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 MASTER THESIS

Jan Hrach

Passive emitter tracking

Institute of Formal and Applied Linguistics

Supervisor of the master thesis: Mgr. David Klusáček, Ph.D.

Study programme: Informatics
Study branch: Software and data engineering

Prague 2019
I declare that I carried out this master thesis independently, and only with the
cited sources, literature and other professional sources. This thesis was not used
to achieve an academic grading elsewhere.
I understand that my work relates to the rights and obligations under the Act
No. 121/2000 Sb., the Copyright Act, as amended, in particular the fact that the
Charles University has the right to conclude a license agreement on the use of
this work as a school work pursuant to Section 60 subsection 1 of the Copyright
Act.

In Prague, 2019-05-05 signature of the author

i
ii
I would like to thank to my supervisor for great insights, tips and advice, and to
SPOJE.NET and Wendulka.net ISPs for providing rooftop hosting to make this
project possible.

iii
iv
Title: Passive emitter tracking

Author: Jan Hrach

Institute: Institute of Formal and Applied Linguistics

Supervisor: Mgr. David Klusáček, Ph.D., Institute of Formal and Applied Lin-
guistics

Abstract: We have implemented a TDOA multilateration of transmitters on an

unmodified rtl-sdr receiver using transmitters with known location as a timing ref-
erence. We present a brief theoretical background and describe the measurement
process which includes several approaches that correct the timing and frequency
errors between the receivers. Additionally, we have implemented an angle of
arrival direction finder using coherent rtl-sdr.

Keywords: TDOA multilateration sdr rtl-sdr

v
vi
Contents
Introduction 3

1 Introduction to digital signal processing 5

1.1 Signal model, from real to complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Frequency shift and time reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Convolution and FIR filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Discrete Fourier transform and windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 DFT and its inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 Windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Crosscorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Efficient computation of correlation using Fourier transform . . . 12
1.6.1 Implementation, benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Time difference of arrival 15

2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Geometry considerations on a round planet . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.3 Behavior of DSP operations in a multi-receiver situation . 16
2.1.4 Dilution of precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.5 Precise clock synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.6 Previous work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 Hardware and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.3 PLL dithering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.4 The measurement process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.5 Coarse synchronization with NTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.6 Power on and then sample continuously . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.7 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.8 Adjusting the gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.9 Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.10 Resampling and frequency shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.11 Coarse synchronization by long correlations . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.12 Computing fine correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.13 Extracting the time difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.14 Plotting hyperbola to a map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.15 Fixing non-optimal correlation functions . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.16 Prefiltering and whitening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.17 Dealing with Single Frequency Networks . . . . . . . . . . 45

3 Angle of arrival 47
3.1 Directional antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 Antenna switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.1 Coherent receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

1
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 The Swamp Spice.

Ilex prinoides, Wild. Sp. Pl. vol. i. p. 709. Pursh, Flor. Amer. vol. 1. p. 118.—
Tetrandria Tetragynia, Linn. Rhamni, Juss.

Leaves lanceolate, attenuated at the base, slightly serrated;

peduncles one-flowered. The leaves of this species are deciduous,
the berries bright red.
 THE BLACK-AND-WHITE CREEPER.

Certhia varia, Wils.

PLATE XC. Male.

A more appropriate name has seldom been given to a bird than that
by which the present species is designated. Notwithstanding the
approximation of the bill in form to that of the Sylviæ, I am
decidedly inclined to place this species among the Creepers or
Certhiæ. To convince you of the propriety of such an arrangement, I
shall now lay before you an account of its habits.
The Black-and-white Creeper appears in the State of Louisiana as
soon as the buds on the trees begin to expand, which happens
about the middle of February. It throws itself into the forests, where
it breeds, and remains until the beginning of November. It is usually
seen on the largest trees of our woods. It has a few notes,
consisting of a series of rapidly enunciated tweets, the last greatly
prolonged. It climbs and creeps along the trunks, the branches, and
even the twigs of the trees, without intermission, and so seldom
perches, that I do not remember ever having seen it in such a
position. It lives principally on small ants and their larvæ, which it
secures as it ascends or descends in a spiral direction, sidewise, with
the head either uppermost or beneath. It keeps its feet close
together, and moves by successive short hops with a rapidity
equalling even that of the Brown Creeper. It dives from the tops of
the trees to their roots, and again ascends. At other times, it alights
on a decayed fallen tree, and searches the bark for food, peeping
into the crevices. It has only a very short flight, and moves directly
from one tree to the nearest.
In this manner the Black-and-white Creeper reaches the Northern
Districts. It always prefers the most uncultivated tracts, and is
especially fond of the pines and hemlock-trees of the mountain-
glens. I have met with it on the borders of Canada, round Lake
Champlain, in the country far to the north-west, on the banks of the
Illinois, in Ohio, Kentucky, and all the wooded districts of the
Arkansas and Red River.
In Louisiana, its nest is usually placed in some small hole in a tree,
and is composed of mosses in a dry state, lined with cottony
substances. The eggs are from five to seven, of a short oval form,
white, with a few brownish-red spots chiefly at the large end.
Two broods are raised in the season. The young go about in
company, following the parents, and it is not unusual to see nine or
ten of these birds scrambling with great activity along the trunk of a
tree. I have not found its nest in the Middle States, where, however,
I am convinced many breed.
The young are similar in colouring to the females. The young males
do not acquire their full plumage until the following spring.
A male of this species is represented on a twig of the tree commonly
called the Black Larch.

Sylvia varia, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 539.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of
the United States, p. 81.
White-poll Warbler, Lath. Synops. vol. iv. p. 488.
Black-and-white Creeper, Certhia varia, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. p. 23. Pl. xix. fig.
3.

Adult Male. Plate XC.

Bill rather long, slightly arched, compressed, extremely slender,
acute; nostrils basal, narrow, half-closed by a membrane. General
form slender. Feet of ordinary length, slender; tarsus longer than the
middle toe, scutellate before; toes free, scutellate, the hind one
proportionally larger; claws compressed, very acute, arched.
Plumage soft and blended. Wings of ordinary length, third quill
longest, secondaries short. Tail nearly even, of twelve narrow,
rounded feathers.
Bill black. Iris hazel. Feet dusky yellow. Middle of the head
longitudinally white, bordered on each side by a broad stripe of
black, beneath which, on each side, over the eye, is a line of white.
Ear-coverts and chin black. Back and breast streaked with white and
black. Wings black, the outer margins of the quills greyish-white, the
tips of the larger coverts, excepting the primary ones, white, forming
two broad bands of that colour across the wing. Tail black, tinged
with bluish-grey externally, the ends of the inner webs of the three
outer feathers on each side white. Abdomen white; sides and under
tail-coverts white, spotted with black.
Length 5½ inches, extent of wings 7½; bill along the ridge ½.

The Black Larch.

Pinus pendula, Pursh, Flor. Amer. vol. ii. p. 645.—Monœcia Polyandria, Linn. Coniferæ,
Juss.

Leaves fasciculate, deciduous; cones oblong, the margins of the

scales inflected; bracteoles panduriform, with an attenuated tip. This
species, which grows in cedar swamps, in the Northern States,
attains a great size, and resembles the European Larch in
appearance.
 THE ECCENTRIC NATURALIST.
"What an odd looking fellow!" said I to myself, as while walking by
the river, I observed a man landing from a boat, with what I thought
a bundle of dried clover on his back; "how the boatmen stare at him!
sure he must be an original!" He ascended with a rapid step, and
approaching me asked if I could point out the house in which Mr
Audubon resided. "Why, I am the man," said I, "and will gladly lead
you to my dwelling."
The traveller rubbed his hands together with delight, and drawing a
letter from his pocket, handed it to me without any remark. I broke
the seal and read as follows: "My dear Audubon, I send you an odd
fish, which you may prove to be undescribed, and hope you will do
so in your next letter. Believe me always your friend B." With all the
simplicity of a woodsman I asked the bearer where the odd fish was,
when M. de T. (for, kind reader, the individual in my presence was
none else than that renowned naturalist) smiled, rubbed his hands,
and with the greatest good humour said, "I am that odd fish I
presume, Mr Audubon." I felt confounded and blushed, but contrived
to stammer an apology.
We soon reached the house, when I presented my learned guest to
my family, and was ordering a servant to go to the boat for M. de
T.'s luggage, when he told me he had none but what he brought on
his back. He then loosened the pack of weeds which had first drawn
my attention. The ladies were a little surprised, but I checked their
critical glances for the moment. The naturalist pulled off his shoes,
and while engaged in drawing his stockings, not up, but down, in
order to cover the holes about the heels, told us in the gayest mood
imaginable that he had walked a great distance, and had only taken
a passage on board the ark, to be put on this shore, and that he was
sorry his apparel had suffered so much from his late journey. Clean
clothes were offered, but he would not accept them, and it was with
evident reluctance that he performed the lavations usual on such
occasions before he sat down to dinner.
At table, however, his agreeable conversation made us all forget his
singular appearance; and, indeed, it was only as we strolled together
in the garden that his attire struck me as exceedingly remarkable. A
long loose coat of yellow nankeen, much the worse of the many rubs
it had got in its time, and stained all over with the juice of plants,
hung loosely about him like a sac. A waistcoat of the same, with
enormous pockets, and buttoned up to the chin, reached below over
a pair of tight pantaloons, the lower parts of which were buttoned
down to the ankles. His beard was as long as I have known my own
to be during some of my peregrinations, and his lank black hair hung
loosely over his shoulders. His forehead was so broad and prominent
that any tyro in phrenology would instantly have pronounced it the
residence of a mind of strong powers. His words impressed an
assurance of rigid truth, and as he directed the conversation to the
study of the natural sciences, I listened to him with as much delight
as Telemachus could have listened to Mentor. He had come to visit
me, he said, expressly for the purpose of seeing my drawings,
having been told that my representations of birds were accompanied
with those of shrubs and plants, and he was desirous of knowing
whether I might chance to have in my collection any with which he
was unacquainted. I observed some degree of impatience in his
request to be allowed at once to see what I had. We returned to the
house, when I opened my portfolios and laid them before him.
He chanced to turn over the drawing of a plant quite new to him.
After inspecting it closely, he shook his head, and told me no such
plant existed in nature;—for, kind reader, M. de T., although a highly
scientific man, was suspicious to a fault, and believed such plants
only to exist as he had himself seen, or such as, having been
discovered of old, had, according to Father Malebranche's expression,
acquired a "venerable beard." I told my guest that the plant was
common in the immediate neighbourhood, and that I should shew it
him on the morrow. "And why to morrow, Mr Audubon? let us go
now." We did so, and on reaching the bank of the river, I pointed to
the plant. M. de T. I thought had gone mad. He plucked the plants
one after another, danced, hugged me in his arms, and exultingly
told me that he had got not merely a new species, but a new genus.
When we returned home, the naturalist opened the bundle which he
had brought on his back, and took out a journal rendered water-
proof by means of a leather case, together with a small parcel of
linen, examined the new plant, and wrote its description. The
examination of my drawings then went on. You would be pleased,
kind reader, to hear his criticisms, which were of the greatest
advantage to me, for, being well acquainted with books as well as
with nature, he was well fitted to give me advice.
It was summer, and the heat was so great that the windows were all
open. The light of the candles attracted many insects, among which
was observed a large species of Scarabæus. I caught one, and,
aware of his inclination to believe only what he should himself see, I
shewed him the insect, and assured him it was so strong that it
would crawl on the table with the candlestick on its back. "I should
like to see the experiment made, Mr Audubon," he replied. It was
accordingly made, and the insect moved about, dragging its burden
so as to make the candlestick change its position as if by magic, until
coming upon the edge of the table, it dropped on the floor, took to
wing, and made its escape.
When it waxed late, I shewed him to the apartment intended for him
during his stay, and endeavoured to render him comfortable, leaving
him writing materials in abundance. I was indeed heartily glad to
have a naturalist under my roof. We had all retired to rest. Every
person I imagined was in deep slumber save myself, when of a
sudden I heard a great uproar in the naturalist's room. I got up,
reached the place in a few moments, and opened the door, when, to
my astonishment, I saw my guest running about the room naked,
holding the handle of my favourite violin, the body of which he had
battered to pieces against the walls in attempting to kill the bats
which had entered by the open window, probably attracted by the
insects flying around his candle. I stood amazed, but he continued
jumping and running round and round, until he was fairly exhausted,
when he begged me to procure one of the animals for him, as he
felt convinced they belonged to "a new species." Although I was
convinced of the contrary, I took up the bow of my demolished
Cremona, and administering a smart tap to each of the bats as it
came up, soon got specimens enough. The war ended, I again bade
him good night, but could not help observing the state of the room.
It was strewed with plants, which it would seem he had arranged
into groups, but which were now scattered about in confusion.
"Never mind, Mr Audubon," quoth the eccentric naturalist, "never
mind, I'll soon arrange them again. I have the bats, and that's
enough."
Several days passed, during which we followed our several
occupations. M. de T. searched the woods for plants, and I for birds.
He also followed the margins of the Ohio, and picked up many
shells, which he greatly extolled. With us, I told him, they were
gathered into heaps to be converted into lime. "Lime! Mr Audubon;
why, they are worth a guinea a piece in any part of Europe." One
day, as I was returning from a hunt in a cane-brake, he observed
that I was wet and spattered with mud, and desired me to shew him
the interior of one of these places, which he said he had never
visited.
The Cane, kind reader, formerly grew spontaneously over the greater
portions of the State of Kentucky and other Western Districts of our
Union, as well as in many farther south. Now, however, cultivation,
the introduction of cattle and horses, and other circumstances
connected with the progress of civilization, have greatly altered the
face of the country, and reduced the cane within comparatively small
limits. It attains a height of from twelve to thirty feet, and a
diameter of from one to two, and grows in great patches resembling
osier-holts, in which occur plants of all sizes. The plants frequently
grow so close together, and in course of time become so tangled, as
to present an almost impenetrable thicket. A portion of ground thus
covered with canes is called a Cane-brake.
If you picture to yourself one of these cane-brakes growing beneath
the gigantic trees that form our western forests, interspersed with
vines of many species, and numberless plants of every description,
you may conceive how difficult it is for one to make his way through
it, especially after a heavy shower of rain or a fall of sleet, when the
traveller, in forcing his way through, shakes down upon himself such
quantities of water, as soon reduce him to a state of the utmost
discomfort. The hunters often cut little paths through the thickets
with their knives, but the usual mode of passing through them is by
pushing one's self backward, and wedging a way between the
stems. To follow a bear or a cougar pursued by dogs through these
brakes, is a task, the accomplishment of which may be imagined,
but of the difficulties and dangers accompanying which I cannot
easily give an adequate representation.
The canes generally grow on the richest soil, and are particularly
plentiful along the margins of the great western rivers. Many of our
new settlers are fond of forming farms in their immediate vicinity, as
the plant is much relished by all kinds of cattle and horses, which
feed upon it at all seasons, and again because these brakes are
plentifully stocked with game of various kinds. It sometimes happens
that the farmer clears a portion of the brake. This is done by cutting
the stems, which are fistular and knotted, like those of other
grasses, with a large knife or cutlass. They are afterwards placed in
heaps, and when partially dried set fire to. The moisture contained
between the joints is converted into steam, which causes the cane
to burst with a smart report, and when a whole mass is crackling,
the sounds resemble discharges of musquetry. Indeed, I have been
told that travellers floating down the rivers, and unacquainted with
these circumstances, have been induced to pull their oars with
redoubled rigour, apprehending the attack of a host of savages,
ready to scalp every one of the party.
A day being fixed, we left home after an early breakfast, crossed the
Ohio, and entered the woods. I had determined that my companion
should view a cane-brake in all its perfection, and after leading him
several miles in a direct course, came upon as fine a sample as
existed in that part of the country. We entered, and for some time
proceeded without much difficulty, as I led the way, and cut down
the canes which were most likely to incommode him. The difficulties
gradually increased, so that we were presently obliged to turn our
backs to the foe, and push ourselves on the best way we could. My
companion stopped here and there to pick up a plant and examine
it. After a while, we chanced to come upon the top of a fallen tree,
which so obstructed our passage that we were on the eve of going
round, instead of thrusting ourselves through amongst the branches,
when, from its bed in the centre of the tangled mass, forth rushed a
bear, with such force, and snuffing the air in so frightful a manner,
that M. de T. became suddenly terror-struck, and, in his haste to
escape, made a desperate attempt to run, but fell amongst the
canes in such a way, that he looked as if pinioned. Perceiving him
jammed in between the stalks, and thoroughly frightened, I could
not refrain from laughing at the ridiculous exhibition which he made.
My gaiety, however, was not very pleasing to the savant, who called
out for aid, which was at once administered. Gladly would he have
retraced his steps, but I was desirous that he should be able to
describe a cane-brake, and enticed him to follow me, by telling him
that our worst difficulties were nearly over. We proceeded, for by
this time the bear was out of hearing.
The way became more and more tangled. I saw with delight that a
heavy cloud, portentous of a thunder gust, was approaching. In the
mean time, I kept my companion in such constant difficulties, that
he now panted, perspired, and seemed almost overcome by fatigue.
The thunder began to rumble, and soon after a dash of heavy rain
drenched us in a few minutes. The withered particles of leaves and
bark attached to the canes stuck to our clothes. We received many
scratches from briars, and now and then a twitch from a nettle. M.
de T. seriously inquired if we should ever get alive out of the horrible
situation in which we were. I spoke of courage and patience, and
told him I hoped we should soon get to the margin of the brake,
which, however, I knew to be two miles distant. I made him rest,
and gave him a mouthful of brandy from my flask; after which, we
proceeded on our slow and painful march. He threw away all his
plants, emptied his pockets of the fungi, lichens, and mosses which
he had thrust into them, and finding himself much lightened, went
on for thirty or forty yards with a better grace. But, kind reader,
enough—I led the naturalist first one way, then another, until I had
nearly lost myself in the brake, although I was well acquainted with
it, kept him tumbling and crawling on his hands and knees, until long
after mid-day, when we at length reached the edge of the river. I
blew my horn, and soon shewed my companion a boat coming to
our rescue. We were ferried over, and, on reaching the house, found
more agreeable occupation in replenishing our empty coffers.
M. de T. remained with us for three weeks, and collected multitudes
of plants, shells, bats, and fishes, but never again expressed a desire
of visiting a cane-brake. We were perfectly reconciled to his oddities,
and, finding him a most agreeable and intelligent companion, hoped
that his sojourn might be of long duration. But, one evening when
tea was prepared, and we expected him to join the family, he was
nowhere to be found. His grasses and other valuables were all
removed from his room. The night was spent in searching for him in
the neighbourhood. No eccentric naturalist could be discovered.
Whether he had perished in a swamp, or had been devoured by a
bear or a gar-fish, or had taken to his heels, were matters of
conjecture; nor was it until some weeks after, that a letter from him,
thanking us for our attention, assured me of his safety.
 THE BROAD-WINGED HAWK.

Falco pennsylvanicus, Wils.

PLATE XCI. Male and Female.

One fine May morning, when nature seemed to be enchanted at the

sight of her own great works, when the pearly dew-drops were yet
hanging at the point of each leaf, or lay nursed in the blossoms,
gently rocked, as it were, by the soft breeze of early summer, I took
my gun, and, accompanied by my excellent brother-in-law, William
G. Bakewell, Esq., at that time a youth, walked towards some lovely
groves, where many songsters attracted our attention by their
joyous melodies. The woods were all alive with the richest variety,
and, divided in choice, we kept going on without shooting at any
thing, so great was our admiration of every bird that presented itself
to our view. As we crossed a narrow skirt of wood, my young
companion spied a nest on a tree of moderate height, and, as my
eye reached it, we both perceived that the parent bird was sitting in
it. Some little consultation took place, as neither of us could
determine whether it was a Crow's or a Hawk's nest, and it was
resolved that my young friend should climb the tree, and bring down
one of the eggs. On reaching the nest, he said the bird, which still
remained quiet, was a Hawk and unable to fly. I desired him to cover
it with his handkerchief, try to secure it, and bring it down, together
with the eggs. All this was accomplished without the least difficulty. I
looked at it with indescribable pleasure, as I saw it was new to me,
and then felt vexed that it was not of a more spirited nature, as it
had neither defended its eggs nor itself. It lay quietly in the
handkerchief, and I carried it home to my father-in-law's, shewed it
to the family, and went to my room, where I instantly began drawing
it. The drawing which I then made is at this moment before me, and
is dated "Fatland Ford, Pennsylvania, May 27, 1812."
I put the bird on a stick made fast to my table. It merely moved its
feet to grasp the stick, and stood erect, but raised its feathers, and
drew in its neck on its shoulders. I passed my hand over it, to
smooth the feathers by gentle pressure. It moved not. The plumage
remained as I wished it. Its eye, directed towards mine, appeared
truly sorrowful, with a degree of pensiveness, which rendered me at
that moment quite uneasy. I measured the length of its bill with the
compass, began my outlines, continued measuring part after part as
I went on, and finished the drawing, without the bird ever moving
once. My wife sat at my side, reading to me at intervals, but our
conversation had frequent reference to the singularity of the
incident. The drawing being finished, I raised the window, laid hold
of the poor bird, and launched it into the air, where it sailed off until
out of my sight, without uttering a single cry, or deviating from its
course. The drawing from which the plate is taken, was
subsequently made, as I had to wait until I should procure a male,
to render it complete.
The above incident you will doubtless consider as extraordinary as I
myself did, and perhaps some may feel disposed to look upon it as a
specimen of travellers' tales; but as I have resolved to present you
with the incidents as they occurred, I have felt no hesitation in
relating this.
The Broad-winged Hawk is seldom seen in Louisiana, and I believe
never except during the severe winters that occasionally occur in our
Middle and Eastern Districts. I have observed that its usual range
seldom extends far west of the Alleghany Mountains; but in Virginia,
Maryland, and all the States to the eastward of these, it is by no
means a rare species. I have shot several in the Jerseys, the State of
New York, near the Falls of Niagara, and also in the Great Pine
Forest.
Its flight, which is easy and light, is performed in circles. When
elevated in the air, it is fond of partially closing its wings for a
moment, and thus gliding to a short distance, as if for amusement.
It seldom chases other birds of prey, but is itself frequently teased
by the Little Sparrow-hawk, the King-bird, or the Martin. It generally
attacks birds of weak nature, particularly very young chickens and
ducklings, and during winter feeds on insects and other small
animals. It flies singly, unless during the breeding season, and after
feeding retires to the top of some small tree, within the woods,
where it rests for hours together. It is easily approached. When
wounded by a shot so as to be unable to fly, it, like most birds of its
tribe, throws itself on its back, opens its bill, protrudes its tongue,
utters a hissing sound, erects the top-feathers of its head, and
defends itself by reiterated attempts to lay hold with its talons. If a
stick is presented to it in this state, it will clench it at once, and allow
itself to be carried hanging to it for some distance, indeed until the
muscles become paralyzed, when it drops, and again employs the
same means of defence.
When feeding, it generally holds its prey with both feet, and tears
and swallows the parts without much plucking. I must here remark,
that birds of prey never cover their victims by extending the wings
over them, unless when about to be attacked by other birds or
animals, that evince a desire to share with them or carry off the fruit
of their exertions. In the stomach of this bird I have found wood-
frogs, portions of small snakes, together with feathers, and the hair
of several small species of quadrupeds. I do not think it ever secures
birds on the wing, at least I never saw it do so.
The nest, which is about the size of that of the Common Crow, is
usually placed on pretty large branches, and near the stem or trunk
of the tree. It is composed externally of dry sticks and briars,
internally of numerous small roots, and is lined with the large
feathers of the Common Fowl and other birds. The eggs are four or
five, of a dull greyish-white, blotched with dark brown. They are
deposited as early as the beginning of March, in low places, but not
until a fortnight later in the mountainous parts of the districts in
which the bird more frequently breeds.
The tree on which I have placed a pair of these birds is known
nearly throughout the Union by the name of Pig-nut Hickory. I have
represented it along with them, not because the birds themselves
feed on the nuts, as some people have supposed on seeing the
drawing, but because it occurs abundantly in those States where the
Broad-winged Hawk resides, and, again, because I have found the
nest of that bird more frequently placed on its branches than on
those of any other tree. The nuts have an excessively hard shell. The
kernel is sweet, but as it is of small size, the nuts are seldom
gathered for any other purpose than that of feeding tame squirrels.
The hogs which run at large in our woods feed on them, as do all
our different species of squirrels, and sometimes the raccoon. The
wood of this tree is perhaps tougher than that of most of its genus;
but as the trunk is seldom either very straight or very high, it is not
used so much as some other hickories, for the purposes of
husbandry. Its average height may be estimated at about fifty feet,
and its diameter at from eighteen inches to two feet.

Falco pennsylvanicus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 29.
Broad-winged Hawk, Falco pennsylvanicus, Wils. Amer. Orn. vol. vi. p. 92. Pl. 54. fig.
1. Male.

Adult Male. Plate XCI. Fig. 1.

Bill shortish, as broad as long, the sides convex, the dorsal outline
convex from the base; upper mandible with the edges slightly
inflected, waved with a broad rounded lobe, the tip trigonal,
descending obliquely, acute; lower mandible inflected at the edges,
rounded at the tip. Nostrils oval, oblique. Head rather large,
flattened above. Neck shortish. Body ovate, broad anteriorly. Wings
rather long. Legs longish, rather robust, roundish; tarsi covered
before and behind with scuta; toes covered above with scuta,
scabrous and tuberculate beneath; middle toe much the longest,
outer connected at the base by a membrane, and shorter than the
inner; claws long, curved, roundish, very acute.
Plumage ordinary, compact. Feathers of the head narrow, of the
back broad and rounded, of the neck oblong. Space between the bill
and eye covered with bristly feathers. Wing very broad, the primary
quills broad, slightly narrowed toward the end, rounded, the fourth
longest, the secondary quills curved inwards, broadly obtuse. Tail
longish, nearly even, the feathers rather broad, truncated and
rounded.
Bill bluish-black at the tip, blue towards the base; cere and margin
yellow. Iris hazel. Feet gamboge-yellow; claws brownish-black. The
general colour of the upper parts is dark umber; the forehead with a
slight margin of whitish, the quills blackish-brown, the tail with three
bands of dark brown, alternating with two whitish bands, and a
narrower terminal band of greyish, the tips white. Throat whitish;
cheeks reddish-brown, with a dark brown mustachial band; the
under parts generally light reddish, marked with guttiform, umber
spots along the neck, and sagittiform larger spots of the same colour
on the breast and sides. Tibial feathers of the same colour, with
numerous smaller spots.
Length 14 inches, extent of wings 32; bill 1½ along the ridge, 1¼
along the gap.

Adult Female. Plate XCI. Fig. 2.

Colouring generally similar to that of the male, lighter above, more
tinged with red beneath, where the spots are larger and more
irregular.
Length 16 inches, extent of wings 35; bill 1 along the ridge, 1¼
along the gap.
This species is referred to the division Astures of the genus Falco.
 The Pig-nut Hickory.

Juglans porcina, Mich. Arbr. Forest. de l'Amer. Sept. t. i. p. 206. Pl. 9. Pursh, Flor.
Amer. vol. ii. p. 638.—Monœcia Polyandria, Linn. Terebinthaceæ, Juss.

Leaves pinnate, with seven, five, or three ovato-lanceolate, smooth

leaflets, attenuated at both ends; male catkins filiform; fruit globose;
nut small, smoothish, very hard. The leaves on the twig represented
in the plate are not serrated on the edges, although they are
generally so in this species. This, however, is merely an occasional
variety.
 THE PIGEON HAWK.

Falco columbarius, Linn.

PLATE XCII. Male and Female.

It is when the whole of the shores of our eastern rivers are

swarming with myriads of Rice Buntings, Red-wings, Soras, and
other migratory birds,—when all the sportsmen of those parts of our
country are induced to turn out in the expectation of full bags of
game, that the daring feats of the little spirited Falcon now before
you are displayed.
Imagine yourself, good-natured reader, with a gun on your shoulder,
following the windings of one of those noble streams which
embellish our country and facilitate its commerce, having constantly
within your view millions of birds on their way to the south, and
which in the evenings fall thick as the drops of a hail-shower on the
bordering marshes, to spend the night there in security, and by rest
to restore the vigour necessary for their gaining the distant regions,
whence half of them had emerged the preceding spring. Well, as you
are proceeding, full of anxiety, and gazing in astonishment at the
multitudes of feathered travellers, all of a sudden a larger bird
attracts your eye. It sweeps along in the stillness of the autumnal
evening with a rapidity seldom equalled, creating confusion, terror,
and dismay along the whole shores. The flocks rise en masse with a
fluttering sound which comes strangely on your ear, double and
double again, turn and wind over the marsh, agitated and fearful of
imminent danger. And now, closely crowded, they would fain escape,
but alas! one has been singled out, and in the twinkling of an eye,
the Pigeon Hawk, darting into the middle of the flock, seizes and
carries him off. Now is your time. Hundreds of sportsmen are
dispersed over the marsh, paddling their canoes, or splashing among
the reeds. Pull your trigger, and let fly, for it is impossible, should
you be ever so inexpert, not to bring down several birds at a shot.
But, leaving you to your sport, I must follow the little marauder, as
he makes toward the nearest shore, where he alights and devours
his prey, and then, with unsatiated appetite, and bent on foul deeds,
returns to the scene of action.
When the Reed-birds, the Redwings, and Soras, shall have become
so scarce as to be searched for with the same interest as our little
Partridges already are; when the margins of our rivers shall have
been drained and ploughed to the very tide-mark; when the Grouse
shall have to be protected by game-laws; when Turkeys shall no
longer be met with in the wild state;—how strange will the tale
which I now tell sound in the ears of those who may walk along the
banks of these rivers, and over the fields which have occupied the
place of these marshes!
The Pigeon Hawk does not, I believe, raise its young within the
United States, but somewhere farther to the north. At least, I am
inclined to think so, for in all my wanderings I never found its nest,
nor saw the bird at any other season than late in summer, during the
autumnal months, or in the winter. Its migration, or rather its pursuit
of migrating birds, extends to the southernmost parts of our
country; for I have killed it not only in Louisiana, but high up the
Arkansas River, in regions bordering upon the Mexican territory.
The daring spirit which it displays exceeds that of any other Hawk of
its size. It seizes the Red-breasted Thrush, the Wild Pigeon, and
even the Golden-winged Woodpecker, on land; whilst along the
shores it chases several species of Snipes, as well as the Green-
winged Teal. The latter bird, however, dives at the approach of the
Hawk, and thus eludes his gripe; while the little plunderer, having
descended to the surface of the water with the velocity of an arrow,
passes onwards, ascending again, without seeming to move its
wings, the impulse which it acquired in the descent carrying it
onwards, as a carriage, after being whirled down a steep declivity,
surmounts the next eminence, without additional propulsion. Even
the presence of the tyrant man he little heeds, and in Pennsylvania
one of this species came almost right upon me while in pursuit of a
dove, which found safety in my bosom from its persecutor.
When not in full chase, the Pigeon Hawk flies with an unsteady and
undetermined notion, flapping its wings frequently, while it rises in
spiral curves. This parade is of short duration, for, as if it
remembered that it was losing time, it again approaches the ground,
and skims swiftly over the streams, across the fields, along the
fences, or by the skirts of the woods, as if intending to frighten all
the little birds in its way. Should it unexpectedly meet a man, it darts
upwards, and quickly passes over to continue its search. I have
known these Hawks attack birds in cages, hanging against the walls
of houses, in the very streets of our eastern cities.
When wounded in the wing, it shakes the other as it falls, describing
the spiral curves of a screw; and, if no person is near to secure it,
makes its way by long leaps to the thickets, where it is very difficult
to find it. But if the gunner is at hand, and attempts to lay hold of it,
the little ruffian erects his feathers, screams shrilly and piercingly,
and, like the rest of his tribe, throws himself on his back, to be ready
to clutch his enemy.

Falco columbarius, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 128.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p. 44.—Ch.
Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 28.
Pigeon Hawk, Lath. Synops. vol. i. p. 101.—Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 107. Pl. 25.
fig. 3.

Adult Male. Plate XCII. Fig. 1.

Bill shortish, as broad as long, the sides convex, the dorsal outline
convex from the base; upper mandible with the edges slightly
inflected, and forming a projecting process, the tip trigonal, acute,
descending obliquely; lower mandible inflected at the edges, with a
notch near the end, abrupt at the tip. Nostrils roundish, with a
central tubercle, perforated in the short cere. Head rather large,
flattened above. Neck shortish. Body ovate. Legs short, roundish;
tarsi covered before with transverse scuta, on the sides with scales;
toes scutellate above, scabrous and tuberculate beneath; middle toe
much longer than the outer, which is connected with it at the base
by a membrane; claws long, curved, roundish, very acute.
Plumage ordinary, compact on the upper and fore parts, lax
beneath. Feathers of the head and neck narrow, of the back rather
short, broad and rounded, of the breast oblong. Space between the
beak and eye covered with bristly feathers. Orbital spaces bare.
Wings nearly as long as the tail; the primary quills narrow, tapering,
cut out on the inner web towards the end, rounded, the second
longest; the secondary quills short, obtuse. Tail longish, nearly even.
Tibial feathers long, forming a large tuft externally.
Bill bluish-black at the tip, blue towards the base; cere, margin, and
bare orbital space greenish-yellow. Iris dark brown. Feet greenish-
yellow; claws brownish-black. The general colour of the upper parts
is deep chocolate; a line above the eyes, the tips of the first row of
wing-coverts, the outer margins and tips of the secondaries, and the
inner margins and tips of the primaries, whitish. The inner webs of
the quills marked with pale brown spots. Tail banded with brownish-
white transverse spots, which do not reach the outer margin of the
feathers, and tipped with the same. Throat white, cheeks whitish,
patched and streaked with brown. A broad mustachial band of the
same colour. Under parts generally light reddish-brown, marked with
guttiform spots. Tibial feathers marked with more elongated spots.
Under tail-coverts nearly spotless.
Length 13 inches, extent of wings 28; bill 7⁄12 along the ridge, 11⁄12
along the gap.
Adult Female. Plate XCII. Fig. 2.
The colouring of the female is generally similar to that of the male,
somewhat lighter above, with the spots of the lower parts broader.
Length 14½ inches, extent of wings 30; bill ¾ along the ridge, ¾
along the gap, measured from the tip of the lower mandible.
 THE SEA-SIDE FINCH.

Fringilla maritima, Wils.

PLATE XCIII. Male and Female.

The monotonous chirpings which one hears in almost every part of

our maritime salt-marshes, are produced by this bird and another
nearly allied to it. The Sea-side Finch may be seen at any hour of
the day, during the months of May and June, mounted on the tops
of the rankest weeds which grow by the margins of tide-waters
along the greater portion of our Atlantic coast, whence it pours forth
with much emphasis the few notes of which its song is composed.
When one approaches it, it either seeks refuge amongst the grass,
by descending along the stalks and blades of the weeds, or flies off
to a short distance, with a continued flirting of its wings, then alights
with a rapid descent, and runs off with great nimbleness. I am
inclined to believe that it rears two broods in the season, as I have
found birds of this species sitting on their eggs early in May, and
again in the beginning of July. The nest is placed so close to the
ground that one might suppose it partly sunk in it, although this is
not actually the case. It is composed of coarse grasses externally,
and is lined with finer kinds, but exhibits little regularity in its
structure. The eggs are from four to six, of an elongated oval form,
greyish-white, freckled with brown all over. The male and the female
sit alternately, and will not fly off at the sight of man, unless he
attempts to catch them on the nest, when they skulk off as if badly
wounded. Many nests may be found in the space of a few acres of
these marshes, where the land is most elevated, and where small
shrubs are seen. They select these spots, because they are not liable
to be overflowed by high floods, and because there are accumulated
about them drifted sand, masses of sea-weed, and other castings of
the sea, among which they find much food of the kind which they
seem to prefer. This consists of marine insects, small crabs and
snails, as well as the green sand beetle, portions of all of which I
have found in their stomach.
It is very difficult to shoot them unless when they are on wing, as
their movements while they run up and down the weeds are
extremely rapid; but their flight is so direct and level, that a good
marksman can easily kill them before they alight amongst the grass
again. After the young are well grown, the whole of these birds
betake themselves to the ditches or sluices by which the salt-
marshes are intersected, fly along them, and there find abundant
food. They enter the larger holes of crabs, go into every crack and
crevice of the drying mud, and are then more difficult to be
approached, as the edges of these ditches are usually overgrown
with taller and ranker sedges. Having one day shot a number of
these birds, merely for the sake of practice, I had them made into a
pie, which, however, could not be eaten, on account of its fishy
savour.
The Rose on which I have drawn these birds is found so near the
sea, on rather higher lands than the marshes, that I thought it as fit
as any other plant for the purpose, more especially as the Finches,
when very high tides overflow the marshes, take refuge in these
higher grounds. It is sweetly scented, and blooms from May to
August. I have never met with it elsewhere than on the small sea
islands and along the coasts, where it grows in loose sandy soil.

Fringilla maritima, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 110.
Sea-side Finch, Fringilla maritima, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iv. p. 68, Pl. 34. fig. 2.

Adult Male. Plate XCIII. Fig. 1.

Bill shortish, robust, conical, acute; upper mandible broader than the
lower, slightly declinate at the tip; the edges of both mandibles
slightly arched, and a little deflected at the base. Nostrils basal,
roundish, open, partially concealed by the feathers. Head rather
large. Neck shortish. Body rather robust. Legs of moderate length,
slender; tarsus longer than the middle toe, covered anteriorly with a
longitudinal plate above, and a few large scuta below; toes
scutellate above, free, the lateral ones nearly equal; claws slender,
slightly arched, compressed, acute, that of the hind toe larger.
Plumage ordinary, compact above, soft and blended beneath. Wings
short, and much curved, third and fourth quills longest, first much
shorter. Tail of ordinary length, much rounded, the feathers narrow
and rather pointed.
Bill dark brown above, light blue beneath. Iris hazel. Feet and claws
greyish-blue. Crown of the head deep brown, surrounded by a line
of greyish-blue. Upper part of the back, wings, and tail, olive-brown
mixed with pale blue. Lesser wing-coverts reddish-brown, larger
coverts edged and tipped with brownish-white, the edge of the
wing-joint yellow. Outer margins of the tail-feathers paler. A broad
yellow streak from the base of the bill over the eye. Throat and fore-
neck greyish-white, with a streak of greyish-blue on each side.
Breast and sides dull greyish-blue, the abdomen paler.
There is very little difference between the sexes as to colour or size.
Length 8 inches, extent of wings 11; bill along the ridge ⅔, along
the gap 1.

The Carolina Rose.

Rosa Carolina, Pursh, Flor. Amer. p. 345.—Icosandria Polygynia, Linn. Rosaceæ, Juss.
This beautiful species, which attains a height of five or six feet, is
generally characterized by its globose germens, which, with the
peduncles, are more or less hispid; its hairy petioles, slightly curved
prickles, and oblongo-lanceolate, acute, serrated leaflets, which are
glaucous beneath. It varies greatly, however, like many other species
of the same genus.
 THE GRASS FINCH, OR BAY-WINGED
BUNTING.

Fringilla graminea, Gmel.

PLATE XCIV. Male.

I have never seen the Bay-winged Bunting in any portion of

Louisiana, Missouri, Kentucky, or Ohio, and am therefore inclined to
look upon it as a resident of the country lying to the eastward of the
range of the Alleghanies. It there occurs from Georgia to
Massachusets, both along the shores and inland, as far as the base
of the mountains, and here and there on the mountains themselves,
but seldom in places to which cultivation has not extended. I have
thought it prepossessed in favour of sandy ground, and dry barren
soils. It sings sweetly, and at times for half-an-hour, without
changing its place, either from the tops of the Sassafras or Sumach
bushes which grow along the fences, or from the upper bar or stake
of a fence itself. During this little serenade, it is easily approached,
but when on the ground, where it runs nimbly and with grace, it is
rather shy. It is fond of scratching in the warm and dry sand, and of
wallowing in it, to cleanse its body. Its flight, which is easy, consists
of a succession of gentle undulations, and, when it is chased,
sometimes extends over the whole of a field. It is a solitary bird, and
is rather pugnacious, for when two males or two females happen to
meet, little skirmishes frequently ensue. The nest, which is placed
among the grass, and partly sunk in the ground, little attention
being paid to its concealment, is prettily constructed. It is formed
externally of leaves and fine grass, and is well lined with horse hair,
so as to look neat and comfortable. The female lays from four to six
eggs, about the middle of April, in favourable seasons, and generally
rears two broods each year. I have shot these birds during winter, in
the neighbourhood of Lancaster in Pennsylvania, where but few are
seen. At the same period of the year they were found numerous
along the sea-coast of Virginia and Carolina. Their food consists
principally of the seeds of grasses and other plants, although they
sometimes run after insects and eat them also. Their flesh is juicy,
tender and savoury.
Having drawn the figure which you will see on referring to the plate,
near the sea-shores of New Jersey, where the bird which it
represents was shot while walking among little groups of the plant
there vulgarly called the Prickly Pear, I have represented it also. It
shoots up its fleshy stems from among the driest sand, and there
flourishes in the greatest perfection and abundance. The flower is
destitute of scent, but the fruit is agreeably acid, and is often eaten
by children. I have observed a plant of the same genus about the
sterile cliffs of the Kentucky River, and in particular near the town of
Frankfort, as well as in Louisiana on Alexander's Creek, at which
place it grows to a great size. This is probably a distinct species. I
have not observed Cactuses growing in a wild state in any other part
of the Union.

Fringilla graminea, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 922.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p. 445.
—Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 108.
Grass Finch, Lath. Synops. vol. iii. p. 273.
Emberiza graminea, Bay-winged Bunting, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iv. p. 51. Pl. 31. fig.
5.

Adult Male. Plate XCIV.

Bill shortish, robust, conical, acute; upper mandible broader than the
lower, slightly declinate at the tip, the edges of both mandibles
straight to near the base, where they are a little deflected. Nostrils
basal, roundish, open, partially concealed by the feathers. Head
rather large. Neck short. Body robust. Legs of moderate length,
slender; tarsus of the same length as the middle toe, covered
anteriorly with a longitudinal plate above, and a few transverse scuta
below; toes scutate above, free, the lateral ones nearly equal; claws
slender, arched, compressed, acute, that of the hind toe largest.
Plumage ordinary, compact. Wings of ordinary length, third and
fourth quills longest, first and second little shorter. Tail longish,
nearly equal, or slightly forked.
Bill dark brown on the back of the upper mandible, pale on the sides
and below. Iris hazel. Tarsi, toes, and claws, flesh-colour. The
general colour of the upper parts is light brown, streaked and
mottled with darker. Lesser wing-coverts bright reddish-brown or
bay, the larger deep brown, edged with pale brown; quills also deep
brown, the first margined externally with white. Tail-feathers dark
brown, the outer marked with an oblique band of white, including
the outer web and part of the inner towards the tip, the next three
margined externally with white, changing into pale brown on the
other. A narrow circle of white around the eye. Throat and breast
yellowish-white, the latter and the fore part of the cheeks streaked
with dark brown. Sides and abdomen very pale yellowish-brown, the
former sparsely streaked with dark brown; the posterior abdominal
region and under tail-coverts white.
There is no perceptible difference as to colour or size between the
male and the female.
Length 5¾ inches, extent of wings 10; bill ⅓ along the ridge, ½
along the gap.
This species has been variously classed, some considering it as a
Fringilla, others as an Emberiza. It seems to me to be more in its
true place in the former genus, while in its habits, colouring and
form, it also approaches closely to some species of Alauda.
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