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Review of Nigerian standard for drinking water quality

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Journal of Environmental Management and Safety

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Review of Nigerian standard for drinking water quality

*Gladys Ogochukwu Chukwurah1, Uchenna C. Chukwurah2, Matthew Isimah3 and
Gideon Jafiya4
1
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, e-mail: [email protected]
2
Department of Architecture, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu- Nigeria, e-mail:
[email protected].
3
Department of Geography University of Nigeria, Nsukka, e-mail: matthew. [email protected].
4
Department of Urban and Regional, Federal Polytechnic Mubi, Admawa State, e-mail:
[email protected]

Corresponding Author
E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history This paper reviewed the Nigeria standard of drinking water quality
Received 4 November, 2020 with the WHO standard. It also examine whether the Nigeria standard
Received in revised form 15 December 2020
Accepted 30 December, 2020
of drinking water quality is understood and accepted by the water
producers. The study discovered that the Nigeria standard of drinking
water quality is within the limit of World Health Organization
(WHO). The study also revealed lack of an acceptable Drinking Water
Keywords:
Quality Standard in Nigeria. This shows that the Nigeria drinking
water standard has not been fully understood by water producers. The
Standard, Drinking water,
study conclude by making the following recommendations such as (i)
quality, environmental, Nigerian
water quality data should be turn into information that is
understandable and usable by the public. (ii) There should be a
collective drive to provide safe and good quality potable water in
Nigeria.(iii) Every effort to ensure access to potable water needs to be
sustained in other to guarantee the quality of water supplied to people.
copyright@ 2020 cepa

1. Introduction of water borne disease. Water is essential

1.1 The Importance of Nigerian for life, but it can and does transmit disease
Standard for Drinking Water Quality in countries in all continents from the
The quality of drinking water is an poorest to the wealthiest. The consumption
important environmental determinant of of water contaminated by disease- causing
health. Drinking water quality agents (pathogens) or toxic chemicals can
management continues to be the cause health problems such as diarrhea,
foundation for the prevention and control cholera, typhoid, dysentery, cancer and
 Chukwura G.O., Chukwura U.C., Isimah M. and Jafiya G./Journal of Environmental Management and Safety Vol. 11, No. 2, (2020) 68 – 81

skin disease. Every year in Nigeria, conductivity, dissolved oxygen,

thousands of cholera cases are reported, biochemical oxygen demand, total
causing many human fatalities. In addition, dissolved solids and total suspended solids.
the 2007 data of the Federal Ministry of The results obtained for the WQI from the
Health show that diarrhea is the most different sampling stations were found to
prevalent disease among the population be varied from 34.80 to 36.26 for pipe
after malaria. Diarrhea is also responsible borne water, 38.52 to 48.67 for borehole
for 16% of under-five year children deaths. water and 55.05 to 84.94 for stream water.
The country has seen the need to provide The results indicate that the different water
safe and good quality potable drinking samples analyzed from pipe born and
water by setting up standard for drinking borehole water are safe for human
water quality in other to help in eradicating consumption and for other domestic
water-borne diseases and in improving the purposes while the samples analyzed from
general sanitation of Nigeria's towns and stream water are not safe for human
villages. Nigeria Standard for Drinking consumption.
Water Quality contains mandatory limits
concerning constituents and contaminants Water quality index (WQI) provides a
of water that are known to be hazardous to single number that expresses the overall
health and or give rise to complaints from water quality at a certain location and time
consumers. The standard includes a set of based on several water quality parameters.
procedures and good practices required to The objective of WQI is to turn complex
meet the mandatory limits. This study water quality data into information that is
therefore assessed the Nigeria standard for understandable and usable by the public. A
drinking water quality in other to number of indices have been developed to
determine whether the values should be summarize water quality data in an easily
improve, reduce or modified. The expressible and easily understood format.
objectives include, to examine the standard The WQI which was first developed by
with the WHO standard of drinking water Horton in the early 1970s is basically a
quality, the parameter and specification for mathematical means of calculating a single
drinking water, and to find out if the value from multiple test results. The index
standard of drinking water quality is result represents the level of water quality
understood by portable water producers in in a given water basin, such as lake, river
Nigeria. or stream. After Horton, a number of
workers all over the world developed WQI
2. Literature Review based on rating of different water quality
Etim, Odoh, Itodo, Umoh, and Lawal, parameters (Miller, Joung, Mahannah, and
(2013) discovered that, WQI was Garrett, 1986). The use of water quality
determined on the basis of various physico- index (WQI) simplifies the presentation of
chemical parameters like pH, total results of an investigation related to a water
alkalinity, chlorides, sulphate, nitrate, total body as it summarizes in one value or
hardness, calcium, magnesium, electrical concept a series of parameters analyzed. In

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this way, the indices are very useful to 1.5 Drinking Water Quality Standard
transmit information concerning water Used in Nigeria
quality to the public in general, and give a Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water
good idea of the evolution tendency of Quality contains mandatory limits
water quality to evolve over a period of concerning constituents and contaminants
time. A single WQI value makes of water that are known to be hazardous to
information more easily and rapidly health and or give rise to complaints from
understood than a long list of numerical consumers. The standard includes a set of
values for a large variety of parameters. procedures and good practices required to
Additionally, WQI also facilitates meet the mandatory limits.
comparison between different sampling
sites and events. (Stambuk-Giljanovic, N. In 2005, the National Council on Water
1999). Inadequate management of water Resources (NCWR) recognized the need to
resources as directly or indirectly resulted urgently establish acceptable Nigerian
in the degradation of hydrological Standard for Drinking Water Quality
environment. Therefore, a continuous because it was observed that the “Nigerian
periodical monitoring of water quality is Industrial Standard for Potable Water”
necessary so that appropriate steps may be developed by Standards Organization of
taken for water resource management Nigeria and the “National Guidelines and
practices, (Etim, Akpan, Andrew, and Standards for Water Quality in Nigeria”
Edet, 2012). developed by federal ministry of
environment did not receive a wide
SON (2007) reported that a rapid acceptance by all stakeholders in the
assessment of drinking water quality, country. Since water quality issues are
conducted in Nigeria in 2002-2004 and health related issues, the federal ministry of
supported by UNICEF and WHO, noted health, collaborating with the Standards
the lack of an acceptable Drinking Water Organization of Nigeria (the only body
Quality Standard in Nigeria, which would responsible for developing National
guarantee the quality of water supplied to Standards in Nigeria) and working through
people. The new Nigerian Standard for a technical committee of key stakeholders
Drinking Water Quality abides by the developed this Standard. The Nigerian
World Health Organization guidelines. The Standard for Drinking Water Quality
document sets physical, chemical, and abides by the World Health Organization
microbiological parameters and maximum guidelines. The document sets physical,
allowable limits for disinfectants in chemical, and microbiological parameters
drinking water. It also includes normative and maximum allowable limits for
references or laws guiding drinking water disinfectants in drinking water. It also
quality, definition of terminologies, includes normative references or laws
institutional roles and responsibilities, guiding drinking water quality, definition
monitoring, data management and of terminologies, institutional roles and
compliance criteria. responsibilities, monitoring, data

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 Chukwura G.O., Chukwura U.C., Isimah M. and Jafiya G./Journal of Environmental Management and Safety Vol. 11, No. 2, (2020) 68 – 81

management and compliance criteria. The of coherent public health-centered

enforcement of the standard will help policies and practices
improve the quality of drinking water in
Nigeria supplied by water service 1.7 Scope
providers and will contribute to reduce the The Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water
number of persons affected by water- Quality covers all drinking water except
related diseases. It is expected that it will mineral water. The standard applies to:
also speed up the process of upgrading Drinking water supplied by state water
non-protected water systems and agencies, drinking water supplied by
improving the management of all drinking community managed drinking water
water systems in the country. systems, drinking water supplied by water
vendors and water tankers, drinking water
1.6 Principles used in public or privately owned
The effective protection of public health establishments, drinking water used in
against water related diseases requires a food processing by manufacturers,
preventive integrated management drinking water from privately owned
approach, this includes: drinking water system and use solely for
a) The protection of drinking water from the family residence, Mineral water and
catchments and source to its use by packaged water shall comply with Nigerian
consumers Industrial Standards for Natural Mineral
b) A collaborative multi-agency approach Water (NIS 345:2003) and Potable Water
that involve all agencies with (NIS 306:2004) and used for regulation
responsibilities in the management of and certification by the National Agency
water quality. for Food and Drug administration and
c) Water quality standard that is Control and SON respectively (It is
comprehensive, realistic and important to mention here that the
implementable within the resources of standards for mineral water and packaged
the implementing agencies. water have different allowable limits for
d) The development of procedures and various parameters presented here).
requirements that ensure good water
quality management in order to meet 1.8 Main Normative
the maximum allowable limits. These References/Laws
procedures also protect the The following provide the regulatory
environment framework for drinking water quality in
e) An independent surveillance agency Nigeria:
with strong enforcement authority and i. Consumer Protection Council Act 66
functions decentralized to local (1992)
government level. ii. Council for Regulation of Engineering
f) An effective drinking water quality in Nigeria Act 55 (1972)
data management system to enable iii. Federal Environmental Protection
generation of data for the development Agency- Retained as Cap 131

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iv. Food and Drug Retained as Cap 150 private well. All water used in any food
v. Food and Drugs (1999-No.19) production undertaking for the
Changed to NAFDAC Act 11 manufacture, processing, preservation or
vi. Institute of Chartered Chemist of marketing of products or substances
Nigeria Act N°91 (1993) intended for human consumption
vii. Institute of Public Analyst of Nigeria 2.3 Drinking Water Quality Control;
Act N°100 (1992) Water tests conducted on routine basis by
viii. National Water Resources Institute the water utility.
Act- Retained as Cap 284 2.4 Drinking Water Quality
ix. Public Health Act (1958) Surveillance; Water tests, sanitary
inspections and spot checks conducted by
x. Standards Organization of Nigeria
an independent agency to ensure that water
(SON) - Retained as Cap 412
utilities and others suppliers meet the
xi. Water Resources Act N° 101 (1993)
Standard.
xii. International Organization for 2.5 Drinking Water Service Level;
Standardization (ISO) – Service Measure of quality, quantity, accessibility,
activities relating to drinking water coverage, affordability and continuity of
and wastewater – Guidelines for the drinking water supplied to the population.
management of drinking water utilities Water service levels are defined in the
and for the assessment of drinking National Water Supply Policy and
water services sanitation Policy.
xiii. National Guidelines and standards for 2.6 Drinking Water Service Provider;
Water Quality in Nigeria The whole set of organization, processes,
xiv. Nigerian Industrial Standards for activities, means and resources necessary
Natural Mineral Water (NIS 345: for abstracting, treating, distributing or
2003) and Potable Water (NIS 306: supplying drinking water and for providing
2004) the associated services. Drinking water
Key Issues service providers are essentially states
For the purpose of this standard, the water agencies. The States Water Agencies
following expressions have the meaning are: State Water Boards/Corporations,
stated below: which mostly serve urban areas greater
2.1 Contaminant; Any chemical or than 20,000 inhabitants. Small Water
substance present or released or added into Town Agencies, which mostly serve semi-
drinking water which is capable of being urban areas with population between 5,000
hazardous to health to 20,000 inhabitants. Rural Water Supply
2.2 Drinking Water and Sanitation Agencies operate in rural
All water either in its original state or after areas and usually serve communities of
treatment, intended for drinking, cooking, 500 to 5,000 inhabitants. It also refers to
food preparation or other domestic water producers and distributors
purposes, regardless of its origin and 2.7 Drinking Water System; Tangible
whether it is supplied from a drinking assets necessary for abstracting, treating,
water system, or a tanker, or taken from a

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distributing or supplying drinking water. level, division of water safety (or new
Drinking water systems include centralized agency) shall be responsible for developing
and on-site systems. drinking water quality surveillance and
2.8 Water Source: means either enforcement strategy, developing drinking
groundwater or surface water. water quality surveillance and enforcement
a. Surface water includes streams, rivers, procedures, communicating drinking water
lakes or reservoirs. quality data to stakeholders and consumers
b. Ground water includes springs, wells or (dissemination), establishing national
boreholes priorities in the sector of drinking water
2.9 Sources of Contamination; Release quality surveillance. At state level, the
into the environment of manmade chemical division of water safety (or new agency)
and bacteriological contaminants. Major shall be responsible for implementing
contamination sources are animal and strategies and procedures issued at Federal
human wastes, industry and mining level.
activities, agriculture and accidents and The Federal Ministry of Health Division of
leaks such as oil spillage. Water Safety (or the new Agency) shall
2.10 Water Safety Plan: Essential actions include professionals skilled in the
that are the responsibility for the drinking disciplines of drinking water engineering,
water provider in order to ensure that public health, water quality testing,
drinking water is safe. These are: drinking water quality inspection and
a. A system assessment; enforcement, data management and
b. Effective operational monitoring; and communication. The state department /
c. Management division of water safety shall include in
2.11 Water Vendors; these are persons or addition a pool of inspectors in charge of
organizations selling water to households drinking water quality investigations,
or at collection points. Vendors may carry water sampling and sanitary inspection,
drinking water for sale directly to the control and enforcement of water safety
consumer by tanker trucks, wheelbarrows plans and enforcement of Nigerian
/trolleys or donkey carts. Standards for Drinking Water in the whole
state (The local government health
3. Institutional Framework: Roles, department and communities shall be
Rights and Responsibilities; Ministry of involved). Federal and State Departments
Health shall be responsible for Drinking of Water Safety shall promote NSDWQ,
Water Quality Surveillance in Nigeria and shall inform consumers on the health risk
shall be the lead institution enforcing linked to poor water quality consumption
Nigerian Standard for drinking water shall publish drinking water quality results
quality. Ministry of Health shall strengthen for stakeholders and make results available
the existing division of water safety (or to consumers in an understandable way.
establish a new structure) solely Department of Water safety shall establish
responsible for drinking water quality and manage a drinking water quality data
surveillance and enforcement. At Federal base accessible to stakeholders and provide

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the data to the National Bureau of Standard Organization of Nigeria shall:

Statistics. The Federal Ministry of - establish standards for quality of
Agriculture and Water Resources shall materials, equipment and treatment
develop procedures for the sitting of new chemicals used for drinking water supply.
water sources for drinking water supply - enforce laboratory quality assurance and
(good practices for water catchments). conduct system certification.
Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water - Assess conformity to standards
Resources shall develop construction National Water Resources Institute shall
guidelines for water facilities and treatment conduct training and re-training of drinking
requirements. State ministry and Agency in water utilities personnel on development
charge of water resources shall ensure that and implementation of Water Safety Plan.
procedures developed by Federal Ministry Drinking water supplied by State Water
of Agriculture and Water Resources are Agencies, other water service providers
implemented and shall supervise the and bodies listed in section 1 shall comply
elaboration of Water Safety Plans by Water with Nigerian Standards for Drinking
services providers (including State Water Water Quality. These “bodies” shall:
Agencies) and Water Safety Plans shall be -Request an authorization from the
validated by state department of Water Ministry of Health for the use of water for
safety and enforced by inspectors. human consumption or for food
The Federal Ministry in charge of Water processing. The authorization shall be
Resources shall compile data on quality of issued when the following requirements
surface and ground water and provide such are meeting:
data to Federal Ministry of Health and i) Water quality comply with allowable
other relevant agencies. Federal Ministry limits
and Agency in charge of Environment (in ii) Construction requirements and water
consultation with relevant institutions) treatments are met
shall: iii) Minimum safe distance is observed
- be responsible for the development of around water points.
procedures for the establishment of Operate and maintain water facilities in
protection zone around water sources order to provide drinking water complying
intended for human consumption. with standards. An internal routine water
- inform, Federal Ministry of Health quality control shall be conducted and
(FMOH), States Ministry of Health water providers shall be equipped with
(SMOH) and drinking water service minimum laboratory facilities to carry out
providers in case of contaminations routine water quality control.
occurring in the protection zones. - Establish and implement a Water Safety
- Protect, restore, and preserve watershed Plan that includes all measures undertaken
State Ministry / Agency in charge of to achieve NSDWQ
Environment shall implement protection - Facilitate the access of all water facilities
zone and control activities in protection to drinking water quality surveillance
zones. inspectors.

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- Inform Public Health State Authorities in 4. Quality Assessment Process

case of failure of water treatment process. 4.1 Drinking Water Quality; In
- Provide regular update on water facilities preparing the following table of parameters
characteristics and status to Ministry of and maximum permitted limits, care has
Water Resources and Ministry of Health. been taken to ensure that flexibility is
National Agency for Food and Drug carefully managed and balanced taking
administration and Control (NAFDAC) into consideration water system economic
shall: viability without unduly compromising the
- enforce packaged water quality standards, health of the consumers. The substances in
- regulate the use of water treatment Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water
chemicals Quality are simply divided into physical /
Consumer Protection Council (CPC) shall: organoleptic, chemical organic and
- receive complaints and or observed lapses inorganic constituents, disinfectants and
and use appropriate Institutional disinfectants by-products, radio nuclides
Framework to ensure adequate correction. and microbiological parameters. All
- seek redress and compensation for drinking water shall at any time meet the
aggrieved consumer or community as minimum requirements set out. All water
provided in the CPC Act. sources intended for human consumption
- undertake awareness campaigns to shall comply with Nigerian Standards for
enlighten consumers on their rights to safe Drinking Water Quality and shall receive
and wholesome drinking water as generally authorization from Ministry of Health
provided for in the CPC Act. before being supplied to the population.

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4.2 Parameters and Maximum Allowable Limits

4.3 Chemical Parameter
Table 4.1. Inorganic Unit Constituents
Parameter Unit Maximum Health Impact Notes
Permitted
Aluminum (Al) mg/L 0.2 Potential Neuro-degenerative
disorders
Arsenic (As mg/L 0.01 Cancer,
Chloride (Cl) mg/L 0.7 Hypertension
Barium mg/L 0.003 Toxic to the kidney
Cadmium (Cd) mg/L 250 None
Chromium mg/L 0.05 Cancer
(Cr6+)
Conductivity μS/cm 1000 None
Copper (Cu+2) mg/L 1 Gastrointestinal disorder
Cyanide (CN-) mg/L 0.01 Very toxic to the thyroid and the
nervous system
Fluoride (F-) mg/L 1.5 Fluorosis, Skeletal tissue (bones
and teeth) morbidity
Hardness (as mg/L 150 None
CaCO3)
Hydrogen mg/L 0.05 None
Sulphide (H2S)
Iron (Fe+2) mg/L 0.3 None
Lead (Pb) mg/L 0.01 Cancer, interference with Vitamin
D metabolism, affect mental
development in infants, toxic to
the central and peripheral nervous
systems
Magnesium mg/L 0.20 Consumer acceptability
(Mg+2)
Magnesium mg/L 0.2 Neurological disorder
(Mg+2)
Source: W.H.O (2001)

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Table 4.2 - Inorganic Constituents

Parameter Unit Maximum Health Impact Notes
Permitted
Mercury (Hg) mg/L 0.001
Affects the kidney and central nervous
system
Nickel (Ni) mg/L 0.02 Possible carcinogenic
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L 50 Cyanosis, and asphyxia („blue-baby
syndrome”) in infants under 3 months
syndrome”) in infants under 3 months
Nitrite (NO2) mg/L 0.2 Cyanosis, and asphyxia („blue-baby
syndrome”) in infants under 3 months
pH 6.5-8.5 None
Sodium (Na) mg/L 200 None
Sulphate (SO4 ) mg/L 100 None
Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500 None
Zinc (Zn) mg/L 3 None
Note 1: Parameter to be monitored only if aluminum chemicals are used for water
Source: WHO in Lenntech (2009) and NSDWQ (2007)

Chemical Parameters
Table 4.3 - Organic Constituents
Parameter Unit Maximum Health Impact Note
Permitted Levels
Detergents mg/L 0.01 Possibly carcinogenic
Mineral oil mg/L 0.003 Possibly carcinogenic
Pesticides mg/L 0.01 Possibly carcinogenic
Phenols mg/L 0.001 Possibly carcinogenic
Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons mg/L 0.007 Possibly carcinogenic
Total Organic Carbon or Oxidisability mg/L 5 Cancer

Table 4.4 - Disinfectants and their side effect

Parameter Unit Maximum Health Impact Note
Permitted Levels
Free residual chlorine mg/L 0.2 - 0.25 None Note 2
Trihalomethanes mg/L 0.002 Cancer Note 2
Total
2,4,6-trichlorophenol mg/L 0.02 Cancer Note 2
Source: WHO in Lenntech (2009) and NSDWQ (2007)

Note 2: For chlorinated water only alkalinity, chlorides, sulphate, nitrate, total
Drinking water providers shall increase the hardness, calcium, magnesium, electrical
amount of residual chlorine during conductivity, dissolved oxygen,
epidemics or special cases according to biochemical oxygen demand, total
instructions of Ministry of Health. Analysis dissolved solids and total suspended solids
of a few quality parameters viz., pH, total

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as recommended by World Health

Organization.

• Assessment of the water quality using water quality index (WQI).

Table 4.5 Water quality index and quality of water

Water quality index level Water quality status
0-25 Excellent water quality
25-50 Good water quality
51-75 Poor water quality
76-100 Very poor water quality
>100 Unsuitable for drinking
Source: WHO in Lenntech (2009) and NSDWQ (2007)

Source: W.H.O (2001) and ICMR (1975)

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Table 4.6. Drinking water standards, recommending Agencies and unit weights. (All
values except PH and electrical conductivity are in mg/l)

Source: W.H.O (2001) and ICMR (1975)

Table 4. 7: Physiochemical Composition Standard S/N

PARAMETER WHO STANDARDS NIS STANDARDS
1. PH 6 to 8.5 6 to 9.2
2. Electrical 1 ms\cm 1 ms\cm
3. Conductivity Not mentioned Not mentioned
4. Temperature (°C) Not mentioned Not mentioned
5. Colour 15 TCU 15 TCU
6. Turbidity 5 NUT 5 NUT
7. Nitrate 50 mg\l 50 mg\l
8. Iron 0.1 mg\l 0.3mg\l
9. Phosphate 0.3mg\l 0.3mg\l
10. Calcium 75 mg\l 75 mg\l
11 Fluoride 1.5 mg\l 1.5 mg\l
Source: WHO in Lenntech (2009) and NSDWQ (2007)

4.5 Sampling and Analytical personnel (inspectors for drinking water

Methods. quality surveillance). Sampling methods
a) Sampling Method; All precautions shall comply with ISO or WHO guideline.
shall be taken to prevent contamination of b) Analytical Method; Analytical
the sample and to ensure the concentration methods shall comply with ISO or WHO
of the substance being determined do not guideline.
change between sampling and analysis.
Samples shall be collected by trained 4.6 Laboratory Quality Assurance

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Laboratories contracted by the Drinking for safety and quality. The enforcement of
Water Quality Surveillance agency to the Nigeria standard of drinking water
conduct water testing shall comply with quality which is in line with WHO
NIS ISO 17025: 2005 standard will help improve the quality of
4.7 Water quality index (WQI); drinking water in Nigeria supplied by
provides a single number that expresses the water service providers, and will contribute
overall water quality at a certain location to reduce the number of persons affected
and time based on several water quality by water-related diseases. It is expected
parameters. The objective of WQI is to turn that it will also speed up the process of
complex water quality data into upgrading non-protected water systems
information that is understandable and and improving the management of all
usable by the public. A number of indices drinking water systems in the country.
have been developed to summarize water
quality data in an easily expressible and References
easily understood format. The indices are American society for testing and materials
very useful to transmit information (1982). Standard methods for acidity or
concerning water quality to the public in alkalinity of water. Publ.D1067-70
general, and give a good idea of the (reapproved 1977), American soc.
evolution tendency of water quality to Testing and materials Philadelphia.
evolve over a period of time. APHA, (1998): American Public Health
4.8 Criteria for Compliance and Association, standard methods for the
Enforcement examination of water and wastewater,
The drinking water quality surveillance 20th ed., 1220.
body shall enforce Nigerian standard for Ayoade,J.O.(1975). Water resources and
drinking water quality. their development in Nigeria.
The quality of all drinking water produced Hdrological sciences-Bulletin-des
in Nigeria shall comply with provision of Sciences Hydrologiques. XX, 4
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as stipulated in Standards Organization of their development In nigeria.
Nigeria (SON) Act- Retained as Cap 412. Hydrological Sciences-~Bulletin~des
Sciences Hydrologiques,
5. Conclusion Drinking Water by World Health
The danger that unsafe drinking water Organization (WHO) and Nigerian
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good quality potable water in Nigeria. E. J. (2012). Determination of water
While every effort to ensure access to quality index of pipe borne water in
potable water needs to be sustained, it is Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
equally important to ensure that the water International journal of chemical
meets the minimum international standard sciences, 5(2):179-182.

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