I.

Conceptual Foundations of Globalization

A. Definition and Origin of the Term "Globalization"

●​ Coined in 1960s, popularized post-Cold War.
●​ Means increasing global interconnectedness across domains.
●​ David Held: Globalization stretches social, economic, political ties.
●​ IMF: Integration of markets, technologies, and capital globally.
●​ Thomas Friedman: "The world is flat" – hyperconnected globe.
●​ Reflects both material changes and ideological visions.
●​ Origin linked to capitalism, colonialism, industrial revolution.
●​ Includes both objective processes and subjective perceptions.

B. Core Features: Interconnectedness, Interdependence, and Integration

●​ Interconnectedness: Rapid flow of ideas, people, goods.
●​ Interdependence: Nations rely on each other economically.
●​ Integration: Merging of markets, cultures, governance systems.
●​ Borderless world perception due to global flows.
●​ Speed and scale of interactions intensified.
●​ Multi-dimensional across economic, cultural, political spheres.
●​ Technology accelerates these interconnections globally.

C. Globalization vs Internationalization vs Globalism

●​ Globalization: Actual processes of increasing global linkages.
●​ Internationalization: State-to-state interactions and agreements.
●​ Globalism: Ideology promoting globalization as beneficial.
●​ Globalization = process, Globalism = belief, Internationalization = practice.
●​ Globalism critiques: neoliberal dominance, Western-centric bias.
●​ Internationalization respects state sovereignty more than globalization.
●​ Roland Robertson: Globalization blends universal and particular.

D. Forms of Globalization
1. Economic Globalization
●​ Free trade, FDI, MNCs, global value chains.
●​ Bretton Woods institutions foster global capitalism.
●​ Neoliberalism: Deregulation, privatization, liberalization.
2. Political Globalization
●​ Rise of global governance institutions (UN, WTO).
●​ Decline of absolute state sovereignty.
●​ Supranational organizations gain authority.
3. Cultural Globalization
●​ Cultural diffusion through media, food, entertainment.
●​ Hybrid cultures (McDonaldization, Bollywood-Hollywood fusion).
●​ Threat to local identities, cultural homogenization fears.
4. Technological Globalization
●​ Internet, AI, digital revolutions connect societies.
●​ Instant communication, e-commerce, cyber politics.
●​ Digital divide creates new inequalities.
5. Ecological Globalization
●​ Global warming, climate treaties, shared environmental threats.
●​ Environmental interdependence increases cooperation and conflict.
 ●​ Transnational activism and green politics rise.

E. Historical Waves of Globalization

1. Pre-modern (Silk Road, empires)
●​ Trade routes linked distant regions.
●​ Cultural exchange through migration, religion, language.
2. Colonial Globalization
●​ European imperialism globalized capitalism.
●​ Resource extraction and labor exploitation intensified.
●​ First major world economy structures emerge.
3. Post-WWII Phase
●​ Bretton Woods system created new global order.
●​ US hegemony and institutional architecture emerged.
●​ GATT, IMF, World Bank supported integration.
4. Neoliberal Phase (Post-1990s)
●​ End of Cold War accelerated economic liberalization.
●​ Washington Consensus promoted free market globally.
●​ Global South integrated under asymmetric terms.

F. Globalization as Both a Process and a Project

1. As a Process
●​ Objective structural transformations globally.
●​ Driven by technology, capital, migration, trade.
2. As a Project
●​ Ideological push for neoliberal dominance.
●​ Critiqued by Marxists, postcolonial theorists.
●​ Political agenda masking under economic inevitability.
●​ Promotes Western interests and elite networks.
3. Dual Nature Matters
●​ Exam framing: structure (process) vs agency (project).
●​ Essential for understanding resistance and alternatives (e.g., Deglobalization).

II. Theoretical Perspectives on Globalization

A. Liberal/Neoliberal Perspective
●​ Globalization expands markets, innovation, and economic growth.
●​ Rooted in Enlightenment faith in progress and cooperation.
●​ Institutions (WTO, IMF) foster rules-based global order.
●​ Interdependence reduces war likelihood, promotes peace (Kantian logic).
●​ Neoliberals: Deregulation, free trade, privatization enhance efficiency.
●​ Belief in win-win outcomes through global integration.

B. Realist Critique
●​ States remain primary actors despite globalization.
●​ Power and survival drive state behavior, not cooperation.
●​ Anarchy persists; no true global authority exists.
●​ Globalization masks geopolitical rivalries and strategic balancing.
●​ National interest trumps global norms or institutions.
●​ Economic interdependence creates vulnerabilities, not just gains.

C. Marxist Critique
 ●​ Globalization = advanced stage of global capitalism.
●​ Exploitation of labor and nature intensified globally.
●​ Core-periphery divide entrenched (Immanuel Wallerstein).
●​ MNCs and IMF reproduce global inequality.
●​ Capital flows benefit elites, not working classes.
●​ Alienation spreads via commodification and consumerism.

D. Neo-Gramscian Approach
●​ Globalization driven by transnational capitalist class.
●​ Hegemony sustained via cultural, economic, institutional dominance.
●​ Historic bloc aligns state, capital, and ideology.
●​ Consent manufactured through education, media, global institutions.
●​ Emphasis on passive revolution, not just coercion.
●​ Critique of liberalism as class-based hegemony.

E. Constructivist Lens
●​ Globalization shaped by ideas, identities, and norms.
●​ Social meanings define what globalization means to actors.
●​ Institutions matter due to shared beliefs, not utility.
●​ Identity politics (e.g., nationalism, religion) still shape outcomes.
●​ Global norms (human rights, environment) evolve intersubjectively.
●​ Reality is socially constructed, not materially determined.

F. Post-structuralist Critique
●​ Globalization is a discourse, not objective truth.
●​ Power-knowledge nexus creates dominant "global" narratives.
●​ Michel Foucault: Language constructs what we call global reality.
●​ Questions "who speaks" and "whose interests prevail"?
●​ Deconstructs binaries like global/local, developed/underdeveloped.
●​ Challenges neutrality of global governance mechanisms.

G. Feminist Perspective
●​ Globalization exploits women's labor in informal sectors.
●​ Gendered division of labor reinforced globally.
●​ Women disproportionately affected by austerity and migration.
●​ Intersectionality reveals race, class, gender exploitation.
●​ Care economy undervalued in global economic frameworks.
●​ Calls for inclusive, gender-just global order.

H. Ecological Critique
●​ Global capitalism depletes environment unsustainably.
●​ Climate change is a byproduct of global production.
●​ Globalization = ecological imperialism, says Vandana Shiva.
●​ Green globalization vs corporate globalization clash.
●​ Environmental justice movements resist global ecological harm.
●​ Sustainability requires de-growth, not endless globalization.

III. Economic Globalization

A. Rise of Global Markets and Trade Liberalization

●​ WTO, GATT enabled open trade regimes globally.
 ●​ Tariff barriers reduced, trade volumes skyrocketed.
●​ Comparative advantage guides international trade patterns.
●​ Global South integrated through export-led models.
●​ Rise of regional trade blocs (EU, ASEAN).
●​ Trade liberalization driven by neoliberal ideology.

B. Global Capital Flows and Financial Markets

●​ Massive capital mobility across borders.
●​ FDI, portfolio flows dominate financial globalization.
●​ Global stock markets increasingly interlinked.
●​ Speculative finance grows via derivatives, shadow banking.
●​ Crises (1997 Asia, 2008 Global) spread rapidly.
●​ IMF governs capital movement norms and bailouts.

C. Role of MNCs and Global Production Networks

●​ MNCs control technology, supply chains, and investment.
●​ Shift from national to transnational production systems.
●​ Global value chains (GVCs) dominate manufacturing sectors.
●​ "Race to the bottom" for cheap labor, regulation.
●​ MNCs shape host country policies and institutions.
●​ Power asymmetry between MNCs and local enterprises.

D. Deregulation, Privatization, and Neoliberal Reforms

●​ Washington Consensus promoted economic restructuring globally.
●​ Deregulation removed state control over prices, investment.
●​ Privatization reduced public sector dominance.
●​ SAPs (Structural Adjustment Programs) imposed by IMF, World Bank.
●​ Welfare states weakened under fiscal austerity.
●​ Market efficiency prioritized over social equity.

E. Global Labor Markets: Migration, Outsourcing, Precarity

●​ Labor outsourced to cheaper global South economies.
●​ Migration increased but remains politically contested.
●​ Gig economy fosters informal, insecure employment.
●​ Labor rights diluted in competitive environments.
●​ Global wage competition undermines worker protections.
●​ Remittances become crucial for many developing economies.

F. Rise of Inequality and Informalization

●​ Rich-poor gap widened within and between nations.
●​ Top 1% gains massively from capital globalization.
●​ Informal employment surged without job security.
●​ Global South urbanization linked to underemployment.
●​ Social safety nets eroded amid labor flexibilization.
●​ Digital divide adds new layers of inequality.

G. Economic Globalization and Developmental Disparities

●​ Uneven benefits: North leads, South lags.
●​ Dependency theory critiques this structural inequality.
●​ Developmental states resisted full neoliberal adoption (e.g., China).
●​ SDGs seek inclusive growth within global economy.
 ●​ Global South suffers debt traps, trade imbalances.
●​ New institutions (AIIB, NDB) challenge Western economic order.

IV. Political Globalization

A. Erosion of State Sovereignty

●​ National policies constrained by global norms, institutions.
●​ Borders porous to ideas, capital, migration, tech.
●​ Sovereignty diluted by economic, legal, humanitarian interventions.
●​ Critics: Globalization weakens democracy and local accountability.
●​ Rise of non-state actors challenges state monopoly.

B. Rise of International Regimes and Governance Networks

●​ Regimes = rule-based systems (e.g., climate, trade).
●​ Non-binding norms often shape state behavior.
●​ Governance networks include states, IGOs, NGOs, experts.
●​ Soft law and informal rules increasingly influential.
●​ Keohane: Complex interdependence replaces traditional diplomacy.

C. Global Civil Society and Transnational Activism

●​ NGOs, activists operate across borders.
●​ Human rights, environment, labor issues gain global traction.
●​ Examples: Amnesty, Greenpeace, Oxfam, Fridays for Future.
●​ Digital activism amplifies grassroots global voices.
●​ Challenges both states and corporations.

D. Global Public Opinion and Political Accountability

●​ Media globalizes information, builds public scrutiny.
●​ Transnational awareness influences domestic decisions.
●​ Twitter diplomacy, viral protests shift global narratives.
●​ Politicians increasingly answer to global audiences.
●​ Internet enables real-time global political engagement.

E. Role of IGOs (UN, WTO, IMF, World Bank)

●​ UN promotes peace, rights, multilateralism.
●​ WTO enforces global trade rules.
●​ IMF offers loans with conditionalities.
●​ World Bank funds developmental infrastructure globally.
●​ IGOs shape policies in weaker states.
●​ Criticisms: Western dominance, lack of accountability.

F. Rise of Supranational Institutions (EU, ICC)

●​ EU overrides member sovereignty in key areas.
●​ ICC prosecutes individuals for international crimes.
●​ EU law superior to national law (Costa v. ENEL).
●​ Supranationality = shared sovereignty for collective decision-making.
●​ Critics: Democratic deficit, legitimacy concerns.

G. Securitization and Global Surveillance Regimes

●​ Post-9/11, security globalized through cooperation.
●​ NSA, Five Eyes monitor global communications.
 ●​ Cybersecurity, terrorism framed as transnational threats.
●​ Securitization theory: elites define existential threats.
●​ Surveillance often violates privacy, civil liberties.

V. Cultural Globalization

A. Global Media, Internet, and Communication Revolutions

●​ Internet connects billions in real-time globally.
●​ Media giants (Netflix, CNN) shape global narratives.
●​ Social media globalizes trends, protests, ideologies.
●​ Instant messaging reshapes personal and political relationships.
●​ Global digital divide still excludes many voices.

B. Cultural Homogenization vs Hybridization vs Resistance

●​ Homogenization: Global culture dominated by Western norms.
●​ Hybridization: Cultures blend into syncretic forms.
●​ Example: Korean Pop with Western beats.
●​ Resistance: Revival of indigenous, local identities.
●​ Appadurai: Global flows create "disjuncture and difference".
●​ Stuart Hall: Identities adapt, resist, negotiate globalization.

C. Westernization, McDonaldization, and Soft Power Debates

●​ Westernization: Spread of Western lifestyles and values.
●​ McDonaldization: Uniformity, efficiency dominate global culture (Ritzer).
●​ Soft Power: Culture influences without coercion (Nye).
●​ Critics: Cultural imperialism, erasure of local traditions.
●​ Bollywood and yoga as India's counter-soft power.

D. Linguistic Imperialism and Loss of Cultural Identity

●​ English dominates global education, media, internet.
●​ Minority languages declining rapidly under global pressures.
●​ Phillipson: English spreads via unequal power structures.
●​ Cultural loss linked to language erosion.
●​ UNESCO promotes endangered language protection globally.

E. Transnational Youth Culture and Popular Culture Flows

●​ Youth adopt global styles, music, slang.
●​ TikTok, Instagram shape global youth identities.
●​ Americanization visible in youth entertainment, fashion.
●​ Local cultures remix global forms creatively.
●​ Global pop culture spreads political awareness, too.

F. Religion and Identity in a Globalized World

●​ Religions adapt to global media, diasporas.
●​ Fundamentalism partly a response to cultural globalization.
●​ Religious networks now span multiple continents.
●​ Globalization enables interfaith dialogue and conflict.
●​ Identity politics sharpen around faith and belonging.

VI. Technological Globalization

A. ICT Revolution and Shrinking of Time-Space
●​ Internet erased distance, accelerated communication.
●​ Time-space compression reshapes global interactions (Harvey).
●​ Real-time diplomacy, markets, activism now possible.
●​ Technology collapses local-global distinction.
●​ Speed of exchange redefines power and agency.

B. Global Digital Infrastructure and Information Flows

●​ Submarine cables, satellites support global data flow.
●​ Google, Facebook dominate global content traffic.
●​ Cloud computing enables cross-border digital operations.
●​ Global South increasingly integrated, but unevenly.
●​ Information becomes core strategic asset.

C. Cyber Security and Digital Sovereignty

●​ States safeguard cyber space like physical borders.
●​ Cyberattacks threaten economy, defense, elections.
●​ Nations assert control over digital platforms.
●​ China's Great Firewall asserts data sovereignty.
●​ Global norms on cybersecurity remain fragmented.

D. Rise of Digital Capitalism and Platform Monopolies

●​ Platforms monetize user data for profit.
●​ Surveillance capitalism commodifies human behavior (Zuboff).
●​ Google, Amazon, Apple dominate digital ecosystems.
●​ Algorithms shape consumption, news, politics.
●​ Antitrust debates emerge over Big Tech power.

E. AI, Big Data, and Algorithmic Governance

●​ AI automates governance, decision-making, surveillance.
●​ Big Data predicts citizen behavior, policy needs.
●​ Algorithms regulate platforms, labor, and law.
●​ Ethical concerns over bias, accountability intensify.
●​ Techno-governance challenges traditional state authority.

F. Access Gaps: Digital Divide and Techno-Imperialism

●​ Billions lack internet access, digital literacy.
●​ Inequality widened by tech access gaps.
●​ Techno-imperialism: West dominates digital architecture, rules.
●​ Data colonialism extracts value from Global South.
●​ India’s Digital Public Infrastructure counters tech dependency.

VII. Ecological and Environmental Globalization

A. Global Commons and Planetary Interconnectedness

●​ Atmosphere, oceans, biodiversity = shared global commons.
●​ Environmental issues transcend national boundaries.
●​ Tragedy of commons threatens sustainability (Hardin).
●​ Ecosystem collapse affects all nations equally.
●​ Shared responsibility, differentiated capacities debated globally.
B. Climate Change and Global Environmental Regimes (UNFCCC, IPCC)
●​ UNFCCC sets legal framework for climate cooperation.
●​ IPCC provides scientific consensus on climate impacts.
●​ COP summits negotiate emission reductions.
●​ Paris Agreement targets temperature rise under 2°C.
●​ Climate diplomacy shaped by equity vs ambition.

C. Ecological Limits of Neoliberal Globalization

●​ Unlimited growth harms ecological balance.
●​ Neoliberalism ignores environmental externalities.
●​ Overconsumption, resource extraction drive climate crisis.
●​ Capitalism commodifies nature for profit.
●​ Ecological debt burdens future generations.

D. Environmental Justice Movements and Indigenous Resistance

●​ Indigenous communities defend forests, water, biodiversity.
●​ Movements oppose extractivism, land dispossession, pollution.
●​ “Environmentalism of the poor” resists global exploitation.
●​ Narmada Bachao, Standing Rock are iconic struggles.
●​ Local rights vs global capital clash.

E. Green Capitalism vs Post-Growth Paradigms

●​ Green capitalism = eco-friendly innovation, carbon markets.
●​ Critics: Reformist, not transformative, still growth-centric.
●​ Post-growth: Focus on well-being, not GDP.
●​ Degrowth, circular economy challenge status quo.
●​ Ecological economics prioritizes sustainability over profit.

F. Global Energy Transition and Sustainable Development

●​ Shift from fossil fuels to renewables intensifies.
●​ SDGs promote inclusive, sustainable energy systems.
●​ Energy justice debates equity, affordability, access.
●​ India’s solar mission, Europe’s Green Deal as models.
●​ Green transition requires global cooperation and financing.

VIII. Globalization and the State

A. Transformation of State Capacity and Regulatory Power

●​ From welfare-provider to market enabler.
●​ Policy sovereignty diluted by global institutions.
●​ States adapt to external economic constraints.
●​ Regulatory authority diffused to supranational actors.
●​ Public-private partnerships replace direct state provision.

B. Globalization of Public Policy and Governance Models

●​ Global templates shape domestic reforms.
●​ NPM spreads via OECD, World Bank promotion.
●​ Policy transfers standardize education, health, finance governance.
●​ “Best practices” circulate via global policy networks.
●​ Evidence-based governance replaces ideological policymaking.
C. Rise of the Competition State and Market-Driven Governance
●​ States compete for capital, talent, investment.
●​ Emphasis on efficiency, innovation, and rankings.
●​ Tax incentives replace protectionist policies.
●​ State legitimacy tied to economic performance.
●​ Education, R&D, infrastructure prioritized for competitiveness.

D. Crisis of Legitimacy and Rise of Populist Backlash

●​ Discontent over elite-driven globalization grows.
●​ Populists critique globalization’s inequality outcomes.
●​ National identity politics resurfaces strongly.
●​ Trust in liberal institutions declines.
●​ Globalization blamed for cultural and economic displacement.

E. Rescaling of Governance: Local-Global Nexus

●​ Local actors engage global issues directly.
●​ Cities join climate diplomacy (e.g., C40 Cities).
●​ “Glocal” governance balances local autonomy and global norms.
●​ Subnational units gain transnational visibility.
●​ Decentralized governance gains momentum globally.

F. Authoritarian Responses to Globalization Pressures

●​ States reclaim control via digital surveillance.
●​ Nationalism used to resist external interference.
●​ Populist-authoritarian regimes merge global tools, local control.
●​ Internet regulations tighten under cyber sovereignty.
●​ Legitimacy built on sovereignty and order, not liberalism.

IX. Globalization and the Global South

A. Unequal Integration into Global Economy

●​ Global South supplies labor, raw materials, markets.
●​ Terms of trade favor Global North dominance.
●​ Technology gap reinforces structural inequality.
●​ Integration without equal voice or benefit.
●​ Peripheralization of developing economies continues.

B. Structural Adjustment and Debt Dependency

●​ SAPs imposed austerity, deregulation, deindustrialization.
●​ IMF, World Bank loans eroded policy autonomy.
●​ Debt servicing prioritized over social investment.
●​ Economic crises deepened dependency cycles.
●​ Public sector downsized under neoliberal conditionalities.

C. Neocolonialism and Economic Imperialism

●​ Globalization as continuation of colonial exploitation.
●​ MNCs extract resources, repatriate profits.
●​ Cultural imperialism masks economic domination.
●​ Global value chains trap South in low-value roles.
●​ Data colonialism reinforces digital dependency.
D. Resistance through South-South Cooperation
●​ Shared colonial histories foster solidarity networks.
●​ NAM legacy continues in economic diplomacy.
●​ India-Africa, China-Africa ties bypass Western institutions.
●​ South-South trade and tech sharing rising.
●​ G77, G33 platforms amplify collective bargaining.

E. Alternative Regionalisms (MERCOSUR, AU, RCEP)

●​ MERCOSUR promotes Latin American integration.
●​ AU emphasizes pan-African unity, development.
●​ RCEP realigns Asia-Pacific trade without West.
●​ Regional blocs reduce dependency on North.
●​ Emphasize autonomy, shared identity, mutual growth.

F. Role of BRICS in Challenging Western-led Globalization

●​ BRICS demand multipolarity in global order.
●​ NDB, CRA offer alternatives to Bretton Woods.
●​ Voice for emerging economies in global forums.
●​ Challenge dollar dominance, promote local currencies.
●​ Shift from aid-dependence to development partnership model.

X. Critiques and Contestations of Globalization

A. Anti-Globalization Movements and Counter-Summits

●​ Protest WTO, IMF, G7 summits (e.g., Seattle 1999).
●​ Demand fair trade, environmental and labor protections.
●​ Civil society resists elite-driven globalization.
●​ World Social Forum offers alternative global visions.
●​ Movements link local struggles to global systems.

B. Deglobalization and Protectionism

●​ Return to tariffs, industrial policy, economic nationalism.
●​ States reclaim control over trade and production.
●​ Domestic industries prioritized over global supply chains.
●​ Deglobalization challenges neoliberal orthodoxy.
●​ Strategic decoupling from hostile or overdependent partners.

C. Critique of Neoliberal Globalization

(Joseph Stiglitz, Dani Rodrik, Walden Bello)
●​ Stiglitz: Global rules unfair; IMF lacks transparency.
●​ Rodrik: Hyper-globalization undermines democracy, domestic priorities.
●​ Bello: Proposes deglobalization for justice, sustainability.
●​ All: Growth without equity erodes legitimacy.
●​ Call for more plural, democratic global order.

D. COVID-19 and Crisis of Hyper-Globalization

●​ Supply chain shocks exposed systemic fragility.
●​ Vaccine nationalism challenged global solidarity.
●​ Local self-reliance regained importance (e.g., Atmanirbhar Bharat).
●​ Trust in global interdependence declined.
●​ Pandemic accelerated techno-nationalism and decoupling.
E. Rise of Nationalism, Xenophobia, and Right-Wing Populism
●​ Immigration blamed for economic, cultural insecurity.
●​ Leaders exploit fear for nationalist revival.
●​ Liberal cosmopolitanism attacked as elite agenda.
●​ Ethno-national identity replaces global citizenship ideals.
●​ Populists reject multilateralism, embrace protectionism.

F. Debates on Globalization vs Decoupling in a Multipolar World

●​ US-China rivalry reshapes global integration.
●​ Tech war drives supply chain realignment.
●​ Multipolarity enables selective globalization strategies.
●​ Strategic autonomy replaces blind openness.
●​ Globalization now fragmented, contested, conditional.

XI. India and Globalization

A. LPG Reforms of 1991 and Integration into World Economy

●​ 1991 crisis triggered liberalization, privatization, globalization reforms.
●​ Trade liberalization opened Indian markets to the world.
●​ FDI inflows increased across sectors.
●​ IMF-World Bank structural adjustments adopted.
●​ Export-led growth and service sector boom followed.

B. Globalization’s Impact on Indian Economy, Agriculture, Labor

●​ Services surged; manufacturing lagged behind.
●​ Agriculture exposed to global price volatility.
●​ Rural distress intensified under WTO pressures.
●​ Informal labor expanded, job security weakened.
●​ Uneven regional and sectoral development occurred.

C. Cultural Globalization and Indian Media/Film/IT Sectors

●​ Bollywood globalized through diasporic and digital circuits.
●​ Indian cuisine, yoga, and fashion gained global visibility.
●​ IT/BPO sector symbol of global outsourcing.
●​ Hybrid identities shaped by global-local cultural flows.
●​ Indian soft power expanded through culture and tech.

D. Political Implications: Federalism, Social Movements, Policy Reforms

●​ States gained global economic roles (competitive federalism).
●​ Social movements globalized via digital activism.
●​ Policy reforms influenced by global best practices.
●​ Civil society aligned with transnational advocacy networks.
●​ WTO, UN shape domestic regulatory choices.

E. Challenges: Inequality, Jobless Growth, Environmental Stress

●​ Urban-rural and digital divide widened.
●​ Growth without adequate employment generation persists.
●​ Environmental degradation from industrial expansion intensifies.
●​ Resource conflicts and displacement rose.
●​ Social welfare lagged behind GDP growth.
F. India’s Global Rise and Strategic Autonomy in a Globalized World
●​ Act East, Indo-Pacific assert India’s global role.
●​ BRICS, QUAD balance strategic alignments.
●​ Self-reliance reimagined via Atmanirbhar Bharat.
●​ India maintains autonomy amid US-China competition.
●​ Digital diplomacy and diaspora deepen global influence.

XII. Contemporary Trends in Globalization

A. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and New Economic Corridors
●​ BRI builds infrastructure connecting Asia, Africa, Europe.
●​ China exports capital, influence through connectivity.
●​ Debt-trap concerns in host countries.
●​ India opposes BRI’s violation of sovereignty (CPEC).
●​ Competing corridors: IMEC, INSTC, AAGC emerge.

B. Digital Globalization and 4th Industrial Revolution

●​ Data, AI, cloud redefine global connectivity.
●​ Trade in services, not goods, dominates digital flows.
●​ 4IR blurs physical, digital, biological boundaries.
●​ Automation disrupts labor markets globally.
●​ Tech diffusion faster than industrial revolutions before.

C. Decoupling and Geo-Economic Fragmentation (US-China Tech War)

●​ Huawei ban, TikTok restrictions reflect digital decoupling.
●​ Strategic autonomy replaces hyper-interdependence.
●​ Tech nationalism reshapes supply chains.
●​ Semiconductor wars reshape global alliances.
●​ Geopolitics overrides globalization logic.

D. Vaccine Nationalism and Pandemic-Induced Deglobalization

●​ Rich nations hoarded vaccines, ignored equity.
●​ COVAX struggled to ensure global access.
●​ Borders closed, supply chains fractured.
●​ Pandemic highlighted fragility of global interdependence.
●​ Health security became national priority.

E. Global Tax Reforms and Regulation of MNCs

●​ OECD led global minimum corporate tax deal.
●​ Digital giants taxed based on market presence.
●​ Curbing base erosion, profit shifting (BEPS).
●​ MNCs face rising calls for accountability.
●​ Sovereignty vs fairness in global taxation debates.

F. Rise of Multipolar Globalization and Alternative Global Orders

●​ US hegemony challenged by China, regional powers.
●​ BRICS, SCO promote alternative development models.
●​ Global South asserts agency in multilateral forums.
●​ Regionalism coexists with fragmented globalization.
●​ Multipolarity enables diverse globalization paths.