CHAPTER OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION ADQLESCENCE AND DEVELOPMENTAL. TASKS

ADOLESCENCE eai ing
TUEMEANING OF Eight Major Tasks
Adolescence
PubertyandPubescence ANTHROPOLOGISTS' VIEWS OF ADOLESCENCE
Maturlty Developmental Continulty Versus Discontinulty
Juvenile Cultural Influences
ADOLESCENCE AND PSYCHIC DISEQUILIBRIUM Generation Gap
Storm and Stress CRITIQUE
IsychleConfllet
ADOLESCENCE AND IbENTITY ACHIEVEMEN BOXES
Components of Identity LIVING IssUES: Women and Identity
Psychosocial Moratorium
Pity Statuses
FocUs: Rites of Passage / Identity and Personality
1dentity

NTRODUCTION
In this chapter we are concerned with describing adolescence
and anumber off terms related to it: maturity, puberty, pubes
cence, juvenile, and youth. The chapter begins with a discussion
of these concepts.
Another way to understånd
from various points öf view: from the studies of theadolescence
is to approach it
psychobiologist, psychiatrist,
psychologist, social psychologist, and anthropologist. This chapter presents the
views of theorists from each of these disciplines: psychobiological vie G. Stan
ley Hall; psychoanalytical view--Anna Freud; sociopsychoanalytical view-Erik
Erikson; psychosociological view -Robert Havighurst;and anthropological
view-Margaret Mead..By understanding different theories of adol escence, the
student can gainamore comprehensive view.
IHE MEANINGOF ADoLESCENCE
Adolescence CHA
The werd adolescencecomes from the Latin verb adolescere, which means "to grow
up or "to grow to maturity." Adolescence is a period of growth beginning with
puberty and ending at the beginning of adulthood; it is a transition al stage be
tween childhood andi adulthood. )The period has been likened to bridge be
tween childhood and'adulthood 6ver which individuals must pass before they
can take their places às erown adults. Adolescence ends, when yout i relinquish
their typical student roles and enter into one or more adult roles (mirriage, pnr
enthood, full-time employment)(Faslck, 1994). In gencral, the total p rlod of ido
Cence has beerEGrTohgd in industrial societies as the time spai of depen
dency has increased The transition fromchildhood to adulthood is ronmplicated
Fammer
this stage is&variable,
Vaglum, but
1990),
mostand the amount
adolescents of time complete
eventually one takestheto pass through
pe ssage.
Puberty and Pubescence
maturity and be-
Puberty is the period or age at which a person reaches sexual
comes capable of having children.

sexual maturity and becomes capable of

Pubertyiotnhe
reproduct
Period or age at which a person reaches

In his cha
299
 Aloleen Development
300 D'arn Pour states, this is a person under 18 years of
age. The legal rights of 18-year-olds vary
(rom state to stale, hOwever. Ihe 26
Amendment gave them the right to vote
They may obtain credit in their own names
at some stores or banks, whercas other
lbanks require coighers. This status de
pends on the' degroeto which they have es.
tablished a good credit rating in their own
names. Many landlords will not rent to mi.

states, 18-year-olds can. marry without

parental consent; in other states, they have
to wait until they are,older. In Colorado,
adolescents can leave home at age 16, but Insc
pube
do not attain full lega! rights until age 21. celek
The net result is confusion over their sta
tus. When do they fully become adults? mat
Some authorities feel that adolescents have pas
to wait too many years to "get into the acce

club."
Keniston (1970) suggested that the law bm anc

Adolescence is a period of growth beginning with puberty recôgnize an intermediate legal status bo
and endingnt the beginning of adulthood. between age 15 and 18 when adolescents
are accorded more rights than children
but fewer than those of adults. Keniston he
Pubescencehe whole Pubescence is used to denote the conceptualized a new stage of life, that
period during which the whole period during which physical of youth, which he defined as a develop
physical changes related to relative to sexual maturation are mental period that would follow adoles
sexUal mataration take place chang;es
taking place. Literally, it means becoming cence. In general, his suggestion was never
dowr y or hairy, describing the growth of adopted. In modern terminology, how
body hair that accompanies sexual nmatu ever, youth refers to the younger
ralio. IPuberly ls aconponied nol only by oneraion, usunlly adoloscence (Scbald,
blolo:ocial
and _lcal chonges, bue by psychologlcal 1984). It 0N uSed in this latter serse in this
changes as well
Dyk, & Frede, 1992; Lerner, (Adams, Day, book.
1992). For ex
ampl:, an adolescent who is an early ma
turer changes not
ance but also in only in physical appear-
friendships and social ApoLESCENCE AND PSYCHIC tr:
interests. DISEQUILIBRIUM
Mat urity Stormand Stress
Maturity-the time in life
when one becomes an adult Matu rity is that age, state, or time of life G. Stanley Hall (1904), the founder of the
whicn a person is considered fully at child-study
physically, emotionally, so and the firstmovement
in North Amerite
cially, intellectually, and oped socially, intellectually, devel- Ph.D. in in the
spiritually physically, and emotionally, psychc'ogy
United States, first described
reached in all ofspiritually. Maturity
these characteristics isat not
the
adolescen
a period of great"storm and 'stress, Corre-
same time. Youths sponding to the tÉme when the
mature at age 12 arewho become physically was in a human
stage on the
other A personusually not mnature in turbulent, transitional
cially, ways.
but still be may be mature so way to becoming civilized. Hallsaid
causes of this storm and stress in that u
adoles-
immature emotionally. cents are biological, resulting from changes
Juvenile at
Juvenileone
yet
considered
who is
an adult in
not The word juvenile is a timepuberty. To Hall, puberty representsa
of emotional Upset and instability in
the eyes of the
law ing an
individual legal term which the adolescents' moods. oscillate be-
who is not describ tween energy and lethargy joy and depres
adult status in the eyes of the law.accorded
In most sion,
The
or egotism
and, marks
end of adolescernce self-depreciation.
a birth of adult
ears of
6 vary

vot26the.
names
other
Chapter 10 Perspectives cn Adolescent De
0oWn
mi

hout
FOCUS
have
rado,
.but21. Insome cultures, when
Rites of Passage
avchild reaches Indian tribe, living on the plains of the
puberty ceremonies are conducted to United States, -tested the
sta elebrate the passage from childhood to endurance of
their pubertal sons by piercing
ults? maurity. Once the child suctessfully toral muscles under their breaststheir pc-
nave passesthe prescribed tests, he or she is sharp sticks. and then suspending w th
the acceptedi as a member of adult society. boys from the lodge poles by ropes at the
he ceremonies are often stressful tached to the sticks. Boys who could en
law
atus and painful. The most comhon rite for dure the longest were considered the
is circumcision, usually performed bravest.
ents with a sharp stonë knife. A tribe in the Initiation rites for girls center around
ren South Pacific requires that boys leap the attainment of reproductive capabili
cton headirst from a 100-föot-high platform ties as marked by the onsct of menstrua
hat built-in atree, with nothing but 90-foot- tion. The girls are prepared ahead of time
Ton vines tied to theirfeet The vine by insruction on domestic and parental
es catches them up short just before their duties, sexual matters, and modes of
Ver head hits the ground. Sometimes, mis dress. Some ceremonies are designed to
calculations result in permanent injury ensure their fertility. In some Arab cul
ger or death. If the boy is brave enough to tures, a girl'sclitoris isremoved. In other
ld, go through this experience, he is.consid- societies, a girl is scarred while cutting
ered worthy to be an adult. Tie Mandan bcauty features into the skin.

trails corresponding to the beginning of Psychic Conflict,

modern civilization. Although Hall was a
PSychologist, his explanation of the changes Anna Freud (1946), daughter of Sigmund
Freud, also characterized adolescence as a
adolescence was biological. period ol psychie disequilibriun, v
0 Kesearchers no longer belicve thal
Storm and stress are inevitable conse tional conflicl, and erratic bchavior. On the
one hand, adolescents are egotistic and
quences of adolescence. Many studies have
tontributed to debunking this idea. The self-centered, and they believe that every
oype of adolescence as a lumulluous other 0ne'sallention is locsed on them. On the
T of life still apDears in the popular themselves lhand, they are capable ot lorgell:
while they focus on the needs
but, as a result of recent research, of others and engage in charitable projects.
adolescence is now considered much more
They can become involved in intense
differentiated. The belief that psychological uations, infat-
turmoil is normal in adolescence has an un but can fall out of love just as sud
fortunate consequence in that it is often as-denly. They sometimes want to be with
social group, but
sumed that ung people with psychologi- others in their solitude. the next
cal problems they s k They oscillate be
grow out of them. The day rebe lion and conformity. Adoles
evidence is now clear that psychological tweencents are not oily selfish and materialistic,
difficulties adolescence
and should inbe treated. They usually
seldom persist
disap- but also morally idealistic. They are ascetic,
pear by themselves (Petersen, 1993). One yet hedonistic; inconsiderate and rude, yet
study of fifth- to ninth-graders reported loving and tender. They fluctuate between
higher rates of negative emotions among overflowing confidence and fearful self-
between indefatigable enthusiasm
adolescents doubt,
but theese than among preadolescents, and tired indifference (Freud, 1946).
higher rates
partly attributable to theof daily numberwereof According to Anna Freud, the reason
greaterdistress
negativeaslifetheyevents for this conflicting behavior is sexual matu
youths encountered
got older (Larson by
&some
Ham, ration at puberty, which causes psychic
1993). disequilibrium. At puberty, there is a
 According to
Development vsychosocial, tos
our Adolescent JUSLtYSed to hold the id in check. If
instinctual drives NF280-súperego conflict is not resolved
in the geni- this
marked increase greaterinterest in a oheblescence; émotional disturbance re
durin
including a is also
(the id), sexual impulses. There
tality and drives at puberty:
instinctual Freud deseribed the methods of
rise ir other rebelliousness increase; thie defense, mechanisms) that the
exhibitionism intensifies; oral and anal
and remain in control. The ego
hunger cleanliness
physi al reappear; and habits of Instinctual e8epIy1:
or projects the
instincts
intere sts
dirt and disorder.
early RoheS
onto to allow the id to have its way. js n
give 'vay to remained latent since over behavior remains, anxiety
(Freud, JShaet
ollec
forces that have puberty causing phobias and hystericál socie
childl ood reappear at appearnnco adolescence
ol iNctlclsm
"Tle neeOslng dennands of lhe ld dur.
1946, ). 159).
artd
ARO0uring ls able
devel
the
creale conflict witlh of the mistrust, of all instinc lkely
ing adolescence,ego tries to resolve. The syacHbThe rise of neurotic symp who
superio that the to allow the instinctual tçal
1ena
task of the ego is be satisfied, within the toms, and xcessive inhibitions during ad them
lescéncemayý,be a sign of the success of the
drives of the id toexpectations as repre the in
limits of soçietal ego is a per ánd uperego at the expense of lishec
sented by the 'superego. The The superego is however, tha
Phys
son's power of reasoning.
results from inlernaliz Anna Freud suggests,
ego, and superego &
seen
ado
the conscience that of one's parents and harmony among the id, in most nornd
ing the social values Anna Freud. The in- possible and does occur finallyneeds to be i
society, according to during adoles adolescents. The superego period-but vOC
crease in instinctual drives the reasoning véloped during the latency inhibits the i olo
cence directly challenges of conscience of nßt tothe extent that it
guilt the
abilities and thÇ powers breaks out stinctstbo much, causing extreme sufi de
the individual. Open conflict needs to be
and janxiety. The 'ego mediate the con
between the id and superego, and the ego ciently strong and wise to ide
has trouble keeping the peace. If the ego flict (Freud, 1946). ado
takes. the side of the id, "no trace will be sta
left of the previous character of the indi me
vidual and the entrance into adult life will
ide
be marked by a riot of uninhibited gratifi
cation of instinct" (Freud, 1946, p. 163). If AnoLESCENCE AND IDENTIT The
tive
the
the ego sides only with the superego, nar ACHIEVEMENT tas}
id impulses are confined within the pro
rOW limits prescribed for a child. Keeping Components of Identity the
instinctual forces suppressed requires con (1950, 1959) the ch 199
stant expenditure of psychic energy, be According to Erikson is the achtei
cause defense mechanisms and other mea Psychosocial task of adolescence
1990a, b; Bilsker & esp
ment of identity (Árcher, Raskin,
1990 Ima
Marcia, 1991; Lavoie, 1994; Waterman, 1990); m
Rotheram-Borus, 1990a; (Rogow 190
compornents
Identity has many 1983)- serual, socil, and
Marcia, & Slugoski, ideological,
physical, psychological,. moral, Ps
vOcntional characteristics-that make uPl Er
total self. Thus, Inllviduals may looks
characterisllcs,andet mo
(led by,thelr physical sex
skillsin
Ce
and, build; by their biological
by their n
sta
actment, of gender roles; membership
achieve
Va
social interaction sand nnd religious
groups; by, theirjcareer choiçe le
ment; by their political. alignment,
and
philoso"
(hinney
er

affiliations, morals, Values, Ce

phies; and by their ethnic identitycharacteris

mental
H
personality
& Alipuria, 1990), adjustment, and in
Achieving sexual identity is one of the psychosocial tasks of individual
adolescence. tics, psychological personal and te
health., ldentity is
al
 303
Developrnent
Chapter 10 Perspeetives on Adolescent
the "I" but also, socially and
only
is not the "we"
collectively,
It 19991).
within groups and Identity Statuses
nbleto(Hoare,
sOciety ncceptthemaelvegAdolescents
And whowhohave
are In the mid-1960s, an
8earch had emerged extensive
and validated
body ofErik-
re
develoycd posllveldently, are nore On'H Hylologlel conn(ruct, Amony th
lIkely to be mentally healthy than those many sludles of Lrlknon's cohcepts, ilhose
negativeidentity or do not like by James Marcia have been
whohavea
components of identity are estab-
themselves.
fluential (Marcia, 1966, 1976,particularly
1989).
in
Marcia
built his model upon three
Some
beforeothers
(Dellas &
Jernigan, 1990). derived from Erikson's theory.assumptions
First, for
lished
Physicalandsexual components of the self mation of ego identity involves the estab-
seem to be
formulated earliest. Early lishment of firm commitments in such
adolescents are concerned with their basic identity areas as avocation or selec-
and| sexual identity. Later they tion of a mate. Sccond, the task of for ning
dyimage concerned about choosing a identity demands a period of explorition,
witi Lcome
vocation and about moral values and ide- questioning, and decision making, apriod
they must deal with called an identity crisis. Third, Western so-
ologies. Similarly, 11ora
h social identities fairly early in their ciety fosters a period, a psychosocial
development. torium, during which the acolescent may
Vocational, ideological, and moral experiment with roles and beliefs so as to
jdentities are formulated gradually. After establish a coherent personal identity
(Bil_ker, 1992).
adolescents reach the formal operational From these assumptions, Marcia for
develop mulated
stage of cognitive growth andalternative four identity statuses that are
ment, they are able to explore identity issue
ideas and vocations in systematic ways. models of dealing with the
The exploration of occupational alterna
tives is the most immediate and concrete
task as adolescents select their high school
program and decide whether to continue
their education after high school (Kroger,
1993). Political and religious ideologies are
usually examined during late adolescence,
especially during the college years, but
may be formulaled over a period of many
ti19) ars of adulthood (Blustein & Palladino,
1991).

Psychosocial Moratorium
Erikson invented the term psychosoclal
moratorium to describe a period of adoles- PsyehosOclal
rium-a sociallymoralo
sane
Cence during which the individual tioned period between
may
stand back, analyze, and experinent with hilkthoNol ndlulthood
various roles without assuming any one
role. According to Erikson (1968), the during which the
is free to indiviciual
ength of adolescence and the degree o
emotional experiment to find
a socially
cents will conflict experienced by adoles-
vary among different societies.
and role acceptable identity
However, failure to establish identity dur-
ingthis time
confusion
tent that causes self-doubt and role
may trigger previously la-
vidualsPsychological disturbances
may withdraw
Someindi-
or turn tó drugs or
alcohol to relieve anxiety. Lack of a clear
identity
can also and lack of personality integration
be
quent (Muuss,observed
1988b). in the chronic delin- Adolescels nay try out many roles before
identity is achieved.
occupationel
 d toen ars
lor ptser
Developnent
-04 I'art Four Adolescent provicls
important variations
of Fhree
adolescence (Marcia,. dêvelopmèntal sequence have
characteristic of late are determined by gervèd1 tkinst;some individuals
this
ob-
from
been
1980). The statuses
mentsand whetherestablished
there has commit
been a tof makegthe transition to the moratorium never seem
whether. there are achievement
decision mak- andidntity entrenched statuses, remain.
period of exploration
and the inigntiriily within the
ing. identily
sure $Ptus, Scondly, a siguificant
slaluses are as fole indjuhtials enter adolescence in the d foredo-
number
Identity achievement
The four
velopmentally
lows, ldentity
advanced
achievement status.
is the most
The dos
indi-status;0Sotme of these rematn
Iihdivicduals who
difused. Third, difusion
that state resulting from through a ment/status appeared to attain an achieve
period o dántain
vidual
having gonethrough acrisis (xplorationhas gone
vell-defined alternatives and
ofcommitments. has made qlovýer status upon follow-up.
A moratorium have regressed
years laterto
in the scarch for identity precedes identity achievement. Here the (Marciap 1989). TÈhe nature of such a re-
and having made a commit
ment |erson is in the exploration period withe grssiönr to a developmentally prior status
commitments only vaguely formed. Thè iaepuzzing. Such a regression suggests As
Moralorium- period of vord moratorium means a period of delay thatcinidividuals may go through the develop-
standing back as one contin
1dentity sequence more than oeiop.
ues to search for an identity ranted
to decision who
maketo asomeone is not yet
or assume ready mtalh
an obliga irnggua tifetime. A person may have found Sui
res
tion. - Adolescence is a period of explo ientity achievement at a certain period of
1ation of alternatives before commitments if cthen later in life go through another 1s
ter,
Foreclosure-establishing ire made. Foreclosure refers to the indi-moratorium stage, or a stage of ident (19
an identity without going vidual who has undergone no, or very diffusion, before identity achievement for
through a crisis or without little, exploration and remains firmly com- again accomplished (Stephen, Fraser gan
searching; adopting an iden- nited tochildhood-based values. Foreclo Marcia, 1992). emt
tity as prescribed by some sure subjects have not experinced a crisis,
one clse lut they have made conmitments to occu-" a de
pations and ideologies that are not a result Ethnic Identity excl
of their own searching, but are ready- Ethnic tdentity is the sum total of group men. esse
Inade and handed down to them, fre- tend
ldentity difusion-le uently by parents. Finally, identity diffu- bers' feelings about those values, symbols, and with
silnation ol the individual
tion, ihe least developmntally advancedtinct group.liistories thatisidentity them as adis
coninoni line
wle has nol experienced an
identity crisis nor explored of the statuses, comprises persons who, ldentity based on one's per Cupa
whether or not they have ception that he or she shares a common
meaningful alternatives in explored alterna-
tives, are uncommitted to any definite di- heritage with a particular group opm
rections in their lives (Marcia, 1987): Iden Copeland, 1994). Ethnic identity (Bagley &
irying to find an identity male
tity-diffused develop pare
subjects have not experienced mentA ishealth
a crisis, nor have
an essential human need. tant
they made any commit identity is
ment to a religion, political teem and enhances one'srelated to self-es
coping strateges
than

of behavior (Archer &personalphilosophy,

sex role, occupation, or St
for personal
They have not Waterman,standards
1990). provides
of
a sense of
belonging and a
problem-solving
abilities. Ir
sens
used
how:
sis in relation experienced
to any of an identity cri- (Smith,historical continuity for an indiviaud and te
have these issues, nor 1991). Inhigh school and colleg
lng, gone throughand he perlod of Harch students, ethnic tity de
Acculturation-he
justment
to the
ofminority
ad
groups
ture dominant group cul
is
tives,reuval
most
usually
Diffusi
a sticated devel
unsophi opment
identity al y
identity
uatlonng, is consldering allerna- on slngle foclor, appears
related
the eth1nic
status,of and iors identity
to conss
Including
three intercon
conmponents:
Positive ctluie attitudes
Nntegrinterv
follow
normal achievement, views
adol escence.
The characteristic
in exactidentity statuses do not
early
adjustment
and etlhic beha
(Phinney,of 1992). Acculturation
ture the minority groups
is the
c- to the
One-qu
status
that a sequence. It was always,develop Lai, of
dominant univer
be the
devel o pment a l initially &
Plake, group (Sodowsky
crisisadolescentthes wouldbelenter ie vedyThe
the norm: most progression would 1991). patterr
fined t
status,identity grant or ethric problem for adolescents from immi:
for a n
out of moving into from ture mi n ori ty thecul
families is that
be which the
cenceatained. achi e
a
mor
vement ato riuforecl
m o
phase, sure ual ued.i n t
oor iw hi ch they were born is not aluajs SuresO
separa
was Diseenffusiason anstatus status would they are appreci
raised ate d by the culture inwhich
aberratduringioantransiinadolesethisnt ingmiRoOsgrantanensidentity,
natural Wo
th al,1 (Fel
992) , Indman,
Mont-Reynaud, &
sciousl
progres ion- hopeful y,
One.
the early stages of forg paths,
ethnic culture often findethnicconflict
their
and im
minorities
between
needs fo
Sonal a
society in which they and the values the
of larger
live. The central
 Chapter 10 Perspectives on
Adolescent Devlopment 305

LIVING ISSUES
Iomen and ldently
As we have seen, Marcia postulated four potential
outcomes of the identity developmnent medium for
sure, achievement, stage: foreclo-
moratorium, and diffusion. cxpressing valucs that were forwd in the
context of supportive
researchers haye suggested that Some Moratorium relationships.
identity
pssentially the same regarless of genderdevelopment tional anchors towomen gave up traditional, safe, rela
try, out exploratory identities and
o 1993). ^ome (Streitmat- atypical roles, but they also had greater
1088). suggest thatresearchers such as Gilligan et al.,
the path of identity developrment solving identity issues. When they were
difficulty
in their
re
thir
for females may be different than that for males. Gilli ties, moratorium women occasionally
can et al. argue that Erikson's theory chosen achievement status, adopted a self
but they often
embodied in the "Eight Stages of Man,"(Erikson, 1959)
is based upon
identity diffusion or opted to go back to a experienced
foreclosure
like status. Women who displayed
adevelopmental model that is biased to the point of characteristics
sociated with foreclosure or achievement showed as
excluding the developmental process of females. The higher levels of mental health than women in morato
essence of Gilligan's work is the idea that females rium or diffusion statuses. Apparently, women were
tend to define themselves through their relationships
with others, while males follow "traditional mascu discouraged by social and family pressures to assume
extended exploratory identities: If identity was not
line" lines of self-definition according to their own oc achieved by the end of the
college years, pressure to
cupational selves(Streitmatter, 1993). Identity devel return to the safety of childhood experiences was
opment for females is quite different from that of strong. For women, the social expectations, choices,
males. Intimacy is a primary issue for, females. Also, self-reflection, conflit, anbivalence, and isolation as
parental attachment plays a considerably more impor- sociated with choosiny; nontraditional roles was
tant role in theidentity formation process for women costly.
than it does for men (Schultheiss &Blustein, 1994). Josselson's (1987) observation that significant rela
Still other researchers, especialy Josselson (1987), tionships, rather than work, provided the primary an
used Marcia's identity rescarch methods to examine chor for women's identit yis disquieting in light of the
how womenproceed through Erikson's identity stage occupatlonal changes th.t have emerged in the wake
and to propose a theoretical model of women'siden- of the feminist movemen.
tity development. In so doing, Josselson has sought to
tegrate opposing viewpoints. She conducted initial
nterviews with college seniors in the early 1970s and
followed their life coùrses by scheduling second inter
iews with them in 1980 (Enrns, 1991). pproximately
one-quarter of Josselson's sanple chose a traditlonal
Status that was orlginally identifted by Erikson as a
universal pattern for women's jdentity resolution. The
pattern was foreclosure in which women often de-
fined their identity in terms of the successful search
tor a mate. In general, thev had high scores on mea
sures of mental health but showed little evidence of a
separáte self-definition.
Women with an achievement identity self-defined
status Con-
sciously
paths, andtested their identities,
demonstrated
built
flexibility in integrating
needs for connection and Iself-assertion. For them, per- by the end of college.
sonal the Many women achieve asense of identity
achievement and Occupation often became
Adolescent Development
of origin anc
he dorninant

FOCUS osteem anl ic

Identity and Persondlitý

the fact that qnsreclosed subjects were strikingly
The latest research points to to identity Asi oD openness. This study raises
related
personality type isDollinger, BrORtercsting question: Does iden
1993). Re moetS8tion
Nilliamso influence
slatus (Clancy & revealed one's per
search with í90 young adults yor does preexisting person
andHhe/tiuene identity, resolution?
the following:
scored
ion1y there seems to be truth in
1. ldeintity-achieved subjectsstudent on ex shiSossibilities. Such findings
higher than the typical of inaiggest that although not al
lower on neroticism; tiveaselonc "created" with equal
traversion and caiBSPLe, may be
be "emotionally ad 8DDortuniies to reach achievement
thus appeared to chievement sub their
justed" extroverts. little nainS.
SL t identity pathways wil!
toexperience teHave major implications in terms of
jects appeared ateetheRinds of persons they become.
negative affectivity. individuals
diffused amen"foreclosure individuals may
2. Moratorium and neurotic introverts Subacts. status.over a period of
appeared to be They éhange their
who lacked conscientiousness. time (Kroger, 1995).
were mÍre prone to negative em0
and disagreeableness than
tions
were typical students.

minority eth- characterized by strong identification and

que: tion /s the way in which
dominant culture inyolyement with both the dominant soci
nic ;roups relate to the ety's culture and the traditional ethnic culon
and toone another.
ways in which ture. Separation involves exclusive focus
There are four possible practices of the eth
ethnic group members can participate in a the culturalvalues and or no interaction with
society. Assimilation is nic group and little
cult11rally diverse dominant society. Marginality is de
the utcome when ethnic group members the ljýtho nbsence or lossof ond'scullre
choiselo ldentlfy solely with the cullre of finod
ind o rellnqual1 all of orlyit und lhe lack of Involvenenl with
tlhe lonant Nuclvty,culture. lntegration ls the domirnant society.
tles to thelr elhnlc Which type of participation
contributes
of self
development
most to the positive in adolescence? One
esteem ánd identity
college students
study of high school and school
inner-city sought to
from a diverse students were
answer this question. èhe mixed back-
Asian, black, Hispanic, of
Chavira,
grounds, and whites (Phinney, indicate that
Williamson, 1992). The results
options, integr
among the four acculturation
PSychological adjustment
tion results in bettr positive relation-
and higher self-esteem. The and endorsement
ship between self-esteemthat a more posi-
of intgration indicates with identifi-
wi andthe
tive self-concept is associatedculture
cation;with both one's own
contrast,
endorse-
mainstream culture. In found to bbe re-
ment of assimilation was especially
-borm
lated to lower self-esteem,foreign- Culture
Native Americans, like people from other ethnic groups, are
among the Asians and the
ethnic
torn by the conflict between cultures.
subjects. Thus, giving up one's
 Chapter 10 Perspectives on
Alolescent Development
The concepl of
injpact on self-concepl.
separation (that cthnic
groups.should keep to themselves and not
mix with mainstream society) withwas nogiven
littlesupport by the students, dif-
lernees mong ethnic group8 or by 8o
cioeconomnic status. Of all four
marginalityin which ome identifies alternatives,
with one's own cthnic group nor with the
neither
dominant culture--is the least satisfactory al-
ternative.
Black students tend to encounter more
barriers to racial identity
development
than do white students. Moreover, gifted
black students mayexperience more psycholog- One of the
psychosocial tasks of adolescence is to achieve
iEETHRUT and emotional problems than do block mature relations with age-mates of both sexes.
Sudents not identified as gifted. The gifted
minority children find themselves "be
ween arock and a hard place." One gifted
lack student said, "I had to fight to be individuals must acquire at certain points
oifted and then I had to fight because I am n ther lives through physical maturation,
oifted." Another student said, "I am not personal effort, and social expectations.
white and I'm not black. I am a freak" Mastery of the tasks at each stage of de
Ford, Harris, & Schuerger, 1993). Essen velopment results in adjustment, prepara
ially, gifted black children confront con tion for the harder tasks ahead, and
icting values from which they must greater maturity. Failure to master the de
hoose when forming a racial identity.velopmental tasks results in social disap
ifted black students sometimes con proval, anxiety, and inability to function as
iously decide to underachieve academia mature person (Gavazzi, Anderson, &
Ily so as not to be perceived as acting Sabatelli, 1993).
hite" or as selling out. High-achieving
Ick students must assume a "raceless" Eight Major Tasks
tsona if they wish to succeed academi
y. This racelessness occurs when they Havighurst (1972) outlined eight major
Dty themselves of their culture. believ- psychosocial tasks to be accomplished dur
that the door of opportunity will opern ing adolescence, as follows:
Aey stand raceless'before it. Raceless
idren adopt characteristics
ant culture (such as speaking
of the domi- 1. Acepting one's physique and using
standard the body effectively
gih on alralghtening helr alp), TheA 2. Achieving emolional indepen lence
lo help gifted black students cope with
lron parls nl oller nlulla
J. Ahlevlng a masLullne or ulndnbe o-
and appreciate their ability. Group cial-sex role
multi
rullural counseling is espeeially' helpful 4. Achiceving new and more matur, rela-
(Ford, Harris, & lions with age-mates of boih sexes
Schúerger, 1993). 5. Desiring and achieving socially re
sponsible behavior

AvMeanibEVELOPMENTAL
oLESCENCE
ng TASKS
AND

Robert a Havighurst (1972) sought to de-

6. Acquiring a set of values and an thical
system as a guide to behavior
7. Preparing for an economic career
8. Preparing for marriage and famil life
These eight developmental tasks neec to be
velop
by
mMands psychosoci
combinin
wlth g al of
theory of adolescence
consideration socictal do-
interpreted. What did Havighurst say
about them? Developmental tasks-
the akills, knowledgy, mm
skl, indivlduals needs (Klaczyn-
1990). Whal society demands and lon,aml altlluen that n
what
Imentaindividuals
l need constitute develop-
1. Aeplhg one's pyslque nd ust i le dhviduals have
body effectively. Adolescents become certain points intotheir
acquite al
edge, allasks.
titudes,These tasks are the knowl- xtremely self-conscious about he in
order functiol effee
lo
lives
functions, and skills that chnges ovCurring in their bodies at lively as hlalure whOS
 nary adoles:
a Alolesvnt Developu ive väues,l
lalertity is es
p &RUR. meaning to their lives (Hav-
concerned
puberty. Adolescents are ighurst, 1972).
about body build, image, and appear an hinnl.
6.Acquirng a set of values and This
ance (Newell, Hammig, Jurich, & John- $ystem, 9$. 4guide to behavior. goal
to understand
Son, 1990). They need of their own incudis the development, adoption,
the patterDs of growth physiques, Oändapplicalion of meaningful values,
bodies, lo'ncèept lheir own
and to use their
norals, and ideals in one's personal
lo care for their health, athletics, recre CRFe@àrding & Snyder, 1991; Zern
bodies effectively in (Hav V991):
ation, work, ànd everyday tasks 7. Prearing for l eomOMtiC career. Deter.
ighurst, 1972). Jrom Ahi3 ife goals, choosing a vocation,
2. Achicving emotional inependeee
Some ado
wand preparing,for that career are long-
parents and 'other adulls. teritaaks that begin at adolescence
emotionally depen ii(Betzonsky, Rice, & Neimeyer, 1990:
lescents are too are
others
dent on their parents;
parents. Part of
veCrEEK,/ 1990; Harding & Snyder, 1991
estranged fromtheir p`tl;1991).
the task of growing up is to achieve 8."Prepating: for marriage and family life
autononmy from parents and establish tiThÃhajority of youths considera
the
adult relationships with them at
Mann, 1990;
cOhäpppmarriage and parenthood to be
same time (Brown & who are timportant goals in life. However, they
Daniels, 1990). Adolescents
conflict with their need to develop the social skills, pos.
rebellious and in the tive attitudes, emotional maturity, ob
understanding
parents need help in improve jective knowledge, and enmpathetic un:
situation and learning how to derstanding to make marriage work.
it
or feminine'social This preparation and development be.
3. Achieving a masculine
is a woman? What is a gins in adolescence. )
sex role. What
man? What are women and men sup
posed to look like? How are they sup Havighurst feels that many moden
posed to act? What roles are they re
Part of youths have- not found direction in their
1990)2
quired to play (Kissman, adolescents lives añd therefore suffer from aimlessness
is
the maturing process for and uncertainty. He says that during the
of first half of the 20th century, the primary
to reexamine the changing sex roles
their culture and to decide what roles method of identity achievement (especially
they can adopt (Havighurst, 1972; Nul for boys) was through an occupation. Work
.on & Keith, 1990). was the focus of life. Today, however,
4. Achieving new and more nature relations many adolescents would say that expres
ivith age-nates of both sexes. One of the sive values have become more important.
asks of adolescents is to establish mean
is established through close, other
elerosocial friendships, as òDDOsed ldentity relationships with
othe same-sex friendships that are ingful, and loving
nore prevalent in middle childhood persons.
Verduyn, Lord, & Forrest, 1990). Ma
uring also means developing the so ANTHROPOLOGISTS' VIEWS
ial skills necessary to get along with
pthers and to participate in social OF ADOLESCENCE
5. Desiring and achieving socially responsible Developmental Continuity
behavior. This goal refers to sorting out Versus Discontinuity
social values and goals in our pluralis Some-
ticsociety, which also includes assum
Anthropologists look at adolescence age
ing
andmore responsibility
national for community
affairs. Some adolescents what'differently.
and stage theories ofThey generally reject
development, which say
of de-
are disturbed by the injustices, social that children g0 through various stagesanthro
inequities,
around them.and Some
problems
becomethatradical
they see
ac- velopinent ages. Instead,
at different continuity
pologists emphasize of develop
example
tivists; others work in quieter ways to ment. Margaret Mead said, for relatively
make a difference; others simply refuse that Samoan children follow a rela-
to act. Many adolescents struggle to -growth with
find their niche in society in a way that continuou_ pattern of-
the
ageto
tively little from one
change
 Chapter l0 Perspectives un Adolescent
Development 309

Children are not expected to behaveby the time maturity is

other.
way and
never have to
one
adults another.
Sampans to assume a sexual rolereached,
abruptly change thelr ways easily. in
she is able
marriage very
acting or thinking as they move from
that adoles-
childhood to adulthood, so
of
transition from one pattetn of Cultural Influences
cence as a ahother Is practically donexls-
behaviorto Anthropologists say that sturm and stress dur
principle of continuity of devel-
tent. Thismay bee illustratediwith three ex- ing
adolescence is not inevitable. For example,
opment (1950). whether or not menstruation is a disturb
Mead
amples by submissive role pf children in ing experience depends on its interpreta
Eirst, the toth tion. One tribe may teach that the menstru
Western culture scohtrasted primitive so ating girl may dry up the well or scare the
dominant role of hildren in
Children in Western culture are game; another tribe may consider her con
HRTHRINiy. adults they dition a blessing (a priest could obtain a
aught to be submissive, But asMead (1950) blessing by touching her, or she could in
are expected to be dominant. child is not crease the food supply). A girl who is
showed that the Samban
dominant on reaching taught that menstruation is a curse will
expected to become
adulthood after being taught submission react and act differently from a girl who is
as a child. On the contrary, the Samoan taught that it is' a positive thing. Therefore,
girl dominates her jyounger siblings and the strains and stresses of pubescent physi
cal changes may be caused by
in turn is dominated by the older ones. teachingS
The older she gets, the more dominating of the culture and not bynegative
any in
she becomes and the fewer girls who herited biological tendencies.
dominate her (the parents never try to
dominate her). When she becomes an Generation Gap
adult, she does not experience the conflict
of dominance and submission that is Although anthropologists deny the in
found among adolescents in Western soci evitability of a generation gap (Mead,
ety. 1974), they describe the many conditions in
Second, the nonresponsible roles of chil Western culture that create such a gap.
dren in Western culture are contrasted to Those conditions include pluralistic value
Ihe responsible
live roles ofinchildren
societies. Children Westernin culture
primi- systems, rapid scocial change (Dunham &
Benglson, 199), and modern technology
-iti4i89Ist assume drastically different roles as thal make t'he world appear loo omplex
they grow up; they shift from nonresponsi and too uns able to adolescents to provide
ble play to responsible work and must do it them with ast ble frame of reference. Fur
rather suddenly. In contrast, children in thermore, carly physiological puberty and
primitive sociotics
quite early. Work andlearn play responsibilily
often involve
the prolongation of adolescencU allow
the same activity. By "playing". witha bow group years
many for the development of a peer
culture in which àdolescent values,
ana arroW, a boy learns to bhunt:His ýouth- custom9, and mores may be in conflict witlh
hinting "play" In à prelude iH Mdlt thone of the lnlt vorkd. Mual (1950) felt
hunting "work." y move ro.thal parenl-adoleseenl contlicl and lension
Ihird, dissimilarity of sex roles sf thil can be minimized by giving adolescents
dren and adults in Western culture
trasted to similarityof sex roles more-freedom to make their own choices
is'con and
and adults in primitive: ófchiËfdren to 'live their own lives, by requiring
ern culture, infant cultures. In West less conformity and less dependency, and
sexuality'is denied; ánd by tolerating individual, differences within
adolescent
adolescents sexüality
mature is répressed:
sexually, theý When thebe accepted
rmust family. into
Also, adult
Mead feltsociety
that atyouth can
younger
unlearn earlier attitudes
and taboos ahd ages. They should be allowed to have sex
become
indicates sexually responsive adults: Mad and to marry, but parenthood should be
no real that the Samoàn girl experiences postponed. Adolescents should be given
passes discontchildhood
has the from inuity ofto'sexadulthoo:'She
roles 'às he greater responsibility for community life.
These measures would allow for a
opportunity to
come familiar with,scxwithhiOsho climinatingcasierdiscontinuities
experimetlañd be- smoother, transitipn to adulthood by
tabuos (oxcept ngainst incost) erÜrOre, menl.
in develop-
i b i i n g s ats