IMAM HAMZAT

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ILORIN

READING MATERIAL
ON
ISC 111
(MATHEMATICS FOR SCIENCE I)

COMPILED BY
ABDULLAHI, K.A

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 COURSE CONTENTS
⮚ BASIC ARITHMETICS FUNCTIONS

⮚ SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

⮚ EVALUATION OF NUMERICAL EXPRESSIONS

⮚ POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE INDICES AND

SQUARE ROOTS

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 CHAPTER ONE
BASIC ARITHMETICS FUNCTIONS

Sequences

A Sequence is a set of numbers which are written in

some particular order. For example, take the numbers

1,3, 5, 7, 9,. . . .

Here, we seem to have a rule. We have a sequence of

odd numbers. To put this another way, we start with

the number 1, which is an odd number, and then each

successive number is obtained by adding 2 to give the

next odd number.

Here is another sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . .

This is the sequence of square numbers.

And this sequence,

1, −1,1, −1,1, −1,. . . ,

is a sequence of numbers alternating between 1 and

−1. In each case, the dots written at the end indicate

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that we must consider the sequence as an infinite

sequence, so that it goes on forever.

On the other hand, we can also have finite sequences.

The number: 1, 3, 5, 9

form a finite sequence containing just four numbers.

The numbers: 1,4, 9, 16

also form a finite sequence.

And so do these, the numbers:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, . . . ,n

These are the numbers we use for counting, and we

have included n of them. Here, the dots indicate that
we have not written all the numbers down explicitly.
The n after the dots tells us
that this is a finite sequence, and that the last number
is n.
Here is a sequence that you might recognise:
1, 1, 2,3, 5, 8, . . . .
This is an infinite sequence where each term (from the
third term onwards) is obtained by adding
together the two previous terms. This is called the
Fibonacci sequence.

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We often use an algebraic notation for sequences. We
might call the first term in a sequence u 1, the second
term u2, and so on. With this same notation, we would
write unto represent the n-th term in the sequence.
So u1, u2, u3, . . . ,un
would represent a finite sequence containing n terms.
As another example, we could use this
notation to represent the rule for the Fibonacci
sequence. We would write
un= un-1+ un-2
to say that each term was the sum of the two
preceding terms.

Exercise
(a) A sequence is given by the formula u n= 3n + 5, for
n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. Write down the first five terms of this
sequence.
(b) A sequence is given by un= 1/n 2, for n = 1, 2,
3, . . ..
Write down the first four terms of this sequence. What
is the 10th term?
(c) Write down the first eight terms of the Fibonacci
sequence defined by un= un-1 + un-2,
when u1 = 1, and u2 = 1.
(d) Write down the first five terms of the sequence
given by un= (−1)n+1/n.
Series

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A series is something we obtain from a sequence by
adding all the terms together.
For example, suppose we have the sequence u 1, u2 ,u3,
. . . ,un.
The series we obtain from this is u1+ u2+ u3+ . . . + un,
and we write Sn for the sum of these n terms. So
although the ideas of a ‘sequence’ and a
‘series’ are related, there is an important distinction
between them.
For example, let us consider the sequence of numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, . . . ,n .
Then S1= 1, as it is the sum of just the first term on its
own. The sum of the first two terms is S 2= 1 + 2 = 3.
Continuing, we get
S3=1 + 2 + 3 = 6 ,
S4=1 + 2 + 3 + 4=10 ,
and so on.
Exercise
Write down S1, S2, . . . , Sn for the sequences
(a) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11;
(b) 4, 2, 0, −2, −4.

Arithmetic progressions
Consider these two common sequences:
1,3, 5, 7, . . . and
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, . . . .
It is easy to see how these sequences are formed.
They each start with a particular first term, and then

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to get successive terms we just add a fixed value to
the previous term. In the first sequence we add 2 to
get the next term, and in the second sequence we
add 10. So the difference between consecutive terms
in each sequence is a constant. We could also
subtract a constant instead, because that is just the
same as adding a negative constant. For example, in
the sequence 8,5,2, −1,−4, . . .
the difference between consecutive terms is −3. Any
sequence with this property is called an
arithmetic progression, or AP for short.
We can use algebraic notation to represent an
arithmetic progression. We shall let a stand for the
first term of the sequence, and let d stand for the
common difference between successive
terms.
For example, our first sequence could be written as: 1,
3, 5, 7, 9,. . .
1,1+2, 1+2×2, 1+3×2, 1 + 4 × 2,. . . ,
and this can be written as
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + 4d, . . .
where a=1 is the first term, and d=2 is the common
difference.
If we wanted to write down
the n-th term, we would have a + (n − 1)d,
because if there are n terms in the sequence there
must be (n−1) common differences between

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successive terms, so that we must add on (n−1)d to
the starting value a.
We also sometimes
write ℓ for the last term of a finite sequence, and so in
this case we would have
ℓ = a + (n − 1)d .
Exercise
(a) Write down the first five terms of the AP with first
term 8 and common difference 7.
(b) Write down the first five terms of the AP with first
term 2 and common difference −5.
(c) What is the common difference of the AP 11, −1,
−13, −25, . . . ?
(d) Find the 17th term of the arithmetic progression
with first term 5 and common difference 2.
(e) Write down the 10th and 19th terms of the APs
(i) 8, 11, 14, . . .,
(ii) 8, 5, 2 . . ..

The sum of an arithmetic series

Sometimes we want to add the terms of a sequence.
What would we get if we wanted to add the first n
terms of an arithmetic progression?
We would get
Sn= a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + (ℓ − 2d) + (ℓ − d)
+ℓ.

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Now this is now a series, as we have added together
the n terms of a sequence. This is an arithmetic
series, and we can find its sum by using a trick.
Let us write the series down again, but this time we
shall write it down with the terms in reverse order. We
get Sn= ℓ + (ℓ − d) + (ℓ − 2d) + . . . + (a +2d) + (a +
d) + a.
We are now going to add these two series together.
On the left-hand side, we just get 2S n. But on the
right-hand side, we are going to add the terms in the
two series so that each term in the first series will be
added to the term vertically below it in the second
series. We get
2Sn= (a + ℓ) + (a + ℓ) + (a + ℓ) + . . . + (a + ℓ) + (a +
ℓ) + (a + ℓ) ,
and on the right-hand side there are n copies of (a +
ℓ) so we get
2Sn= n(a + ℓ) .
But of course we want Sn rather than 2Sn, and so we
divide by 2 to get
Sn= 1/2n(a + ℓ) .
We have found the sum of an arithmetic progression
in terms of its first and last terms, a and ℓ, and the
number of terms n.
We can also find an expression for the sum in terms of
the a, n and the common difference d.
To do this, we just substitute our formula for ℓ into our
formula for Sn. From ℓ = a + (n − 1)d, Sn=1/2n(a + ℓ)

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we obtain
Sn=1/2n(a + a + (n − 1)d)
Sn=1/2n(2a + (n − 1)d) .
Example
Find the sum of the first 50 terms of the sequence
1,3, 5, 7, 9,. . . .
Solution
This is an arithmetic progression, and we can write
down a = 1 , d = 2 , n = 50 .
We now use the formula, so that
Sn=1/2n(2a + (n − 1)d)
S50=1/2×50×(2×1+(50−1)×2)
=25 × (2 + 49 × 2)
=25 × (2 + 98)
=2500 .
Example
Find the sum of the series
1 + 3·5 + 6 + 8·5 + . . . + 101 .
Solution
This is an arithmetic series, because the difference
between the terms is a constant value, 2·5.
We also know that the first term is 1, and the last
term is 101. But we do not know how many terms are
in the series. So we will need to use the formula for
the last term of an arithmetic progression,
ℓ = a + (n − 1)d
to give us
101 = 1 + (n − 1) × 2·5 .

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Now this is just an equation for n, the number of terms
in the series, and we can solve it. If we subtract 1
from each side we get
100 = (n − 1) × 2·5
and then dividing both sides by 2·5 gives us
40 = n − 1
so that n = 41. Now we can use the formula for the
sum of an arithmetic progression, in the version using
ℓ, to give us
Sn=½n(a + ℓ)
S41=½ × 41 × (1 + 101)
=½ × 41 × 102
=41 × 51
=2091.
Example
An arithmetic progression has 3 as its first term. Also,
the sum of the first 8 terms is twice the sum of the
first 5 terms. Find the common difference.
Solution
We are given that a = 3. We are also given some
information about the sums S8 and S5, and we want to
find the common difference. So we shall use the
formula
Sn=½n(2a + (n − 1)d)
for the sum of the first n terms. This tells us that
S8=½× 8 × (6 + 7d) .
and that
S5=½× 5 × (6 + 4d)

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So, using the given fact that S8= 2S5, we see that
½× 8 × (6 + 7d)=2×½× 5 × (6 + 4d)
4 × (6 + 7d)=5 × (6 + 4d)
24 + 28d=30 + 20d
8d = 6
d = ¾.
Exercise
(a) Find the sum of the first 23 terms of the AP 4, −3,
−10, . . ..
(b) An arithmetic series has first term 4 and common
difference ½. Find
(i) the sum of the first 20 terms,
(ii) the sum of the first 100 terms.
(c) Find the sum of the arithmetic series with first
term 1, common difference 3, and last term 100.
(d) The sum of the first 20 terms of an arithmetic
series is identical to the sum of the first
22 terms. If the common difference is −2, find the first
term.

Geometric progressions
We shall now move on to the other type of sequence
we want to explore.
Consider the sequence
2, 6, 18, 54, . . . .
Here, each term in the sequence is 3 times the
previous term. And in the sequence 1, −2, 4, −8,. . . ,

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each term is −2 times the previous term. Sequences
such as these are called Geometric progressions,
or GPs for short.
Let us write down a general geometric progression,
using algebra. We shall take a to be the first term, as
we did with arithmetic progressions. But here, there is
no common difference. Instead there is a common
ratio, as the ratio of successive terms is always
constant. So we shall let r be this common ratio. With
this notation, the general geometric progression can
be expressed as
a, ar,ar2,ar3,. . . .
So the n-th can be calculated quite easily. It is arn-1,
where the power (n − 1) is always one less than the
position n of the term in the sequence.
In our first example, we had a = 2 and r = 3,
so we could write the first sequence as
2, 2 × 3, 2 × 32, 2 × 33, . . . .
In our second example, a = 1 and r = −2, so that we
could write it as
1, 1 × (−2),1 × (−2)2, 1 × (−2)³,...
Exercise 5
(a) Write down the first five terms of the geometric
progression which has first term 1 and common ratio
½.
(b) Find the 10th and 20th terms of the GP with first
term 3 and common ratio 2.
(c) Find the 7th term of the GP 2, −6, 18, . . .,

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The sum of a geometric series
Suppose that we want to find the sum of the first n
terms of a geometric progression. What we get is Sn=
a + ar + ar2+ ar³+ . . . + arn-1,
and this is called a geometric series.
Now the trick here to find the sum is to multiply by r
and then subtract:
Sn=a + ar + ar²+ ar³+ . . . + arn-1
rSn=ar + ar²+ ar³+ . . . + arn-1+ arn
Sn − r Sn= a − arn
so that
Sn(1 − r) = a(1 − rn) .
Now divide by 1 − r (as long as r ≠ 1) to give
Sn = a(1 − rn)
1-r
Example
Find the sum of the geometric series: 2+6+18 +54
+ . . . where there are 6 terms in the series.
Solution
For this series, we have a = 2, r = 3 and n = 6. So
Sn= a(1 − rn)
1-r
S6= 2(1 − 3⁶)
1-3
= 2(1 − 729)
-2
= −(−728)

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 = 728 .
Example
Find the sum of the geometric series 8−4+2−1 + . . .
where there are 5 terms in the series.
Solution
For this series, we have a = 8, r = −½ and n = 5.
So Sn= a(1 − rn)
1- r
S5= 8{1 −(−½)⁵}
1 - (-½)
= 8{1 −(-1/32)}
3/2
= 2 × 8 × 33/32/3
= 11/2
=5½.
Example
How many terms are there in the geometric
progression 2, 4, 8,. . . , 128 ?
Solution
In this sequence a = 2 and r = 2. We also know that
the n-th term is 128. But the formula for
the n-th term is arn-1.
So 128 = 2 × 2n-1
64 = 2n-1
26 = 2n-1
6=n−1
n=7.
So there are 7 terms in this geometric progression.

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Example
How many terms in the geometric progression
1, 1·1, 1·21, 1·331, . . .
will be needed so that the sum of the first n terms is
greater than 20?
Solution
The sequence is a geometric progression with a = 1
and r = 1·1. We want to find the smallest value of n
such that Sn> 20.
Now Sn= a(1 − rn)
1 − r,
So 1×(1−1·1n) >20
1- 1.1
1 − 1·1n > 20
-0.1
(1·1n − 1) × 10 >20
1·1n − 1 > 2
1·1n > 3 .
If we now take logarithms of both sides, we get n ln
1·1 > ln 3
and as ln 1·1 > 0 we obtain
n > ln 3/ ln 1·1=11.5267 . . .
and therefore the smallest whole number value of n is
12.
Exercise
(a) Find the sum of the first five terms of the GP with
first term 3 and common ratio 2.

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(b) Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the GP with
first term 3 and common ratio 1.5.
(c) The sum of the first 3 terms of a geometric series
is 37/8. The sum of the first six terms is 3367/512.
Find the first term and common ratio.
(d) How many terms in the GP 4, 3.6, 3.24, . . . are
needed so that the sum exceeds 35?
Convergence of geometric
Consider the geometric progression
1,½,¼, ⅛, 1/16,. . . .
We have a = 1 and r = ½, and so we can calculate
some sums.
We get S1 = 1
S2=1 +½ = 3/2
S3=1 +½+¼ = 7/4
S4=1 +½+¼+⅛ =15/8 and there seems to be a
pattern because:
1= 2 − 1
3/2 = 2 −½
7/4 = 2 − ¼
15/8 = 2 − ⅛.
In each case, we subtract a small quantity from 2, and
as we take successive sums the quantity gets smaller
and smaller. If we were able to add ‘infinitely many’
terms, then the answer ‘ought to be’ 2 — or as near
as we want to get to 2.
Let us see if we can explain this by using some
algebra. We know that

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Sn= a(1 − rn)/1 − r,
and we want to examine this formula in the case of
our particular example where r =½.
Now the formula contains the term rn and, as −1 < r <
1, this term will get closer and closer to zero as n gets
larger and larger.
So, if −1 < r < 1, we can say that the ‘sum to infinity’
of a geometric series is
S∞=a/1 − r,
where we have omitted the term rn. We say that this
is the limit of the sums Sn as n ‘tends to infinity’.
Example Find the sum to infinity of the geometric
progression
1, ⅓, 1/9, 1/27,....
Solution
For this geometric progression we have a = 1 and r =
⅓.
As −1 < r < 1 we can use
the formula, so that
S∞=1/1 − ⅓
= 1/ ⅔
= 3/2.
Exercise
(a) Find the sum to infinity of the GP with first term 3
and common ratio ½.
(b) The sum to infinity of a GP is four times the first
term. Find the common ratio.

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(c) The sum to infinity of a GP is twice the sum of the
first two terms. Find possible values of the common
ratio.

CHAPTER TWO
SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Algebraic expressions are very important to
mathematics, science and technology. Scientific
discoveries and relationship between quantities or
variables are mostly expressed in the forms of
algebraic equations or inequalities.
It is therefore important to understand the meaning of
some methods of simplifying and solving of algebraic
expressions, equations and inequali.

MEANING OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

In everyday life, we deal with statements involving
quantities such as 1 book, 5 pencils, 2 erasers, 10
sharpeners, 3 dusters and so on. Taking the first
letters of these items to represent them, they would
be written as 1b, 5p, 2e, 10s, 3d arithmetical
operations can be carried out with the above
quantities to make sense.

For example,
1. a student having 3 books, 5 pencils and 2. erasers
can be algebraically represented as 3b + 5p + 2e

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2. I am traveling with a briefcase containing 3 shirts, 2
trousers, 4 handkerchiefs, 3 caps, 5 belts. It can be
said that the briefcase contains 3s + 2t + 4L + 3c +
5b.
Representing a statement using alphabetical symbols
and arithmetic operations is said to be an algebraic
expression.

An algebraic expression may contain one or more

quantities. Every algebraic expression is made up of a
term and a coefficient.
A term represents a quantity or a number in general,
in the expression 5a; a is the term and 5 is the
coefficient of a.

In the expression 3y – 2k + 7r; y, k and r are the

terms and 3, 2 and 7 are the coefficients of y, k and r
respectively.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Define an algebraic expression
2. Write 5 examples of algebraic expressions.

SIMPLIFICATION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Algebraic expressions involve one or more arithmetic
expressions of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. In simplifying algebraic expressions, the
laws of algebra are made use of, at the same time

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considering and bringing together like term, positive
terms, negative terms and unlike terms are left as
they are.
Examples;
1. 2y + 5y = 7y
2. 2a + b - 5b + 4a

Concepts and Solutions to Equations

An algebraic equation is a statement equating two or
more quantities.
Examples;
1. My age is twice my son’s age. If my age is x and my
son’s is y then it follows that x = 2y is an equation.
2. The sum of two numbers added to 10 is the same
as their product. If the two numbers are a and
b, then a + b + 10 is an equation.

The largest part of mathematics is about forming

equations and solving them. There are many types of
equations, among which are;
i) linear Equation ii) quadratic Equations iii) Cubic
Equations etc

Equations in which the highest power of unknown is 1

are termed linear.
Those in which the highest power is 2 are quadratic.
Those in which the highest power is 3 are cubic and so
on.

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Those in which the highest power is many are termed
polynomials.

Solutions of equations are generally obtained by

collecting like terms on the same side and simplifying
or by making one unknown value the subject of the
equation.
But different types of equations have particular
methods of solving them. Generally, in solving
equation, whatever is done to one side of an equation
must be done to the other side as well.

Solution of two linear equations simultaneously

Two linear equations in two unknowns can be solved
at the same time using either one of i) substitution or
ii) direct elimination methods.

Substitution Method
In this method, one of the unknowns is made the
subject of one of the equations and it is substituted in
the other to find its value. This is then substituted in
any of the equations to find the value of the other
unknown.

Solution of Linear Equations

1. If ten is added to a number it gives 12 what is the
number?
Solution

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Let the number be y then y + 10 = 12
To make the subject, we collect like terms on the
same side by removing 10 from the side of y. This is
done by subtracting 10 from both sides. That is y +
10 - 10 = 12 - 10, y = 2. The number is therefore 2.
2. A number multiplied by 5 gives 15 what is the
number?
Solution:
Let the number be a
Then a × 5 = 15. Then divise both sides by 5. The
number is therefore 3.

Solution of two linear equations simultaneously

Two linear equations in two unknowns can be solved
at the same time using either one of i) substitution
or ii) direct elimination methods.

Substitution Method
In this method, one of the unknowns is made the
subject of one of the equations and it is substituted in
the other to find its value. This is then substituted in
any of the equations to find the value of the other
unknown.
Examples:
Solve the following pairs of equations
1. 5x + y = 0 and 3x - 2y = 13
Solution
Let 5x + y = 0 be equation (i) and

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 3x - 2y = 13 be equation (ii)
From (i) y = -5x equation (iii)
Substitute for y in equation (ii)
3x - 2y = 13
3x - 2(5x) = 13
3x + 10x = 13
13x = 13
X=1
Substitute for the value of x in (iii) to get the value of
y
Y = -5x
Therefore y = -5 × 1 = -5
Therefore x = 1, y = -5

Direct Elimination Method

In this method, one of the two unknowns or variables
is eliminated directly from the two equations to leave
one whose value is then determined. This value is
then used in any of the 2 equations to find the value
of the other variable.
Examples:
1 solve the following pairs of equations
5x + 2y = 2 and 2x + 3y = -8
Solution
5x + 2y = 2 …… (i)
2x + 3y = -8 ,,,,,,,,(ii)

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You can decide to eliminate x or y from the 2
equations. This done by balancing the coefficient of x
or y and then adding or subtracting the results.
2×( 5x + 2y = 2 )
5× (2x + 3y = -8)
Thus,
10x + 4y = 4
10x + 15y = -40
-11y = 4 - (-40)
-11y = 4 + 40
-11y = 44
Y = -4
Thus, 5x + 2y = 2
5x + 2(-4) = 2
5x - 8 = 2
5x = 2 + 8
5x = 10
X=2
Thus, x = 2, y = -4

Work problems:
i) In ten years’ time father will be twice as old as his
son; ten years ago he was six time as old. How?
Solution:
Let the father’s and son’s present ages be x and y
respectively.
In ten years’ time they will be x + 10 and y + 10
respectively.

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Ten years ago they were
X – 10 and y – 10 respectively.
Now, in ten years’ time the father’s age will be twice
the son’s.
X + 10 = 2 (years)
X – 2y = 10 ------(i)
Also, ten years ago the father’s age was 6 times as
the son’s.
X – 10 = 6(y – 10)
6y – x = 50 ------(ii)
From (i) x – 2y = 10
X = 10 + 2y ------(iii)
Substituting for x in (ii)
6y – x = 50
6y – 10 – 2y = 50
4y = 60
Y = 15
Substituting for y in (iii)
X = 10 + 2y
= 10 + 30 = 40
X = 40; y = 15
So the father’s and son’s present ages are 40 years
and 15 years respectively.
Exercises
(1) Keerthi had chocolates. Her mother gave her more
chocolates. Now, how many chocolates does Keerthi
have altogether?

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(2) There were 18 pens and 9 erasers. How many
more pens than erasers are there?

Solution to Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is one in which the highest
power of the variables is 2.
The general form of quadratic equation is
ax² + bx + c = 0
Examples:
1. 4x2 - 10x + 2 = 0
2. 2x2 -1 = 0
3. y2 + 6y = 0
There are many types of quadratic equations. Some
have only one variable and some have more than one
variable. We shall consider, in this lesson only those
quadratic equations whose general form can be
expressed as ax² + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are
non-zero integers.

The solution of quadratic equations of the form is

called its roots. The roots of quadratic equation are
usually 2 numbers that are either different or the
same (and they are called repeated roots) or both
imaginary.
If a quadratic equation has repeated roots then it is
said to be a perfect square..

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Any quadratic equation that is a perfect square can be
factorized into the form (x ≠ m) 2 = 0, where m is the
root of the equation.

Examples of quadratic equations that are perfect

squares:
i) x2 = 4x + 4 = 0 can be factorized to
(x - 2)2 = 0
ii) b2 + 10b + 25 = 0 can be factorized to
(b + 5)2 = 0
iii) m2 + 2m + 1 = 0 can be factorized to
(m + 1)2 = 0

Examples
Find what must be added to the expressions to make
them perfect squares:
i) s2 + 6s ii) p2 - 8p
Solution
i) s2 + 6s can be s2 + 6s + c where c is the term to
make the expression a perfect
square. Now if s2 + 6s + c is a perfect square it means
it can be equated to
(s + a)2 where a is a constant. Also (s + a) 2 = s2 + 2as
+ a2 and this is equal to s2 + 6s + c.
By comparing the coefficients of s,
2a = 6
a=3
a2 = 9

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but a2 = c
Thus 9 must be added to the expression s 2 + 6s to
make it a perfect square.

The roots of a quadratic equation of the form are

formed through various methods, by factorization, by
completing the square and by directly using the
quadratic equation formula.
These methods are based on the fact that the
quadratic equation can be factorised into (x + ą)(x +
Ɓ) = 0 where ą and Ɓ are the roots of the equation.
This situation can be likened to a×b=0 and it follows
that either a = 0 or b = 0 or both are 0.
Thus, to find the roots of a quadratic equation that is
easily factorisable or through completing the square,
this principle is made use of.
And in the case of those equations that are not easily
factorisable, the quadratic equation formula is used.
Factorisation method
This method depends on the ability to determine the
factors of the left hand side of the given quadratic
equation.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve the quadratic equation
6x²+ x − 2 = 0.
Solution
In factorised form, the equation can be written
(3x + 2)(2x − 1) = 0.

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Hence, x = −⅔ or x = ½
2. Solve the quadratic equation 15x² −17x − 4 = 0.
Solution
In factorised form, the equation can be written
(5x + 1)(3x − 4) = 0.
Hence, x = −⅕ or x = 4/3

Completing the Square

EXAMPLE 3: Solve by completing the square:
X² − x − 6 = 0
SOLUTION
Step 1: This equation is in standard form. But we want
the terms that contain the variable to be on the left
and the constant to be on the right. So we add 6 to
both sides, obtaining
X²− x = 6
The equation is now in the proper form for completing
the square.
Step 2: Because b (the coefficient of x) is -1, b/2 is
-½ and (b/2)² is (−½)²
We add this value, (−½)², to both sides of the
equation.
X² − x + (−½)² = 6 + (−½)²
Step 3: We have transformed the left side of the
equation into the square of the binomial
[X + (−½)]².
To see that this is so, multiply it out. You get
[X+(−½)²]=x²+2(x)(-½)+ (-½)²

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= x²+(-2x/2) +(-½)²
= x²-x+(-½)²
We have “completed the square” of the left side.
We write the left side as [x + (−½)]²
and simplify the right side, obtaining
[X+ (−½)]² = 6 + (−½)²
= 6 +¼
= 25/4.
Exercise
Solve the following equations using the completing
the square method:
(a) x² -10x -24 = 0
(b) 4r² + 16r - 180 =0
(c) 4x² - 36x - 88 = 0
Quadratic formular
Example
Solve: 4x²+ 5x − 6 = 0, using quadratic formula.
SOLUTION
We can use the quadratic formula to solve this
equation.
X= -b ± √b²-4ac
2a
a = 4, b = 5, c= -6
X = -5 ± √5² - 4(4)(-6)
2(4)
= -5 ± √25 + 96
8
= -5 ± √121

31
 8
= -5 ± 11
8
We separate the two solutions and simplify.
X = −5 -11 Or x= -5 +11
8. 8
X= -16 or x = 6
8. 8
So x = -2 or x = ¾.
Exercises
Use quadratic formular to solve the following
equations
(a) 9x² - 18x + 8=0
(b) 2x² + 22x - 84 = 0
(c) y² + 11y + 18 = 0

CHAPTER THREE
EVALUATION OF NUMERICAL EXPRESSIONS
1. Commutative law of addition and
multiplication.
Two numbers a and b can be added or multiplied in
any order without affecting the result.
i) a + b = b + a and ii) ab = ba
Example: 3 + 5 = 8 and 5 + 3 = 8
thus, 3 + 5 = 5 + 3 = 8

32
 3 × 5 = 15 and 5 × 3 = 15
thus, 3 x 5 = 5 × 3 =15
It should be noted, however, that
I) a – b ≠ b - a
But a – b = a +(-b) + (-b) +a = -b+a
ii) a ÷ b ≠ a × 1/b = 1/b × a
Example; 5 – 3 = 2, 3 – 5 = -2
thus, 5 - 3 ≠ 3 - 5
Also, 6 ÷ 2 = 3 and 3 ÷ 6 = ⅓
Thus, 6 ÷ 2 ≠ 2 ÷ 6

2. Associative Law for addition and

Multiplication:
The way numbers are associated under the operation
of addition or multiplication does not affect the result.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) +c = a + b +c
and
a(bc) = (ab)c = abc
Example
2 + (7 +4) = 13
(2 + 7) = 4 =13
2 + 7 + 4 =13
Thus,
2 + (7 + 4) = (2+7)+4 = 2 + 7 + 4 = 13
2 (7×4) = 56
(2×7) ×4 = 56
2×7×4 = 56
Thus,

33
 2×(7×4) = (2 × 7) × 4 = 2×7×4 = 56

3. Distributive law for multiplication:

The operation of multiplication is distributive over
addition without affecting the result.
a (b+c) = ab + ac
(a + b) c = ac + bc
Example
5 × (4 + 7) = 5 × 4 + 5 × 7 = 20 + 35 = 55
And, 5 × (4 + 7) = 5 × 11 = 55
Also, (5+4) × 7 = 5 × 7 + 5 × 4 = 35+28=63
And (5+4) × 7 = 9 × 7 = 63

4. Distributive law for Division

It should be noted that the operation of division
distributes over addition under the condition that if a,
b and c are numbers, with c ≠ 0,
Then (a + b) ÷ c = a ÷ c + b ÷ c
This is because (a+b) ÷ c = (a + b) × 1/c
Therefore, a × 1/c + b × 1/c = a/c + b/c
Example
(9+ 6) ÷ 3 = 9/3 + 6/3 = 3 + 2 = 5
And (9+6) ÷ 3 = 15 ÷ 3 = 5

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Is the operation of subtraction commutative?
2. Is the operation of division commutative?

34
3. Test the distributive laws of multiplication and
division for the following:
i) 5 x (6 + 8) ii) 8 X (100 + 20 + 4) iii) (6 + 8) iv)
(4000 + 80 + 12)

35
 CHAPTER FOUR
INDICES AND SQUARE ROOTS

INDICES
Indices provide a compact algebraic notation for
repeated multiplication. For example, is it much easier
to write 35 than 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3.
Once index notation is introduced the index laws arise
naturally when simplifying
numerical and algebraic expressions. Thus the
simplificiation 25 × 23 = 28 quickly leads to the rule am
× an = am + n, for all positive integers m and n. In the
above simplificiation, 28 is a power, in which the
number 2 is called the base and the
number 8 is called the index or exponent.

Index Laws
1. Product of Power
To multiply powers with the same base, add the
indices.
am × an = am + n.

2. Quotient of Power
To divide powers with the same base, subtract the
indices.
am ÷ an = am - n, (provided m > n.)

36
3. Power of Power
To raise a power to a power, multiply the indices.
(am)n = amn.

4 Power of a Product
A power of a product is the product of the powers.
(ab)m = ambm.

5. A Power of a Quotient
This is the quotient of the powers.
(a/b)m = am/bm, (provided b ≠ 0.) These laws also
hold when a and b are real.

6. The Zero Index

Clearly 53/53 = 1. On the other hand, applying index
law 2, ignoring the condition m > n, we have 5 3/53 =
50.
If the index laws are to be applied in this situation,
then we need to define 5⁰ to be 1. More generally, if a
≠ 0 then we define a⁰ = 1.

7. Negative Exponents
If we examine the pattern formed when we take
decreasing powers of 2, we see
2⁴ = 16, 2³ = 8, 2² = 2, 2¹ = 2, 2⁰ = 1, 2-1= ?, 2-2 = ?

37
At each step as we decrease the index, the number is
halved. Thus it is sensible to define 2-1 = ½
Furthermore, continuing the pattern, we define 2 -2 =
½2 = ¼, 2-3 = ½3 = ⅛ e.t.c
In general, for any non-zero number , and positive
integer , we define a-1 = 1/a and a-n = 1/an

8. Fractional Indices
We now extend our study of indices to include rational
or fractional exponents. In
particular, can we give meaning to 4½
Once again, we would like the established index laws
to hold. Hence, squaring this
expression we would like to say:
(4½)2 = 4½ × 2 = 4¹ = 4
2 × 2 = 4¹ = 4.
Thus we define 4½ = √4 = 2
In general we define a½ = √a for any positive number
a.
Applying a similar argument, for consistency with the
index laws, we define a⅓ = ∛a, and so on.
In general, for any positive integer n and positive a,
we define a1/n = n√a
Examples:
27½ = √27 = 3, 16¼ = ∜16 = 2, (a6)⅔ = a4
Assuming consistency with index law 3, we can write
(8⅓)2 = 8⅓ × 2 = 8⅔ = ∛(8)2 = 4.

38
In general, if is a positive number and are positive
integers, we define ap/q = (a1/q)p or q√(a)p. In words, we
take the qth root of a and raise it to the power p.

9. Negative fractional indices

Finally, we can extend the indices to include negative
rationals. For example,
8-⅓ = 1/8⅓ = ½
Exercises
Find a) 16¾ b) (⅘)½ c) 32-⅖ d) (16/81)-¼ e) (2x-⅖)5

Square roots
Radicals (Surds)
The symbol “√” is called a “radical” (or “surd”). It is
used to indicate the positive or “principal” square root
of a number. Thus
√16 = 4 and √25 = 5.
The number under the radical is called the “radicand”.
For instance the principal n-th root of a number a is
denoted by n√a, and is a number x such that xn = a.
The number n is called the index of the radical
but, of course, when n = 2 we usually leave the index
out.
Examples
1. 3√64 = 4 since 4³ = 64.
2. 3√−64 = −4 since (−4)³
= −64.
3. 4√81 = 3 since 3⁴ = 81.

39
4. 5√32 = 2 since 25⁵ = 32.
5. 5√−32 = −2 since (−2)⁵ = −32.
Note:
If the index of the radical is an odd number, then the
radicand may be positive or negative; but if the index
of the radical is an even number, then the radicand
may not be negative since no even power of a
negative number will ever give a negative result.
(a) Rules for Square Roots
The standard rules for square roots:
(i) (√a)² = a
(ii) √a² = |a|
(iii) √ab =√a√b
(iv) √a/b=√a/√b
assuming that all of the radicals can be evaluated.
Examples
1. √9 × 4 =√36 = 6 and√9 ×√4 = 3 × 2 = 6.
2. √144/36 = √4 = 2 and √144/√36 = 12/6 = 2.
(b) Rationalisation of Radical (or Surd)
Expressions.
It is often desirable to eliminate expressions
containing radicals from the denominator of a
quotient. This process is called rationalising the
denominator.
The process involves multiplying numerator and
denominator of the quotient by the same amount - an
amount which eliminates the radicals in the

40
denominator (often using the fact that the square root
of a number multiplied by itself gives just the number;
i.e. √a.√a = a).
Examples
1. Rationalise the surd form
5/4√3
Solution
We simply multiply numerator and denominator by √3
to give
5/4√3 = 5/4√3 × √3/√3 = 5√3/12.
2. Rationalise the surd form
∛a/∛b
Solution
Here we observe that, if we can convert the
denominator into the cube root of b n, where n is a
whole multiple of 3, then the square root sign will
disappear.
We have
∛a/∛b = ∛a/∛b × ∛b²/∛b² = ∛ab²/ ∛b³ = ∛ab²/b
If the denominator is of the form √a +√b, we multiply
the numerator and the denominator by the expression
√a −√b because
(√a +√b)(√a −√b) = a − b.
3. Rationalise the surd form
4/√5+√2.
Solution
Multiplying numerator and denominator by √5 −√2
gives 4/√5 +√2 ×√5 −√2 /√5 -√5 - √2 = 4√5 − 4√2/3.

41
4. Rationalise the surd form
1/ √3−1.
Solution
Multiplying numerator and denominator by √3 +1
gives
1/√3 − 1 ×√3 + 1/√3 + 1 = √3 + 1/2.
(c) Changing numbers to and from radical form
The modulus of any number of the form am/n
can be regarded as the principal n-th root of am ;
i.e. |am/n| = n√an.
If a number of the type shown on the left is converted
to the type on the right, we said to have expressed it
in radical form.
If a number of the type on the right is converted to
the type on the left, we said to have expressed it in
exponential form.
Note:
Remember that the word “exponent” is just another
word for 'power' or 'index'.
EXAMPLES
1. Express the number x⅖ in radical form.
Solution
The answer is just 5√x².
2. Express the number
3√a⁵b⁴ in exponential form.
Solution
Here we have
3√a⁵b⁴ = (a⁵b⁴)⅓ = a⁵/3b⁴/3.

42
Standard Form
Standard form is a convenient way of writing very
large or very small numbers.
It is used on a scientific calculator when a number is
too large or too small to be
displayed on the screen.
In standard form, numbers are written as A × 10n
where A is a real between 1 and 9, and n is an
integer
Examples
Write the following numbers in standard form: a) 5720
b) 473000 c) 0.000621
Solutions
a)5720 = 5.72 × 103. b) 473000 = 4.73 × 105. c)
0.000621 = 6.21 × 10-4
Examples 2
Calculate
a)(3 × 106) × (4 × 103) b) (6 × 107) ÷ (5 × 10-2) c) (3
× 104) + (2 × 105)
Solutions
a)(3 × 106) × (4 × 103) = (3 × 4) × (106 × 103) = 12 ×
109 = 1.2 × 101 × 109 = 1.2 × 1010

CLASS WORK
Name:
…………………………………………………………………………
Matric/No:………………………… combination:……………………

43
EXERCISES
1. Simplify
(a) 57 × 513; (b) 98 × 95; (c) 11² × 11³ × 11⁴.
2. Simplify
(a) 15³/15²; (b) 4¹⁸/4⁹; (c) 5²⁰/5¹⁹.
3. Simplify
(a) a⁷a³; (b) a⁴a⁵;
(c) b¹¹b¹⁰b; (d) 3x⁶ × 5x⁹.
4. Simplify
(a) (7³)² (b) (4²)⁸ (c) (7⁹)².
5. Simplify
(a) (x²y³)(x³y²) (b) (2x²)(3x⁴);
(c) (a²bc²)(b²ca); (d)
6c²d³/3cd².
6. Simplify
(a) (4-³)² (b) a¹³a-²;
(c) x-⁹x-⁷; (d) x-²¹x²x; (e) x²y-¹/z³ ÷ z²/x-¹y³.
7. Without using a calculator, evaluate the following:
(a) 4-⁸/4-⁶ (b) 3-⁵/3-⁸.
8. Evaluate the following:
(a) 64⅓ (b) 144½
(c) 16-½ (d) 25½
(e) 16³/² (f) 125-⅔.
9. Simplify the following radicals:
(a) −∛−8 (b) √36x⁴; © √9a²/36b².
10. Rationalise the following surd forms:
(a) √2/√3; (b) 3√18/3√2

44
(c) 2+√5/√3 −2; (d) √a/√a+3√b.
11. Change the following to exponential form:
(a) 4√72; (b)5√a²b; (c)∛9⁵.
12. Factorize the following quadratic equations
(a) 6n² + 30n -36 = 0
(b) y² + 11y +18 = 0
(C) x² + 12x + 35 = 0
(d) 3x² +30x +27 = 0
(e) x² +6x -7 = 0
13. Formulate, using the completing the square
method, the quadratic formular.
14. Six years after, a woman’s age will be three times
her daughter’s age, and three years ago, she was nine
times as old as her daughter. Find their present ages.
15. State the difference between commutative
property and associative property?
16. Define Commutative law.
(b) State an example of commutative law of addition?
(C) Give an example of the commutative law of
multiplication?

45
 REFERENCES
Channon, B. et al (2008). New General Mathematics
for West Africa, Longman Group. Ibadan.

MAN (2012). Mathematics for Senior Secondary

Schools. 1 & 2. University Press. Ibadan.

Talbert, J.E.; Godman, A. & Ogun, G.E.O. (2009).

Additional Mathematics for West Africa. Longman
Group. Ibadan.

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Tranter, C.J. & Lambe, C.G. (1994). Advanced Level
Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Hodder & Stoughton
Educational. London.

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