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An overview on significance of fish nutrition in aquaculture industry

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 International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies 2017; 5(6): 349-355

E-ISSN: 2347-5129
P-ISSN: 2394-0506
(ICV-Poland) Impact Value: 5.62 An overview on significance of fish nutrition in
(GIF) Impact Factor: 0.549
IJFAS 2017; 5(6): 349-355 aquaculture industry
© 2017 IJFAS
www.fisheriesjournal.com
Received: 15-09-2017
Accepted: 17-10-2017
E Prabu, S Felix, N Felix, B Ahilan and P Ruby

E Prabu Abstract
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Global aquaculture production is increasing year by year and it is the fastest and reliable sector to fulfil
Fisheries College and Research the protein deficiency among the human beings around the world. Various innovative integration and
Institute, Ponneri, Chennai, intensification approaches has been adopted for finfish and shellfish culture by many countries. Nutrition
India and feeding is the significant criteria should be focused for economical and sustainable aquaculture.
Sustainable production of aquatic organisms can be obtained by formulating and producing low cost, low
S Felix
polluted and nutrient rich high quality artificial feeds. Like terrestrial animals around 40 essential
Vice Chancellor, Tamil Nadu
Fisheries University,
nutrients are required by the aquatic organisms which includes protein, carbohydrate, fatty acids,
Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, vitamins, minerals, growth factors and other energy sources essentially for maintaining growth,
India reproduction and other normal physiological functions. The variation in the nutritional requirements can
be identified with warm water or cold water, finfish or shell fish and marine water or freshwater species.
N Felix Successful production of good quality fishes can be achieved by feeding the fishes with nutritionally
Director, Directorate of balanced feeds. The nutritional requirements of various fish species are fulfilled by a different animal and
Aquaculture Technology plant based artificial feeds. Standardization of feeding method is another innovative way for preserving
Training and Incubation, Tamil sustainable production of aquatic organisms in cages, ponds and short seasonal tanks. Ideal fish protein
Nadu Fisheries University, concept is also the superlative advance towards maximizing the effective utilization of protein by the
Muttukadu, Chennai, India fishes through the production of cost efficient, nutritionally high and low polluted feeds.
B Ahilan
Keywords: Aquaculture, Nutrition, Protein, Feeding, Antioxidant, Pigment.
Dean, Fisheries College and
Research Institute, Ponneri,
Chennai, India 1. Introduction
Aquaculture has sustained a global growth at present and is expected to increasingly fill the
P Ruby shortfall in aquatic food products. Aquaculture activity is considered as the only alternative for
Ph.D. Research Scholar,
the development and improvement of fisheries resources and revitalization of ecosystems
Fisheries College and Research
Institute, Ponneri, Chennai, (Okechi, 2004) [1]. Fish feeds constitutes 40-60% of the total cost of aquaculture production
India which is expensive and led to extensive studies on replacing a costly fish meal in the diets.
Growth performances and survival of aquatic organisms can be influenced by the development
of nutritionally balanced commercial diets (Tom and Van-Nostrand, 1989) [2]. The
improvement of nutritional interventions supports the aquaculture industry sustainable,
economical and nutritious finfish and shellfish production (Robinson et al., 1998) [3].
The science of nutrition draws heavily on findings of chemistry, biochemistry, physics,
microbiology, physiology, medicines, genetics, mathematics, endocrinology, cellular biology
and animal behavior. To the individual involved in aquaculture, nutrition represents more than
just feeding. Nutrition becomes the science of the interaction of a nutrient with some part of a
living organism, including feed composition, ingestion, energy liberation, wastes elimination
and synthesis for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Feeds and feed stuffs contain the
energy and nutrients essential for the growth, reproduction and health of aquatic animals.
Deficiencies or excesses can reduce growth or lead to disease. Dietary requirements set the
necessary levels for energy, protein, amino acids, lipids (fat), minerals and vitamins. The
subcommittee on Fish Nutrition of the Committee on Animal Nutrition of the National
Research Council (NRC) examines the literature and current practices in aquaculture. The
Correspondence NRC publishes the nutritional recommendations for fishes. Dietary nutrients are essential for
E Prabu the construction of living tissues. They also are a source of stored energy for fish digestion,
Ph.D. Research Scholar, growth, reproduction and the other life processes. The nutritional value of a dietary ingredients
Fisheries College and Research
Institute, Ponneri, Chennai, is in part dependent on its ability to supply energy. Physiological fuel values are used to
India calculate and balance available energy values in prepared diets. They typically average 4,
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies

4 and 9 kcal/g for protein, carbohydrate and lipid respectively 2. Digestion and Absorption
(Helfrich and Smith, 2001) [4]. The digestive or gastrointestinal tract is described as a
Prepared or artificial diets may be either complete or continuous, hollow tube extending from the mouth to the anus
supplemental. Complete diets supply all the ingredients with the body build around it. The digestive system of fish
(protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals) includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pylorus,
necessary for the optimal growth and health of the fish. Most intestine, liver and gall bladder. It acts like an assembly line
of the commercial diets containing the essential nutrients in reverse, taking the feedstuffs apart to their basic chemical
including protein, lipid, carbohydrate, ash, phosphorous, components so that the fish can absorb them and rearrange
water, minerals and vitamins in the range of 18-50%, 10-25%, them into its own characteristic body composition. Table 1
15-20, <8.5%, <1.5%, <10%, 0.5 and 0.5 respectively. summarizes all structures of the digestive system in digestion
Natural foods may not available for the aquatic organisms and absorption. Other considerations of digestion and
which are culturing in the indoor systems or confined cages, absorption in fish include the type of eaters, the anatomy of
hence the nutritional need of this cultured organisms can be the mouth and feeding behavior (Fagbenro, 1998) [6].
fulfilled only by the addition of nutritionally enriched
supplementary feeds (Craig and Helfrich, 2009) [5].

Table 1: Digestive system structures and functions

Structure Functions
Teeth Grasping, holding, crushing, depending on species
Pharynx Opening to the gills
Esophagus Short, Simple passage to stomach, lined with mucus secreting cells
Walls lined with cells secreting hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen for initial stages of protein digestion;
Stomach
holding compartment for feed
Pyloric cecum Secretes enzymes for digestion; Increased surface area for absorption of nutrients
Intestine Secretes enzymes for digestion; Increased surface area for absorption of nutrients
Gall bladder Stores and releases bile for digestion and absorption of fats
Liver Synthesis or storage from absorbed nutrients, production of bile, removal of some waste products from blood

3. Feeding type and anatomy mud and filtering and extracting digestible material.
Fish can be divided into three types of eaters
1. Carnivores consume primarily animal material. Foods  Parasites: Some fish, like the lamprey, attach themselves
consumed by this type of fish may be as small as a to other animals and exist on the host’s body fluids.
microscopic crustacean or insect or as an amphibian or a
small mammal. 4. Protein requirements
Proteins are long chains of amino acids linked by bonds called
2. Herbivores subsist primarily on vegetation and decayed peptide bonds. All amino acids contain nitrogen, so all
organic material in the environment. proteins contain nitrogen. In fact, measuring nitrogen content
is a method of calculating protein content. Metabolism of
3. Omnivores consume almost any food source, either plant protein for energy produces nitrogen end products. Fish
or animal origin. eliminate these through gills, feces and urine. These nitrogen
Certain anatomic changes in the mouth of fish occurred end products can cause problems in fish ponds. Protein is the
through evolutionary development. Fish can be classified major concern during formulation of fish feed. It is the most
according to their feeding habits into the following categories: expensive for fish feed and the most important factors that
 Predators: Trout are an example of fish that feed on contributing to the growth performance of cultured species
animals generally large enough to be seen with the naked (Deng et al., 2011) [7].
eye. Teeth are well developed and act as a means of Protein serves three purposes in the nutrition of fish:
grasping and holding the prey. Some predator rely 1. Provide energy
primarily on sight to hunt, whereas others rely on the 2. Supply amino acids
senses of taste and touch or on lateral line sense organs. 3. Meet requirements for functional proteins- enzymes and
hormones and structural proteins
 Grazers: The mullet is an example of a fish that grazes
in the same sense as mammalian grazers. Generally, The requirement for protein in fish diets is essentially a
mullets graze continuously on the bottom of the water requirement for the amino acids in the dietary proteins. Some
habitat for either plants or small animal organisms. Food amino acids the fish cannot synthesis are called indispensable
is taken in well-defined bites. or essential amino acids
1. Arginine
 Strainers: The menhaden is an example of a fish that 2. Valine
selects food primarily by size rather than type. An adult 3. Histidine
menhaden can strain in excess of 6 gal of water per 4. Isoleusine
minute through its gill rakers. Through this process of 5. Leucine
rapid straining, the menhaden able to concentrate a 6. Lysine
relatively large mass of plankton and other organisms. 7. Methionine
8. Threonine
 Suckers: The buffalo fish is an example of a fish that 9. Tryptophan
feed primarily on the bottom of its habitat, sucking in 10. Phenylalanine
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies

Some of the dietary requirements for methionine and percent. As dietary carbohydrate increases, the digestibility of
phenylalanine can met by the amino acids cysteine and protein tends to decline. Also, overheating during drying or
tyrosine respectively. The amino acid requirement given by processing reduces proteins nutritive value. But, insufficient
the NRC is shown in table 2 for catfish, trout, salmon, carp heating of soybean meal decreases the availability of protein.
and tilapia. Research evidence suggests that large differences Protein requirements for fish are considerably higher than
exist among fish species in their requirements for amino those for warm blooded land animals. Protein requirements of
acids. Some of these differences are probably caused by fish decline with age. Animal protein sources are generally
differences in growth rate, feed intake and the source of considered to be of higher quality than plant sources, but
amino acids in the diet. When proteins in most feedstuffs are animal protein costs more. In diets, a combination of protein
properly processed, they are highly digestible. For a variety of sources yields better conversion rates than any single source
protein rich-feed stuffs, the digestibility ranges from 75 to 95 (Pandey, 2013) [8].

Table 2: Protein and Amino acid requirement for finfish (NRC, 1993) [9].
Channel Catfish Rainbow trout Pacific salmon Common carp Tilapia
Energy Baseb (Kcal DE/Kg diet) 3000 3600 3600 3200 3000
Crude protein (%) 32 (28) 38 (34) 38 (34) 35 (30.5) 32 (28)
Amino acids %
Arginine 1.20 1.5 2.04 1.31 1.18
Histidine 0.42 0.7 0.61 0.64 0.48
Isoleucine 0.73 0.9 0.75 0.76 0.87
Leucine 0.98 1.4 1.33 1.00 0.95
Lysine 1.43 1.8 1.7 1.14 1.43
Metheonine + Cysteine 0.64 1.0 1.36 0.94 0.90
Phenylalanine+ Tyrosine 1.40 1.8 1.73 1.98 1.55
Threonine 0.56 0.8 0.75 1.19 1.05
Tryptophan 0.14 0.2 0.17 0.24 0.28
Valine 0.84 1.2 1.09 1.10 0.78

Fish do not have the ability to use non-protein nitrogen for formulating and preparing finfish and shellfish feeds.
sources. Such nonprotein nitrogen sources as urea and Some form of digestible carbohydrate should be included in
diammonium citrate, which even non-ruminant animals can the diet. Carbohydrates improve growth and provide
use to a limited extent, have no value as a feed source for fish. precursors for some amino acids and nucleic acids. Also,
In fact, nonprotein nitrogen can be toxic at high levels. A carbohydrate is the least expensive source of dietary energy.
protein deficiency or indispensable amino acid deficiency is In warm water fish, cereals grains provide an inexpensive
observed as a reduction in weight gain. But some specific source of carbohydrates, but their use is limited in cold water
amino acid deficiencies manifest as disease conditions. fish. Digestible carbohydrates in trout feed are generally
Cataracts from salmonids, including rainbow trout, when lower than the levels in catfish feed. In nutrition,
given diets are deficient in methionine or tryptophan. A carbohydrates spare protein because less protein will be will
tryptophan deficiency also causes a lateral curvature of the be used for energy. An excess of dietary carbohydrates can
spinal column or scoliosis in some salmonids. In trout, a cause livers to enlarge and glycogen to accumulate in the
tryptophan deficiency disrupts the metabolism of the minerals liver. A general recommendation is a diet of no more than 12
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. In fish diets, percent digestible carbohydrates. Fats and proteins supply
protein and energy should be kept in balance. A deficiency or most of the energy in fish diets (Parker, 2011) [12].
excess of energy reduces the growth rates. When dietary
energy is deficient, protein is used for energy. When dietary 6. Fat
energy in excess, feed consumption drops and this lowers the Each gram of fat contains 2.5 times the energy in a gram of
intake of the necessary amounts of protein for growth carbohydrates or proteins. The digestibility of fat varies,
(Abowei and Ekubo, 2011) [10]. depending on
 Amount in the diet
5. Carbohydrates  Type of fat
Carbohydrates are the most economical and inexpensive  Water temperature
sources of energy for fish diets. Although not essential,  Degree of unsaturation
carbohydrates are included in aquaculture diets to reduce feed  Length of carbon chain
costs and for their binding activity during feed manufacturing.
Dietary starches like cassava starch are used in the extrusion Animal fats and fats that are highly saturated have a lower
production of floating feeds. Floating feeds for the various digestibility. On the other hand, in highly unsaturated fats –
finfishes are prepared with varying ranges of carbohydrates fats that fish can rapidly digest- there is danger of oxidation of
(Robert, 1979) [11]. the fats, resulting in feed spoilage. Antioxidants are routinely
Fishes are having the capability of digesting simple sugars added to most fish diets to prevent fats from becoming rancid
efficiently. Digestibility will get decrease rapidly when the in storage. Besides being an important source of energy for
sugar becomes larger and more complex. Warm water fish fish, dietary fats provide essential fatty acids (EFA) needed
can digest dietary carbohydrates efficiently when compared for normal growth and development. Fish cannot synthesize
with cold water or marine fish. Utilization of carbohydrates as these fatty acids. Also, dietary fats assist in the absorption of
an energy source varies with different species. There is no fat-soluble vitamins. Freshwater fish require a dietary source
recommended levels or ranges by national research council
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies

of linoleic acid and linolenic acid. These are both 18 carbon  Component of membranes
fatty acids. Marine fish, like the yellow tail or red sea bream,  Precursor of acetylcholine, a chemical for nerve
require a dietary source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and transmission
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These are 20 ad 22 carbon fatty  Provider of methy groups for chemical reactions
acids respectively. Channel catfish, coho salmon and rainbow
trout require linolenic acid or EPA or DHA. Table 3 indicates Myoinositol is also a component of membranes and is
the essential fatty acid requirement for several species of fish involved in sending signals during several body processes.
(Parker, 2011) [12]. Vitamin C is involved in the formation of connective tissue,
bone matrix and wound repair. It also facilitates the
Table 3: Essential fatty acid requirements of fishes (NRC, 1993) [9] absorption of iron from the intestine and helps prevent the
Species Requirement peroxidation of fats in tissues. Most water soluble vitamins
1.0 to 2.0% linoleic acid or 0.5 to 0.75% EPA and serve as coenzymes in the body’s biochemical reactions.
Channel catfish
DHA Enzymes are biological catalysts. Most enzymes are proteins
Chum salmon 1.0% linoleic acid and 1.0% linolenic acid and they are unique for each biochemical reaction.
Coho salmon 1.0 to 2.5% linolenic acid Coenzymes then work with or become part of an enzyme
Common carp 1.0% linoleic acid and 1.0% linolenic acid (Parker, 2011) [12].
0.8% to 1.0% linolenic acid 20% of fat as linoleic The fat soluble vitamins are
Rainbow trout
acid 10% of fat as EPA and DHA  Vitamin A
Tilapia 0.5% to 1.0% linoleic acid
 Vitamin D
Red sea bream 0.5% EPA and DHA
Yellow tail 2.0% EPA and DHA  Vitamin E
 Vitamin K
Essential fatty acid deficiency sings include skin lessions,
shock syndrome, heart problems, reduced growth rate, Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed in the intestine along with
reduced feed efficiency, reduced reproductive performance fats in the diet. Unlike water soluble vitamins, fat soluble
and increased mortality. In the body essential fatty acids vitamins can be stored in body tissues. Excessive amounts in
function as a part of cell membranes and precursors of the diet can cause a toxic condition called hypervitaminosis.
biochemical that perform a variety of metabolic functions. Functions of the fat soluble vitamins are quite specific.
Fish diets are formulated to meet the optimum ratio of energy Vitamin A is necessary for sight, proper growth, reproduction,
to protein for each species. Fats serve as an important source resistance to infection and maintenance of body coverings. As
of energy, but no definite percentage of dietary fat can be many land animals, fish can use betacarotene as a Vitamin A
given without considering the type of fat, as well as the precursor. Vitamin D helps the body mobilize, transport,
protein and energy content of the diet. Too much dietary fat absorb and use calcium and phosphorous. It works with two
can result in an imbalance of the digestible energy to crude hormones from an endocrine gland, the parathyroid. Vitamin
protein ratio and excessive deposition of fat in the body cavity E is the name given to all substances that act like alpha-
and tissues (Endinkeau and Kiew, 1993) [13]. tocopherol. Vitamin E working with selenium, protects cells
against adverse effects of oxidation. Vitamin K is required for
7. Vitamin requirements the normal blood clotting process. Many animals can
Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet for syntheses vitamin K in their intestines (Woodward, 1994) [15].
normal growth, reproduction and health. They function in a
variety of chemical reactions in the body. The simple 8. Mineral requirements
digestive system of the fish establishes a definite need for the Fish can absorb a number of minerals directly from the water:
supplementation of vitamins in fish diets. Vitamin calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
requirements for fish resembles those of nonruminant animals iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and selenium (Se). This
such as pigs and chickens. Fish and humans are among the reduces the mineral requirement in the diet. But this also
few higher animals that require a dietary source of vitamin C makes research on dietary mineral requirements difficulty and
(Halver, 1985) [14]. inconclusive. Most researchers agree that fish require all of
Vitamins are divided into two categories, water soluble and the minerals required by other animals. Based on their
fat soluble. requirement or use of an animal, minerals are divided into two
Water-soluble vitamins include groups: macrominerals and microminerals. Macrominerals are
 Thiamin present in the body in relatively large quantities. The
 Riboflavin macrominerals include:
 Pyridoxine  Calcium (Ca)
 Pantothenic  Chlorine (Cl)
 Niacin  Magnesium (Mg)
 Biotin  Phosphorous (P)
 Folate  Potassium (K)
 Vitamin B12  Sodium (Na)
 Choline
Calcium and phosphorous are most directly involved in the
 Myoinositol
development and growth of the skeleton and they act in
 Vitamin C several other biochemical reactions. Fish absorb calcium
directly from the water by the gills and skin. The requirement
Choline, myoinositol and Vitamin C serve a variety of for calcium is determined by the water chemistry (Athithan et
functions. Choline function as a: al., 2013) [16].
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies

Dietary phosphorus is more critical. Phosphorous is derived 9. Water

from dietary phosphate. Phosphorous deficiency sings include All diets contain water. The water may be a part of the
poor growth, reduced feed efficiency and bone deformities. feedstuff, come from the air or be added. The less water in a
The availability of phosphorous in feedstuffs varies widely. diet, the easier the storage and handling. When moisture in a
Feedstuffs from seeds contain phosphorous in a form known diet exceeds 12 percent, the feed is more susceptible to
as phytin. The availability of phosphorus in phytin is low. spoilage. Some commercial diets contain high moisture levels
Simple stomach animals lack the enzyme to release the because fish seems to prefer moist feed (Lovell, 1989) [19].
phosphorus (Davis and Gatlin, 1996) [17].
Magnesium functions with many enzymes as a cofactor. The 10. Fiber
dietary requirement can be met from either the water or the Fiber refers to plant material such as cellulose, hemicellulose,
feed. Deficiencies of magnesium cause anorexia, reduced lignin, pentosums and other complex carbohydrates. These
growth, lethargy, vertebrae deformity, cell degeneration and are indigestible and they do not play an important role in
convulsions. Sodium potassium and chlorine are electrolytes. nutrition. Fiber adds bulk to a feed but increases the amount
Sodium and chlorine reside in the fluid outside the cells. of fecal material produced. The goal in commercial
Potassium resides inside the cells- an intracellular cation. aquaculture is to limit the diets fiber content and use highly
Because of the abundance of these elements in the digestible feeds (Krontveit et al., 2014) [20].
environment, deficiency signs are difficult to produce.
Microminerals are present in very small amounts in the bodies 11. Hormones
of fish, but they are still important to fish health. Researchers have evaluated the use of various natural and
The microminerals include: synthetic hormones of fish. These hormones include growth
 Copper (Cu) hormone, thyroid hormones, gonadotropin, prolactin, insulin
 Iodine (I) and various steroids like androgens and estrogens. Hormones
 Iron (Fe) are used for two purposes: (1) Induced or synchronized
 Manganese (Mn) spawning and (2) Sex reversal. Induced or synchronized
 Selenium (Se) spawning increases the availability and dependability of seed.
 Zinc (Zn) Sex steroids reverse the sex of salmonids, carps and tilapia,
producing a monosex culture of sterile fish. This improves
Copper is a part of many enzymes and it is required for their growth rate, prevents sexual maturation and reduces flesh
activity. Although it is necessary for fish health, copper can quality (Prins et al., 2016). [21]
be toxic at concentrations of 0.8 to 1.0 m per liter of water.
Fish are more tolerant of copper in feed than in water. Iodine 12. Antibiotics
is necessary for the formation of hormones from the thyroid With the arsenal of antibiotic available for humans and other
gland. Fish can obtain iodine from either water or feed. livestock, only two have received FDA approval for use in
Similar to land animals, a deficiency causes the thyroid gland fish that are sulfadimethoxine / ormetoprim and
to grow, a condition similar to goiter (Halver and hardy, oxytetracyclin. When these antibiotics are used in the, the
2002) [18]. quantity fed, the feeding rate and the withdrawal time must be
Iron is necessary for the formation of heme compounds. strictly controlled. Only licensed manufacturers can add
These compounds carry oxygen. Because natural waters are antibiotics to feed in the United States. Unlike livestock, fish
low in iron, feed is considered the major source of iron. Iron do not demonstrate any benefit from sub therapeutic levels of
deficiency causes a form of anemia. At high levels, iron can antibiotics in their feed (Pruden et al., 2013) [22].
be toxic and cause reduced growth, diarrhea, liver damage
and death. Manganese functions as a part of enzymes or as a 13. Antioxidants
cofactor. Although it can be absorbed from the water, it is Fish feeds containing high levels of fats often use
more efficiently absorbed from the feed. A deficiency causes antioxidants. Oxidation of the fats affects the nutritional
reduced growth and skeletal abnormalities. values of the fat and some vitamins. Synthetic vitamin E in
Selenium protects cells and membranes against peroxide diets usually less little antioxidant activity, so synthetic
danger. Selenium deficiencies cause reduced growth. Both antioxidants like ethoxyquin, BHT, BHA and propyl gallate
selenium and vitamin E are required to prevent muscular are used (Wang et al., 2016) [23].
dystrophy in some species. When dietary selenium exceeds 13
– 15 mg per kg of dry feed, it becomes toxic resulting in 14. Pigments
reduced growth, poor feed efficiency and death. Zinc is also a Pigmentation of the skin and flesh in fish comes from
part of numerous enzymes. Dietary zinc is more efficiently carotenoids. Fish cannot make these carotenoids, so they must
absorbed than that dissolved in water. Dietary calcium and be present in the diet. In salmonids, the carotenoids
phosphorous, phytic acid protein type, all affect zinc astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are responsible for the red to
absorption and use. A zinc deficiency causes suppressed orange color of their flesh. In the wild, these carotenoids
growth, cataracts, fin and skin erosion, dwarfism or death. come mainly from zooplankton. Some of the natural materials
Other trace minerals such as fluoride and chromium may be used to pigment the flesh of salmonids include crab, brill,
important but evidence is limited (NRC, 1993) [9]. shrimp and yeast. Yellow pigmentation of the flesh of catfish
is undesirable. It is caused by the carotenoids lutein and
Other dietary components zeaxanthin from plant material in the diet (Ramya et al.,
Many fish diets contain other ingredients that can affect them. 2016) [24].
Some of these ingredients are natural, others are added. These
ingredients include substances such as water, fiber, hormones, 15. Pellet Binders
antibiotics, antioxidants, pigments, binders and feeding Binders improve stability in the water, firmness and reduce
stimulants. fines during processing and handling. Widely used binders are
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies

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