = 248, m = 465.11, SD = 20.777); Group 3, upper
The subscales used in the questionnaire are described in full below. intermediate level (501–570 scores, n = 138, m = 530.49, SD = 19.798);
and Group 4, advanced level (571–710 scores, n = 35, m = 595.31,
SD = 21.565).
3.3. FLE measurement

To measure the participants’ FLE, nine items in the questionnaire 3.6. Procedure
were selected from the Chinese version of Foreign Language Enjoyment
Scale (CFLES) adapted by Li et al. (2018) from the original Foreign The composite questionnaire was piloted among 44 Chinese EFL
Language Enjoyment Scale (Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014). Three learners who made up the peer group for the study participants, and the
dimensions, namely FLE-Private, FLE-Teacher, and FLE-Atmosphere questionnaire was modified in response to their feedback. With the
with three items in each were used to assess the participants’ enjoyment course instructors’ approval, the online questionnaire survey was
of learning English. The scale analysis of the nine items on FLE conducted between April 2022 and May 2022. The students were
measurement revealed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s reassured to participate in the survey voluntarily and informed of the
alpha = 0.938). The KMO value and p-value of Bartlett’s spherical test are purpose of this anonymous data collection. The online questionnaire
0.910 and 0.000, indicating that the CFLES has high validity. was administered to the participants during the intermission between
class times.

3.4. L2 motivation measurement

On the basis of the L2MSS Questionnaire by Papi (2010) who

developed the questionnaire by referring to Dörnyei’s guidelines (2003), 1 The formula is from the official websites of CET-4 in the National Education
18 items in the questionnaire were selected. Six items in each of the three Examinations Authority: https://cet.neea.edu.cn/html1/folder/19081/5124-1.htm.

Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics of FLE and L2MSS.

Min Max Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis

FLE-Private 1.00 5.00 3.30 1.04 −0.221 −0.219

FLE-Teacher 1.00 5.00 4.07 0.96 −1.037 0.840

FLE-Atmosphere 1.00 5.00 3.87 1.01 −0.708 0.099

FLE 1.00 5.00 3.75 0.90 −0.748 0.594

IL2S 1.00 5.00 3.79 1.01 −0.738 0.300

OL2S 1.00 5.00 3.49 0.98 −0.349 −0.099

L2LE 1.00 5.00 3.53 1.034 −0.457 −0.088

L2MSS 1.00 5.00 3.60 0.90 −0.526 0.499

TABLE 2 Descriptive statistics of FLE and L2MSS at different proficiency

levels. Furthermore, it is apparent from Table 2 that the mean values of FLE
and L2 motivation increase with English proficiency levels. Standard
FLE L2MSS deviation is the quantitative indicator to reflect the degree of dispersion
Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD of a set of data. Data in Table 2 demonstrates the mean value of FLE
Group1 0.89 4.44 3.07 0.74 1.00 5.00 3.40 0.95
(m = 4.19) and L2MSS (m = 3.86) in Group 4, the advanced learners, is
higher than in other groups, while the standard deviation is relatively
Group2 1.00 5.00 3.70 0.95 1.00 5.00 3.55 0.93
lower (FLE, SD = 0.67; L2MSS, SD = 0.81), indicating that L2 learners in
Group3 1.00 5.00 3.89 0.83 1.00 5.00 3.77 0.79 Group 4 are more enjoyable and better motivated in EFL learning, and
Group4 2.67 5.00 4.19 0.67 2.22 5.00 3.86 0.81 at the same time, their performance in FLE and L2 motivation is
relatively more stable than those in the other groups. By contrast, L2
learners in Group 1 share the lowest mean value and relatively small
3.7. Data analysis standard deviation, meaning that the learners at the elementary
proficiency level have less FLE and weaker L2 motivation in EFL
A total of 554 responses were collected, of which 512 were valid learning. Compared with Group 4 and Group 1, standard deviations of
(92.42%). The collected data were then entered into SPSS (version FLE (0.95, 0.83) and L2MSS (0.93, 0.79) in Group 2 and Group 3
26.0) for statistical analyses. The descriptive statistical analysis was indicate great variations among L2 learners in their enjoyment and
carried out on all the variables in the survey including mean, standard motivation in English learning, with the broad range in Max. and Min.
deviation, and min and max values. Then, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients value pointing to the huge individual differences between L2 learners.
were used to determine the internal consistency of the motivational The results of one-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference
and emotional variables as well as each dimension in the subscales. A (p < 0.05) among four groups at different English proficiency levels
value of α coefficient higher than 0.8 indicates high reliability. A value regarding FLE and L2 motivation, specifically in dimensions of
between 0.7 and 0.8 indicates good reliability. A value between 0.6 and FLE-Private, IL2S, L2LE, whereas in dimensions of FLE-Teacher
0.7 indicates acceptable reliability, and a value <0.6 indicates poor (p = 0.090), FLE-Atmosphere (p = 0.509), and OL2S (p = 0.588), a
reliability (Eisinga et al., 2013). Finally, PROCESS v2.16.3 was run to statistically significant difference between groups was not found.
measure the direct and indirect effect of emotional and motivational Post hoc tests showed that the FLE enhanced as the English
variables on English achievement, and a series of variance, correlation, proficiency level developed, and multiple comparisons indicated a
multiple regression, and interaction analyses were done to address the stepwise increase in the difference between groups. A significant
research questions. difference was found with a small-to-medium effect size (Plonsky and
Oswald, 2014) between Group 4 and Group 1 (d = 0.71*), between
Group 3 and Group 2 (d = 0.19*) respectively, and a subtle but not
4. Results statistically significant difference between Group 3 and Group 4
(d = 0.30). Differences in the dimensions within the FLE varied among
4.1. FLE and L2 motivation of Chinese groups at different English proficiency levels. In terms of FLE-Private,
tertiary EFL learners the results of post hoc multiple comparisons between the four groups
showed significant differences (p < 0.05). Significant differences with a
Descriptive statistics of FLE and L2 motivation of the Chinese small effect size were found between Group 1 and Group 2, Group 2 and
undergraduates at different English proficiency levels are shown in Group 3, and Group 3 and Group 4 (d = 0.46*, 0.45*, 0.47*). The most
Table 1, revealing the enjoyment and motivation of Chinese tertiary EFL significant difference was found between Group 1 and Group 4 with a
learners in several aspects. The mean value of FLE as a whole is 3.75, and large effect size (d = 1.37*). The differences between the four groups in
the mean score of FLE-Teacher is the highest (m = 4.07), followed by terms of FLE-Teacher were small. Significant differences were found
FLE-Atmosphere (m = 3.87) and FLE-Private (m = 3.30). As for L2 only with a small effect size between Group 1 and Group 4 (d = 0.46*)
motivation, the mean value is 3.60. A closer inspection of the table and between Group 2 and Group 4 (d = 0.35*), respectively.
shows the sequence of mean values of dimensions in L2MSS from the FLE-Atmosphere differed least among the four groups compared to the
lowest to the highest is OL2S (m = 3.49), L2LE (m = 3.53), IL2S two dimensions mentioned above, and post hoc multiple comparison
(m = 3.79). results showed no significant differences.

Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

Regarding L2 motivation, a different scenario is revealed. Although F = 41.273**), Group 2 (R = 0.841, R2 = 0.707, F = 196.249**), Group 3
the overall trend was similar to FLE, the results of the multiple (R = 0.804, R2 = 0.647, F = 81.923**), and Group 4 (R = 0.746, R2 = 0.557,
comparisons showed significant differences in L2MSS with a small effect F = 12.971**).
size between Group 1 and Group 3 (d = 0.37*), Group 1 and Group 4 As shown in Figure 1, FLE-Private positively and significantly
(d = 0.46*), and Group 2 and Group 3(d = 0.22*). There are slight predicted L2 motivation in four groups. Of the four groups, FLE-Private
differences in L2MSS between Group 1 and Group 2 (d = 0.15), Group 2 in Group 3 exerts the strongest influence over L2 motivation
and Group 4 (d = 0.31), and Group 4 and Group 3 (d = 0.08), but not (β = 0.388**). FLE-Teacher significantly and positively predicted L2
statistically significant. The three dimensions within L2MSS present motivation in Group 2 (β = 0.228**) and Group 4 (β = 0.490**). However,
different situations among the four groups. The mean difference of OL2S the effect of FLE-Teacher on L2 learners’ motivation was reduced to a
among four groups at different English proficiency levels was not non-significant level in Group 1 (β = -0.01) and Group 3 (β = 0.014). As
statistically significant (p < 0.05), although they differed. For IL2S, only for the dimension of FLE-Atmosphere, there is a significant positive
the difference between Groups 3 and Group 4 (d = 0.22) is not significant, prediction of L2 learners’ motivation in Groups 1, 2, and 3. The
while all other groups showed significant differences with a small-to- motivation of L2 learners in Group 1 (β = 0.640**) was most influenced
medium effect size; the largest difference lies between Groups 1 and by their enjoyment of the learning atmosphere; likewise, the effect of
Group 4 (d = 0.73*). The differences in L2LE between the two groups FLE-Atmosphere on motivation in Group 4 (β = 0.086) decreased to a
with similar scores were not significant: Group 1 and Group 2 (d = 0.18), non-significant level.
Group 3 and Group 4 (d = 0.21); the differences between the other
groups were statistically significant with a small-to-medium effect size.
Similar to the other dimensions in FLE and L2MSS, the largest difference 4.3. Mediating role of L2 motivation
existed between Groups 1 and Group 4 (d = 0.71*).
Mediation testing was conducted by using a series of correlation and
regression analyses under the guidelines of Baron and Kenny (1986). As
4.2. Relationship between FLE and L2 presented in Table 4, variables of FLE, L2MSS, and English achievement
motivation at different English proficiency are strongly correlated except for OL2S and English achievement
levels (r = −0.010, p = 0.818). The results show that L2 learners’ FLE influenced
their English achievement positively and significantly (r = 0.189, p < 0.01)
A Spearman correlation analysis was performed to investigate the as well as their IL2S, OL2S, and L2LE (r = 0.765, 0.576, 0.815, p < 0.01).
relationship strength among the dimensions of FLE and L2 motivation Even after controlling for the effect of FLE on English achievement,
after a normal distribution test. The results showed significant positive IL2S, OL2S, and L2LE have significant effects on English achievement.
correlations (p <0.01) between FLE and L2 motivation overall and across According to conditions of mediation (Baron and Kenny, 1986), these
dimensions among the four groups. results indicate that L2 motivation had a partial mediating effect on the
Multiple regression analyses were run with FLE-Private, relationship between learners’ FLE and English achievement (adjusted
FLE-Teacher, and FLE-Atmosphere as predictors, and L2 motivation as R2 = 0.832, p < 0.001).
the outcome to investigate to what degree FLE could predict L2 learners’ The mediator model was visualized in Figure 2. When IL2S, OL2S,
motivation. As listed in Table 3, FLE positively predicts L2 learners’ and L2LE entered the regression equation model as the common
motivation at different English proficiency levels. The coefficients of the predictor of English achievement, the coefficients of the model
models show a good model fit: Group 1 (R = 0.766, R2 = 0.587, (R = 0.288, R2 = 0.083, F = 11.497, p < 0.001) showed that the model fit

TABLE 3 Multiple regression analysis on FLE and L2 motivation at different proficiency levels.

Regression equations Fit index Coefficient

Predictor Outcome R R 2
F Value of p t
Group1 FLE-Private L2MSS 0.766 0.587 41.273** 0.014 2.496

FLE-Teacher 0.942 −0.072

FLE-Atmosphere 0.000 4.696

Group2 FLE-Private L2MSS 0.841 0.707 196.249** 0.000 7.957

FLE-Teacher 0.006 2.772

FLE-Atmosphere 0.000 3.599

Group3 FLE-Private L2MSS 0.804 0.647 81.923** 0.000 5.248

FLE-Teacher 0.890 0.139

FLE-Atmosphere 0.000 4.116

Group4 FLE-Private L2MSS 0.746 0.557 12.971** 0.037 2.179

FLE-Teacher 0.016 2.543

FLE-Atmosphere 0.655 0.451

** p < 0.01.

Frontiers in Psychology 07 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

FIGURE 1
G1=Group 1, G2=Group 2, G3=Group 3, G4=Group 4, ** p<0.01.

TABLE 4 Correlation analyses on FLE, L2MSS, and English achievement. with L2 motivation as a mediator. On the overall level of FLE, the
mean value in the present study is slightly lower than the mean value
1 2 3 4 5 6
reported by the previous study with Chinese EFL learners at the
FLE — 0.765** 0.576** 0.815** 0.808** 0.189** tertiary level (Jiang and Dewaele, 2019), and higher than the study
IL2S 0.765** — 0.651** 0.752** 0.899** 0.171** with students in high school (Li et al., 2018). The relieved pressure
OL2S 0.576** 0.651** — 0.674** 0.865** −0.010
after entering higher education may contribute to the increase in the
level of enjoyment of university students. Another important finding
L2LE 0.815** 0.752** 0.674** — 0.910** 0.191**
in enjoyment is that teacher factors have a greater impact on students’
L2MSS 0.808** 0.899** 0.865** 0.910** — 0.134** FLE than other factors. It is encouraging to compare this finding with
EA 0.189** 0.171** −0.010 0.191** 0.134** — that of Li et al.’s (2018) which claimed that high school students
** p < 0.01. scored highest on the dimension FLE-Teacher, followed by
FLE-Private and FLE-Atmosphere. Although the latter two factors are
in a different order in the present study, the importance of the teacher
was acceptable. The multicollinearity diagnosis results demonstrate that factors is evident and in line with previous studies (e.g., Dewaele
the VIFs are all <2, and the possibility of collinearity problems between et al., 2019b; Jiang and Dewaele, 2019; Jiang, 2020; Li et al., 2021).
variables is extremely small. Nevertheless, this finding is contrary to the study by Ahmadi-Azad
Using PROCESS v2.16.3 (Model 4) to calculate the mediating effect of et al. (2020) about teachers’ personality traits on FLE which proved
each path, the output is presented in Table 5. The direct effect is obtained as the FLE-Private factor as the most significant one for Iranian EFL
0.409. Among the three mediating factors of L2MSS, L2LE has the biggest learners than the teacher factor. Meanwhile, this study pointed out
effect size (1.310), followed by OL2S (−1.163), while IL2S has the lowest that among the big five personality factors of teachers, openness,
effect size (0.735). The 95% confidence intervals for the above three paths, extroversion, and agreeableness are conducive to EFL learners’ FLE,
except for IL2S, do not include 0, indicating all of them reach the significant which may, to some extent, shed light on the interpretation of the
level. It can be seen that IL2S, OL2S, and L2LE play multiple parallel results of the current study. The greatest variation in FLE across
mediating roles between FLE and English achievement. English proficiency levels lies in learners’ internal factors, while
enjoyment due to external factors of teachers and atmosphere varied
less, suggesting that, on the one hand, despite the greater influence of
5. Discussion the teacher factor on FLE, students at different language proficiency
levels share a similar feeling; on the other hand, the degree to which
This study set out with the aim of detecting the connection learning itself can contribute to students’ FLE varies widely across
between Chinese tertiary EFL learners’ FLE and English proficiency different language proficiency levels.

Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

FIGURE 2
** p≤0.01, EA, English achievement.

TABLE 5 Effect size and significance of each path. proficiency level. The similarity lies in the fact that there is less individual
variation in L2 motivation and FLE between these two groups of
Pathway Effect size SE BCa 95% CI
students, i.e., they are more similar to their peers in terms of motivation
FLE-IL2S-EA 0.735 0.676 [−0.0379, 2.618]
and enjoyment. The differences lie in the fact that most L2 learners at
FLE-OL2S-EA 1.163 0.571 [−3.9034, the advanced proficiency level have stronger motivation and more
−1.6611] enjoyable learning experience, while students at the elementary level are
FLE-L2LE-EA 1.310 0.740 [0.6358, 3.5447] less motivated and less likely to enjoy learning. Students at the
intermediate levels vary more in both FLE and L2 motivation than
FLE-EA 0.409 0.549 [−0.6694, 1.4877]
students at either end of the spectrum. Thus, facilitating the learning
process of students at such levels may be the main arena where teachers
As regards the overall level of L2 motivation reported by the could play a role.
participants, the relatively high mean value for IL2S echoes Tahmouresi Succinctly stated, as the English proficiency level improves, the
and Papi’s results (2021) on L2 motivation in writing. Another finding overall level of FLE rises, and motivation increases. These results
is that the reported lowest mean value for OL2S is in line with the corroborate those of previous studies (Vansteenkiste et al., 2009; Ryan
finding of a large-scale survey on language learning motivation in China and Deci, 2020; Howard et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022), indicating that
(You and Dörnyei, 2016). It seems that Chinese L2 learners are more students with a higher level of English proficiency share the trait of
motivated by intrinsic rather than extrinsic factors, which is explained feeling more enjoyable in the learning process and are more motivated
as a contradictory stereotype that Chinese learners are “less to learn, and vice versa.
individualistic and more societally determined” (You and Dörnyei, 2016, With respect to the second research question, the current study
p. 506). In addition, considering English proficiency, there is little demonstrated that FLE positively predicts L2 learners’ motivation at
difference among students across language proficiency levels in terms of different language proficiency levels, although the strength differs. This
the degree to which they are motivated by extrinsic factors. A notable finding accords with earlier observations on the association between
difference exists in the intrinsic factor, that is IL2S, between the learners enjoyment and motivation (Teimouri, 2017; Papi et al., 2019; Papi and
at the advanced and elementary proficiency levels. A possible Khajavy, 2021; Tahmouresi and Papi, 2021). The possible explanation is
explanation for this might be that successful learners are more likely to that learning enjoyment as a positive, activating, and activity-related
imagine their future image, whereas unsuccessful learners are less likely achievement emotion (Pekrun, 2006) has been linked to the most
to be motivated by what the future will look like because they are farther intrinsic motivational types and levels (Noels et al., 2003).
removed from the goal of success. The difference between learners at the Taking a closer look at the relationship between FLE and L2
advanced and elementary proficiency levels is also greater in the degree motivation, we found that the teacher factor is the most powerful
to which learners are motivated by their learning experiences. The predictor of L2 motivation, and the atmosphere factor is the
difference might be explained in part by the fact that students at the weakest for the students at the advanced proficiency level. And it
advanced proficiency level are easier to benefit from past enjoyable, is surprising to find that the teacher factor is the weakest predictor
effective, and successful learning experiences; conversely, the elementary of L2 motivation for students at the elementary proficiency level.
proficiency level students’ past learning experiences do not play a The issue emerging from these findings might be the lack of
positive role in motivation. teachers’ concern for unsuccessful students in EFL classrooms. It is
It is interesting to note that students at the advanced proficiency somewhat at odds with our inherent teaching experience, which
level are both similar to and different from students at the elementary generally assumes that teachers are more inclined to encourage

Frontiers in Psychology 09 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

poor students and motivate them to learn. However, the results 2018; Jiang and Dewaele, 2019). Positive academic emotions can
suggest that teachers in fact pay less attention to unsuccessful increase learners’ resilience, thus contributing to academic performance
learners so that such learners receive less learning enjoyment from and achievement (Dewaele et al., 2019a; Shao et al., 2020). FLE as a
teachers to get them motivated. Even worse, the level of FLE from positive academic emotion could possibly help learners by counteracting
teachers is so low that it may even demotivate L2 learning to some the negative effects of negative emotions and facilitating the challenging
extent. In contrast, successful learners receive more encouragement L2 learning process.
and recognition from teachers, which better stimulates their The IL2S, OL2S, and L2LE were also found to have a significant
interest in learning and creates a virtuous circle. Hence, teachers effect on English achievement. This finding is in accord with the recent
should assign priority over poor language learners in EFL study (Zhao et al., 2022) reporting that L2 proficiency is positively
classrooms, be kinder to them, encourage them and recognize their influenced by L2LE and IL2S, but negatively impacted by OL2S. Similarly,
progress, so as to better motivate them and achieve better the finding is also related to Papi’s study (2010) which revealed that
teaching results. OL2S significantly made L2 learners feel anxious, and the negative effect
Interestingly, regarding the atmosphere factor in FLE, students of anxiousness as a negative emotion on academic performance has
at the advanced and the elementary proficiency levels showed the been confirmed by several previous studies (e.g., MacIntyre, 1999;
opposite result from the teacher factor, namely, the atmosphere Gregersen and Horwitz, 2002; Horwitz, 2010; Dewaele and
factor is the strongest predictor of motivation for unsuccessful MacIntyre, 2014).
language learners and the weakest for successful learners. It could With regard to the pathways mediated by the three dimensions
be argued that the possible reason for this finding may be that of L2MSS, in comparison to each other, the pathway of
successful learners are not sufficiently motivated by the level of FLE → L2LE → EA had the largest effect size, followed by
enjoyment from the classroom atmosphere, the learning FLE → IL2S → EA; the pathway of OL2S may regress the positive
atmosphere of their surrounding peers, and the interaction style in effect of FLE on English achievement. It is true that learning
class, meaning that good students are more likely to be intrinsically enjoyment can positively and directly predict academic
motivated. In contrast, poor language learners are more interested performance, but relying solely on this direct connection to
in the pleasures of the surrounding learning atmosphere, i.e., they improve foreign language performance might not be effective
are more likely to be influenced by the external environment. These enough; then if the mediation role could serve as an entry point, it
findings raise intriguing questions regarding the validity of graded may aggregate direct and indirect effectiveness (Dong and Liu,
instruction. Previous studies (Khajavy et al., 2018; Xia and Xu, 2022). Therefore, in foreign language teaching, in addition to the
2018; Li et al., 2021) proved that the classroom environment has pivotal effects of a pleasant foreign language learning atmosphere
profoundly predictive effects on learners’ emotions. Positive and improving students’ FLE, more attention needs to be paid to
classroom environments tend to make L2 learners feel more at ease the learners’ past EFL learning experiences and factors that
and enjoy learning more. If the learning atmosphere of the stimulate their intrinsic motivation. Similarly, appropriately
surrounding peers, or the classroom atmosphere is not satisfying, reducing the negative impact of external motivation will also
does it play a negative role in the learning enjoyment and even be conducive to achieving better academic performance.
hinder the motivation of poor language learners? Definitely,
we cannot conclude that the learning atmosphere of unsuccessful
students must be discouraging, but we cannot deny that this 6. Limitations and future research
possibility does exist. As such, a positive learning atmosphere
created by peers might be more conducive to motivating poor Although the research goals were achieved in the present study,
language learners and promoting their learning outcomes. The there are still some limitations that may direct future research. Firstly,
private factor of FLE is a significant positive predictor of the convenience sampling suffered from a lack of diversity. In spite of
motivation, regardless of language proficiency difference. It seems involving students at different English proficiency levels, our
that the intrinsic factor is the stable factor that motivates learning. participants were recruited from a single institution, which is one of
In summary, these findings broadly support the control-value the prestigious universities in China, so the overall English proficiency
theory (Pekrun, 2018), which suggests that positive emotions such as level of the students is higher than average. Therefore, we are cautious
enjoyment are promoted when learners feel in control of their learning to generalize the finding to different educational contexts since the
and value academic achievement, and such emotions could influence sample in the present study could not represent the whole EFL
motivation, self-regulation, and external regulation of learning. As a population. Studies on diverse populations in different foreign
result, these results here are conducive to understanding the relationship language contexts, and of a wide range of demographic and educational
between learners’ emotional factors and motivation, as well as guiding backgrounds are needed to verify the existing results. Secondly, only
future instruction. the quantitative method was employed in the present study. Hence, the
Concerning the third research question, we found that FLE could intrinsic reasons and individual differences in the interconnection of
significantly and positively influence English achievement, and variables were not investigated in depth. The mixed-methods approach
motivation had a partial mediation effect on the relationship between is welcomed in future studies to gain a clearer and deeper
FLE and English achievement. The finding of the positive effect of understanding of the relationship between emotions, motivation, and
enjoyment is in line with those of recent studies on academic L2 proficiency. Lastly, the cross-sectional design of the present study
performance and achievement within the socio-educational context of makes it fail to capture the changes in the variables and their
China: on junior secondary students (Li and Wei, 2022;), on secondary relationship during the whole tertiary education. A portfolio of
students (Dong and Liu, 2022), on undergraduate students in online students’ emotions, motivation, and L2 achievement across time is
classes (Li and Han, 2022), and some others (e.g., Dewaele and Alfawzan, expected in future research.

Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

7. Pedagogical implications to motivation and motivation to academic achievement. This study

supports the findings of related research in other contexts, and broadens
Despite the limitations, the findings of the current study have some and deepens the understanding of the contribution of positive emotions
pedagogical implications for tertiary EFL education. These findings in and motivation in language learning, thereby throwing light on English
line with previous studies confirm that teachers are highly conducive to teaching and learning in tertiary education in China.
bringing learning enjoyment to students (e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre,
2016; Jin and Zhang, 2018; Dewaele et al., 2019b; Li et al., 2019; Alrabai,
2022), and the close ties between classroom emotions and motivation Data availability statement
(e.g., Jin and Zhang, 2018; Li et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020; Pan and
Zhang, 2021). FLE is crucial because it makes it possible to study English The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made
by enabling students to maximize their capacity for quick and thorough available by the authors, without undue reservation.
comprehension. Therefore, FLE must be viewed by EFL teachers as one
of their top priorities in the classrooms (Ahmadi-Azad et al., 2020).
Positive personality traits of the teacher, such as openness, extroversion, Ethics statement
and agreeableness, are proven to be prominent factors (Ahmadi-Azad
et al., 2020). Accordingly, the L2 learning process will be improved by Ethical approval was not provided for this study on human
instructors who are encouraging, supportive, nice, funny, optimistic, participants because upon administering the questionnaire, the
well-organized, competent, and considerate, and such teachers tend to participants were reassured to participate in the survey voluntarily and
put students in a positive environment and a good learning atmosphere informed of the purpose of this anonymous data collection. Written
(Arnold, 1999, 2011; Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014; Dewaele et al., 2017, informed consent for participation was not required for this study in
2019b; Li, 2019; Dewaele and Li, 2021). Additionally, how teachers relate accordance with the national legislation and the institutional
with their students is very important (Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2016; requirements.
Moskowitz and Dewaele, 2021). Teachers’ encouragement and
recognition can significantly boost students’, especially unsuccessful
students’ sense of accomplishment and, consequently, stimulate students’ Author contributions
motivation for learning. In short, the strong connection between
enjoyment, through motivation, and then academic achievement forms HW and LX conceptualized, designed the study, and drafted the
an effective path to creating a positive learning environment for manuscript. HW and JL collected the data and processed the data. All
students, stimulating latent motivation, and facilitating the learning authors revised the manuscript and approved the submitted version.
process to achieve better learning outcomes.

Funding
8. Conclusion
This research was supported by the Social Science Foundation of
The current study examined the connection between two crucial Liaoning Province (grant no. L21AYY002).
variables in EFL learning, namely FLE and L2 motivation, and their
contribution to Chinese tertiary EFL learners’ English achievement at
different proficiency levels. Overall, FLE and L2 motivation increase as Conflict of interest
the English proficiency level develops. College students enjoy higher
levels of FLE than secondary school students. The greatest variation in The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence
FLE across English proficiency levels lies in learners’ internal factors of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as
while FLE due to external factors of teachers and atmosphere varied less. a potential conflict of interest.
Chinese tertiary EFL learners were more stimulated by intrinsic
motivation, which differs significantly across English proficiency levels,
while extrinsic factors in L2MSS were less motivationally driven and did Publisher’s note
not vary significantly across different language proficiency levels.
Moreover, FLE positively predicts L2 motivation of learners at different All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
language proficiency levels, although the strength differs. The L2 and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations,
motivation of learners at the elementary proficiency level was more or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
likely to be influenced by external factors such as an enjoyable learning that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
atmosphere, whereas students at the advanced proficiency level were manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
more likely to be motivated by the pleasant feelings brought about by the
teacher and themselves. EFL learners’ FLE could significantly and
positively influence their academic achievement, and the L2 motivation Supplementary material
had a partial mediation effect on the connection between FLE and
English achievement. Therefore, the role of motivation can be fully The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at:
utilized to facilitate FLE and work with FLE synergistically to help EFL https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657/full#s
learners achieve better learning outcomes through the path of enjoyment upplementary-material

Frontiers in Psychology 11 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

References
Ahmadi-Azad, S., Asadollahfam, H., and Zoghi, M. (2020). Effects of teacher’s Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the
personality traits on EFL learners’ foreign language enjoyment. System 95:102369. doi: broaden and build theory of positive emotions. Am. Psychol. 56, 218–226. doi:
10.1016/j.system.2020.102369 10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218
Alrabai, F. (2022). The role of mixed emotions in language learning and teaching: a Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: the role of attitudes
positive psychology teacher intervention. System 107:102821. doi: 10.1016/j. and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
system.2022.102821
Gregersen, T., and Horwitz, E. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism: anxious
Arnold, J. (1999). Affect in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and non-anxious language learners’ reactions to their own oral performance. Mod. Lang.
J. 86, 562–570. doi: 10.2307/1192725
Arnold, J. (2011). Attention to affect in language learning. Int. J. English Stud. 22, 11–22.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychol. Rev. 94,
Baron, R. M., and Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in 319–340. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319
social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Pers.
Horwitz, E. K. (2010). Foreign and second language anxiety. Lang. Teach. 43, 154–167.
Soc. Psychol. 51, 1173–1182. doi: 10.5859/kais.2012.21.1.47
doi: 10.1017/S026144480999036X
Boudreau, C., MacIntyre, P. D., and Dewaele, J. M. (2018). Enjoyment and anxiety in
Howard, J. L., Bureau, J., Guay, F., Chong, J. X., and Ryan, R. M. (2021). Student
second language communication: an idiodynamic approach. Stud. Second Lang. Learn.
motivation and associated outcomes: a meta-analysis from self-determination theory.
Teach. 8, 149–170. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.1.7
Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 16, 1300–1323. doi: 10.1177/1745691620966789
Cocca, M., and Cocca, A. (2019). Affective variables and motivation as predictors of
Islam, M., Lamb, M., and Chambers, G. (2013). The L2 motivational self system and
proficiency in English as a foreign language. J. Effic. Responsibility Educ. Sci. 12, 75–83. doi:
national interest: a Pakistani perspective. System 41, 231–244. doi: 10.1016/j.
10.7160/ERIESJ.2019.120302
system.2013.01.025
Council of Europe (2020). Common European framework of reference for language:
Jiang, Y. (2020). An investigation of the effect of teacher on Chinese university students’
learning, teaching, assessment-companion volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
foreign language enjoyment. J. Foreign Lang. World 196, 60–68.
Publishing. Available at: www.coe.int/lang-cefr
Jiang, Y., and Dewaele, J. M. (2019). How unique is the foreign language classroom
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2004). Pleasure vs. enjoyment. Across Board 41:9.
enjoyment and anxiety of Chinese EFL learners? System 82, 13–25. doi: 10.1016/j.
Csizér, K., and Lukács, G. (2010). The comparative analysis of motivation, attitudes and system.2019.02.017
selves: the case of English and German in Hungary. System 38, 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.
Jin, Y., Jie, W., and Wang, W. (2022). Exploring the alignment between the college English
system.2009.12.001
test and language standards. J. Foreign Lang. World 209, 24–32.
Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
Jin, Y. X., and Zhang, L. J. (2018). The dimensions of foreign language classroom
behavior. New York: Plenum.
enjoyment and their effect on foreign language achievement. Int. J. Biling. Educ. Biling. 24,
Dewaele, J. M., and Alfawzan, M. (2018). Does the effect of enjoyment outweigh that of 948–962. doi: 10.1080/13670050.2018.1526253
anxiety in foreign language performance? Stud. Second Lang. Learn. Teach. 8, 21–45. doi:
Khajavy, G. H., MacIntyre, P. D., and Barabadi, E. (2018). Role of the emotions and
10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.1.2
classroom environment in willingness to communicate: applying doubly latent multilevel
Dewaele, J. M., Chen, X. J., Padilla, A. M., and Lake, J. (2019a). The flowering of positive analysis in second language acquisition research. Stud. Second. Lang. Acquis. 40, 605–624.
psychology in foreign language teaching and acquisition research. Front. Psychol. 10, 1–13. doi: 10.1017/s0272263117000304
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02128
Lamb, M. (2012). A self-system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation to learn
Dewaele, J. M., and Dewaele, L. (2017). The dynamic interactions in foreign language English in urban and rural settings. Lang. Learn. 62, 997–1023. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
classroom anxiety and foreign language enjoyment of pupils aged 12 to 18. A pseudo- 9922.2012.00719.x
longitudinal investigation. J. Eur. Second Lang. Assoc. 1, 12–22. doi: 10.22599/jesla.6
Li, Q. (2014). Differences in the motivation of Chinese learners of English in a foreign
Dewaele, J. M., Franco Magdalena, A., and Saito, K. (2019b). The effect of perception of and second language context. System 42, 451–461. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2014.01.011
teacher characteristics on Spanish EFL learners’ anxiety and enjoyment. Mod. Lang. J. 103,
412–427. doi: 10.1111/modl.12555 Li, C. C. (2019). A positive psychology perspective on Chinese EFL students’ trait
emotional intelligence, foreign language enjoyment and EFL learning achievement. J.
Dewaele, J. M., and Li, C. C. (2020). Emotions in second language acquisition: a critical Multiling. Multicult. Dev. 41, 246–263. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2019.1614187
review and research agenda. J. Foreign Lang. World 196, 34–49.
Li, C. C., Dewaele, J. M., and Jiang, G. Y. (2019). The complex relationship between
Dewaele, J. M., and Li, C. C. (2021). Teacher enthusiasm and students’ social-behavioral classroom emotions and EFL achievement in China. Appl. Ling. Rev. 11, 485–510. doi:
learning engagement: the mediating role of student enjoyment and boredom in Chinese 10.1515/applirev-2018-0043
EFL classes. Lang. Teach. Res. 25, 922–945. doi: 10.1177/13621688211014538
Li, C. C., and Han, Y. (2022). The predictive effects of foreign language enjoyment,
Dewaele, J. M., and MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and anxiety, and boredom on learning outcomes in online classes. Modern Foreign Lang. 45,
enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Stud. Second Lang. Learn. Teach. 4, 237–274. 207–219.
doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5
Li, C. C., Huang, J., and Li, B. B. (2021). The predictive effects of classroom environment
Dewaele, J. M., and MacIntyre, P. D. (2016). “Foreign language enjoyment and foreign and trait emotional intelligence on foreign language enjoyment and anxiety. System
language classroom anxiety. The right and left feet of FL learning?” in Positive psychology 96:102393. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2020.102393
in SLA. eds. P. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen and S. Mercer (Bristol: Multilingual Matters),
215–236. Li, C. C., Jiang, G. Y., and Dewaele, J. M. (2018). Understanding Chinese high school
students’ foreign language enjoyment: validation of the Chinese version of the foreign
Dewaele, J. M., Witney, J., Saito, K., and Dewaele, L. (2017). Foreign language enjoyment language enjoyment scale. System 76, 183–196. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2018.06.004
and anxiety: the effect of teacher and learner variables. Lang. Teach. Res. 22, 676–697. doi:
10.1177/1362168817692161 Li, J. J., King, R. B., and Wang, C. (2022). Profiles of motivation and engagement in
foreign language learning: associations with emotional factors, academic achievement, and
Dewey, D. B., Belnap, R. K., and Steffen, P. (2018). Anxiety: stress, foreign language demographic features. System 108:102820. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2022.102820
classroom anxiety, and enjoyment during study abroad in Amman, Jordan. Annu. Rev.
Appl. Linguist. 38, 140–161. doi: 10.1017/S0267190518000107 Li, C. C., and Wei, L. (2022). Anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom in language learning
amongst junior secondary students in rural China: how do they contribute to L2
Dong, L. Q., and Liu, M. H. (2022). Effects of foreign language enjoyment on foreign achievement? Stud. Second. Lang. Acquis. 1-16, 1–16. doi: 10.1017/S0272263122000031
language test performance: a moderated mediation model. Modern Foreign Lang. 45,
195–206. Li, C. C., and Xu, J. F. (2019). Trait emotional intelligence and classroom emotions: a
positive psychology investigation and intervention among Chinese EFL learners. Front.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research: construction, Psychol. 10:2453. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02453
administration, and processing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). “Language anxiety: a review of the research for language
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). “The L2 motivational self system” in Motivation, language identity teachers” in Affect in foreign language and second language teaching: a practical guide to
and the L2 self. eds. Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters), 9–42. creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. ed. D. J. Young (Boston: McGraw-Hill),
Eisinga, R., Grotenhuis, M. T., and Pelzer, B. (2013). The reliability of a two-item scale: 24–45.
Pearson, Cronbach, or spearman-Brown? Int. J. Public Health 58, 637–642. doi: 10.1007/ MacIntyre, P. D., Dewaele, J. M., Macmillan, N., and Li, C. C. (2019). “The emotional
s00038-012-0416-3 underpinnings of Gardner’s attitudes and motivation test battery” in Contemporary
Elahi Shirvan, M., and Taherian, T. (2018). Longitudinal examination of university language motivation theory: 60 years since Gardner and Lambert (1959). eds. A. Al-Hoorie
students’ foreign language enjoyment and foreign language classroom anxiety in the course and P. D. MacIntyre (Bristol: Multilingual Matters), 57–79.
of general English: latent growth curve modeling. Int. J. Biling. Educ. Biling. 24, 31–49. doi: MacIntyre, P. D., and Gregersen, T. (2012). “Affect: the role of language anxiety and other
10.1080/13670050.2018.1441804 emotions in language learning” in Psychology for language learning. eds. S. Mercer, S. Ryan
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. and M. Williams (London: Palgrave Macmillan), 103–118.

Frontiers in Psychology 12 frontiersin.org

Wang et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1054657

MacIntyre, P. D., and Mercer, S. (2014). Introducing positive psychology to SLA. Stud. Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-
Second Lang. Learn. Teach. 4, 153–172. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.2 determination theory perspective: definitions, theory, practices, and future directions.
Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 61:101860. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Magid, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self system from a Chinese perspective: a mixed
methods study. J. Appl. Ling. 6, 69–90. doi: 10.1558/japl.v6i1.69 Saito, K., Dewaele, J. M., Abe, M., and In’nami, Y. (2018). Motivation, emotion,
learning experience, and second language comprehensibility development in classroom
Méndez-Aguado, C., Aguilar-Parra, J. M., Álvarez, J. F., Trigueros, R., and
settings: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Lang. Learn. 68, 709–743. doi: 10.1111/
Fernández-Archilla, J. A. (2020). The influence of emotions, motivation and habits in the
lang.12297
academic performance of primary education students in French as a foreign language.
Sustainability 12:2531. doi: 10.3390/su12062531 Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: a review of the anxiety
Moskowitz, S., and Dewaele, J. M. (2021). Is teacher happiness contagious? A study of research. Lang. Learn. 28, 129–142. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1978.tb00309.x
the link between perceptions of language teacher happiness and student attitudes. Innov. Shao, K., Nicholson, L. J., Kutuk, G., and Lei, F. (2020). Emotions and instructed language
Lang. Learn. Teach. 15, 117–130. doi: 10.1080/17501229.2019.1707205 learning: proposing a second language emotions and positive psychology model. Front.
National College Foreign Language Teaching Advisory Board (2020). College English Psychol. 11, 1–13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02142
teaching guidelines. Beijing: Higher Education Press. Shao, K., Pekrun, R., and Nicholson, L. J. (2019). Emotions in classroom language
Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clement, R., and Vallerand, R. J. (2003). Why are learning: what can we learn from achievement emotion research? System 86:102121. doi:
you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. 10.1016/j.system.2019.102121
Lang. Learn. 50, 57–85. doi: 10.1111/0023-8333.00111 Taguchi, T., Magid, M., and Papi, M. (2009). “The L2 motivational self system amongst
Pan, C. M., and Zhang, X. (2021). A longitudinal study of foreign language Chinese, Japanese, and Iranian learners of English: a comparative study” in Motivation,
anxiety and enjoyment. Lang. Teach. Res. 1-24:136216882199334. doi: 10.1177/ language identity and the L2 self. eds. Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (Bristol, UK: Multilingual
1362168821993341 Matters), 66–97.

Papi, M. (2010). The L2 motivational self-system, L2 anxiety, and motivated behavior: a Tahmouresi, S., and Papi, M. (2021). Future selves, enjoyment and anxiety as
structural equation modeling approach. System 38, 467–479. doi: 10.1016/j.system. predictors of L2 writing achievement. J. Second. Lang. Writ. 53:100837. doi: 10.1016/j.
2010.06.011 jslw.2021.100837
Tannenbaum, R. J., and Wylie, E. C. (2008). Linking English language test scores onto
Papi, M., and Khajavy, G. H. (2021). Motivational mechanisms underlying second
language achievement: a regulatory focus perspective. Lang. Learn. 71, 537–572. doi: the common European framework of reference: an application of standard-setting
10.1111/lang.12443 methodology. ETS Res. Report Ser. 2008, i–75. doi: 10.1002/j.2333-8504.2008.tb02120.x

Papi, M., Rios, A., Pelt, H., and Ozdemir, E. (2019). Feedback-seeking behavior in Taylor, L. (2004). Issues of test comparability. Res. Notes 15, 2–5. Available at: https://
language learning: basic components and motivational antecedents. Mod. Lang. J. 103, www.cambridgeenglish.org/Images/23131-research-notes-15.pdf
205–226. doi: 10.1111/modl.12538 Teimouri, Y. (2017). L2 selves, emotions, and motivated behaviors. Stud. Second. Lang.
Acquis. 39, 681–709. doi: 10.1017/S0272263116000243
Papi, M., and Teimouri, Y. (2012). Dynamics of selves and motivation: a cross-sectional
study in the EFL context of Iran. Int. J. Appl. Linguist. 22, 287–309. doi: 10.1111/j. Thompson, A., and Lee, J. (2014). The impact of experience abroad and language
1473-4192.2012.00312.x proficiency on language learning anxiety. TESOL Q. 48, 252–274. doi: 10.1002/tesq.125
Papi, M., and Teimouri, Y. (2014). Language learner motivational types: a cluster analysis Vansteenkiste, M., Sierens, E., Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., and Lens, W. (2009). Motivational
study. Lang. Learn. 64, 493–525. doi: 10.1111/lang.12065 profiles from a self-determination perspective: the quality of motivation matters. J. Educ.
Psychol. 101, 671–688. doi: 10.1037/a0015083
Pavelescu, L. M., and Petrić, B. (2018). Love and enjoyment in context: four case studies
of adolescent EFL learners. Stud. Second Lang. Learn. Teach. 8, 73–101. doi: 10.14746/ Wei, R. N., Liu, H., and Wang, S. J. (2020). Exploring L2 grit in the Chinese EFL context.
ssllt.2018.8.1.4 System 93:102295. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2020.102295
Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: assumptions, Wong, Y. K. (2020). Effects of language proficiency on L2 motivational selves: a study of
corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 18, young Chinese language learners. System 88:102181. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2019.102181
315–341. doi: 10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9
Xia, Y., and Xu, Y. (2018). On the influence of classroom environment on negative
Pekrun, R. (2018). “Control-value theory: a social-cognitive approach to achievement academic emotions of English majors. Foreign Lang. Their Teach. 1, 65–76.
emotions” in Big theories revisited 2: A volume of research on sociocultural influences on
You, C. J., and Dörnyei, Z. (2016). Language learning motivation in China: results of a
motivation and learning. eds. G. A. D. Liem and D. M. McInerney (Charlotte, NC:
large-scale stratified survey. Appl. Linguis. 37, 495–519. doi: 10.1093/applin/amu046
Information Age Publishing), 162–190.
Yu, B. H. (2019). The predicting roles of approaches to learning, L2 learning motivation,
Plonsky, L., and Oswald, F. L. (2014). How big is ‘big’? Interpreting effect sizes in L2
L2 learning strategies and L2 proficiency for learning outcomes: a comparison between
research. Lang. Learn. 64, 878–912. doi: 10.1111/lang.12079
mainland and Hong Kong Chinese students. Educ. Stud. 45, 520–532. doi: 10.1080/
Plonsky, L., Sudina, E., and Teimouri, Y. (2022). Language learning and emotion. Lang. 03055698.2018.1509775
Teach. 55, 346–362. doi: 10.1017/S0261444821000434
Zhang, H. Y., Dai, Y., and Wang, Y. C. (2020). Motivation and second foreign language
Reeve, J., Jang, H. R., and Jang, H. (2018). Personality-based antecedents of teachers’ proficiency: the mediating role of foreign language enjoyment. Sustainability 12:1302. doi:
autonomy-supportive and controlling motivating styles. Learn. Individ. Differ. 62, 12–22. 10.3390/su12041302, 1302
doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2018.01.001
Zhao, X., Xiao, W., and Zhang, J. J. (2022). L2 motivational self system, international
Ryan, R. M., Connell, J. P., and Plant, R. W. (1990). Emotions in nondirected text posture and the sustainable development of L2 proficiency in the COVID-19 era: a case of
learning. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2, 1–17. doi: 10.1016/1041-6080(90)90014-8 English majors in China. Sustainability 14:8087. doi: 10.3390/su14138087

Frontiers in Psychology 13 frontiersin.org