AVIATION CHEMISTRY

CHEM 111 – FINAL TERM

PREPARED BY: ENGR. JOHN CEDRIC JIMENEZ
AVCHEM – COURSE OUTLINE - FINALS
• ATMOSPHERE
• ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND
PERFORMANCE OF AN
AIRCRAFT
• STRATOSPHERE,
MESOSPHERE, AND
THERMOSPHERE
• AIR DATA PROBE INSTRUMENTS
• PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTS
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES OF A
FLOWING GAS
PREPARED BY: ENGR. JOHN CEDRIC JIMENEZ
FUNDAMENTAL THOUGHTS

HOW DOES AN AIRPLANE FLY?

FUNDAMENTAL THOUGHTS
Our goal in this topic is
to appreciate the flow
of air over the surface
of an airplane as the
basic source of lifting or
sustaining force that
allows a heavier-than-air
machine to fly.
FUNDAMENTAL THOUGHTS

• PRESSURE
• DENSITY
• TEMPERATURE
• SPECIFIC VOLUME
• FLOW VELOCITY
AND STREAMLINES
PRESSURE (P)
When you hold your hand
outside the window of a
moving automobile, with your
palm perpendicular to the
incoming airstream, you can
feel the air pressure exerting
a force and tending to push
your hand rearward.
PRESSURE
• Defined as the “force per unit
area” on a certain surface.
• Pressure exists because of air
molecules striking the surface
of your hand and transferring
their momentum to the surface.
• Pressure is a point property –
meaning that it can have
different values from one point
to another on a surface.
PRESSURE 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 𝑭𝑭
𝑷𝑷 = =
More precisely: 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨
UNIT DEFINITION
Pressure is the normal
𝑵𝑵 Pascal or Newton
force per unit area 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
or Pa
per meter squared
exerted on a surface
atm atmosphere
due to the time rate of
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 Pounds per feet
change of momentum of 𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐
or psf
squared
the gas molecules 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 Pounds per square
or psi
impacting on that surface. 𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 inch
DENSITY (rho or 𝝆𝝆) 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒎𝒎
𝝆𝝆 = =
The density of a substance 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝑽𝑽
(including a gas) is the mass UNIT DEFINITION
of the substance per unit 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 Kilogram per cubic
volume. 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 meter
𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 Gram per cubic
𝒄𝒄𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 centimeter
It is basically how much mass 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Slug per cubic feet
(stuff) is packed into a certain 𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑
𝒍𝒍𝒃𝒃𝒎𝒎
amount of space (volume). Pound-mass per
𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 cubic feet.
DENSITY (rho or 𝝆𝝆)
Imagine you have two balloons of the
same size (same volume):

•Balloon A is filled with helium

•Balloon B is filled with carbon dioxide

Both balloons look the same in size, but This is because carbon
when you hold them: dioxide is denser than
helium — it has more
•Balloon A (helium) feels light mass packed into the
•Balloon B (carbon dioxide) feels heavier same space.
TEMPERATURE (T)
Temperature is the measure of
the average kinetic energy of
the particles in the gas.

We can assume and visualize UNIT DEFINITION

°𝑪𝑪 Degree Celsius
that at high speeds, the
𝑲𝑲 Kelvin
temperature of the gas is higher
°𝑭𝑭 Degree Fahrenheit
than it is when at low speeds.
°𝑹𝑹 Degree Rankine
TEMPERATURE (T)
CONVERTING BETWEEN UNITS
• Celsius to Fahrenheit • Celsius to Kelvin
9
°𝐹𝐹 = °𝐶𝐶 × + 32 K = °𝐶𝐶 + 273
5

• Fahrenheit to Celsius • Fahrenheit to Rankine

5
°𝐶𝐶 = °𝐹𝐹 − 32 × °𝑅𝑅 = °𝐹𝐹 + 460
9
SPECIFIC VOLUME
𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝑽𝑽 𝟏𝟏
Specific volume is basically the 𝒗𝒗 = = =
inverse of density. It is denoted by 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎 𝝆𝝆
v. Defined as the volume per unit UNIT DEFINITION
mass. Cubic meter per
𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 /𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 kilogram
the amount of space (volume) that a 𝟑𝟑
𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕 /𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Cubic feet per
slug
certain amount of matter (mass)
takes up. It's like asking, "How much
room does 1 kilogram of this stuff
need?"
SPECIFIC VOLUME
𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝑽𝑽 𝟏𝟏
Specific volume is basically the 𝒗𝒗 = = =
inverse of density. It is denoted by 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎 𝝆𝝆
v. Defined as the volume per unit UNIT DEFINITION
mass. Cubic meter per
𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 /𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 kilogram
the amount of space (volume) that a 𝟑𝟑
𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕 /𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Cubic feet per
slug
certain amount of matter (mass)
takes up. It's like asking, "How much
room does 1 kilogram of this stuff
need?"
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Example:

Comparing 1kg of
steel vsYOU:
1kg of
Feathers. Which has a
higher specific Answer: Feathers –
because it takes up more
volume? space. For the same
amount of mass
FLOW VELOCITY & STREAMLINES
UNIT DEFINITION
Speed – represents the 𝒎𝒎
Meters per second
𝒔𝒔
distance traveled by some 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇
Feet per second
object per unit time. 𝒔𝒔
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉
or kph Kilometers per hour
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
Velocity – connotes 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉
or mph Miles per hour

direction as well as speed. 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏

or knots Nautical miles per
𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 hour
FLOW VELOCITY & STREAMLINES
Velocity is also a point property (along with P, 𝜌𝜌, and
T). You can observe from the following diagram that
as the element of mass in the gas move, both the
speed and direction can vary from point to point.
FLOW VELOCITY & STREAMLINES
Note also, that as long as the flow is steady (as long as
it does not fluctuate with time), a moving fluid element
is seen to trace out a fixed path in space.

This path is called

a streamline
FLOW VELOCITY & STREAMLINES

Oil streak photograph showing the

Actual photograph of surface streamline pattern for a fin
streamlines over an airfoil model mounted on a flat plate in
supersonic flow.
CONVERSION FACTORS
PRESSURE
• Celsius to Fahrenheit
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
14.7 2 = 2116.8 2
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
= 29.92 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
• Fahrenheit to Rankine

°𝑅𝑅 = °𝐹𝐹 + 460

EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
Gas – collection of particles (molecules, atoms,
electrons, etc.) in random motion, where each particle is,
on average, a long distance away from its neighboring
particles.

Each molecule has an intermolecular force field about

it. This gives each particle a repulsive and attractive force
between each other. The strength of each intermolecular
force field is directly influenced by the pressure,
temperature, and density of the gas.
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
Air under normal conditions of temperature and
pressure, such as that encountered in subsonic and
supersonic flight through the atmosphere, behaves
very much like a perfect gas.

A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces

are negligible.
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
The relation among P, 𝜌𝜌, and T for a gas is called the
equation of state. For a perfect gas it is given by:

𝑷𝑷 = 𝝆𝝆𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
Where R is the specific gas constant (different each gas).
But for normal air we have:

𝑱𝑱 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑹𝑹 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 − 𝑲𝑲 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − °𝑹𝑹
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS

Taking into account specific volume. We have:

𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷 = 𝝆𝝆𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
𝒗𝒗
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1:

The air pressure and density

at a point on the wing of a
Boeing 747 are 1.10 ×
5 𝑁𝑁 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
10 𝑚𝑚2 and 1.20 𝑚𝑚3 . What is
the temperature at that
point?
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2:

The high pressure air storage

tank for a supersonic wind
tunnel has a volume of
1000 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 . If air is stored at a
pressure of 30 atm and a
temperature of 530 °𝑅𝑅 what
is the mass of gas stored in
the tank in slugs? In 𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 ?
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3:

Air flowing at high speed in a

wind tunnel has a pressure
and temperature equal to 0.3
atm and −100 °𝐶𝐶,
respectively. What is the air
density? What is the specific
volume?
CHEM 111 - FINALS - SEATWORK #1
ITEM 1 ITEM 2

Air flowing at high speed in a Consider the low-speed flight

wind tunnel has a pressure of the space shuttle as it is
and temperature equal to 0.3 nearing a landing. If the air
atm and −100 °𝐶𝐶, pressure and temperature at
respectively. What is the air the nose of the shuttle are 1.2
density? What is the specific atm and 300 K, respectively.
volume? What are the density and
specific volume?
CHEM 111 - FINALS - SEATWORK #1
ITEM 1
Air flowing at high speed in a wind tunnel has a pressure and temperature equal
to 0.3 atm and −100 °𝐶𝐶, respectively. What is the air density? What is the specific
volume?
CHEM 111 - FINALS - SEATWORK #1
ITEM 2
Consider the low-speed flight of the space shuttle as it is nearing a landing. If the
air pressure and temperature at the nose of the shuttle are 1.2 atm and 300 K,
respectively. What are the density and specific volume?
CHEM 111 - FINALS - SEATWORK #1
ITEM 3

If 1500 lbm of air is pumped into a previously empty 900 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 storage tank and the
air temperature in the tank is uniformly 70°𝐹𝐹 what is the air pressure in the tank in
atm?
CHEM 111 - FINALS - SEATWORK #1
ITEM 4

Assume that, at a point on the wing of the Concorde supersonic transport, the air
N
temperature is −10°𝐶𝐶 and the pressure is 1.7 × 104 𝑚𝑚2 . Calculate the density at
this point.
STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
PREPARED BY: ENGR. JOHN CEDRIC JIMENEZ
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is comprised of
layers based on temperature.
These layers are the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere. A further region at
about 500 km above the Earth's
surface is called the exosphere.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is composed of 78

percent nitrogen, 21 percent
oxygen, and 1 percent other
gases, such as argon or helium.
Most of the oxygen is contained
below 35,000 feet altitude
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
Lowest layer of the atmosphere. Starting at
ground level, it extends upwards to about 10km
(33,000 feet) above sea level. Nearly all
weather occurs in this lowest layer.

The layer between the troposphere and

stratosphere is the tropopause – at the top of
which where most of the commercial planes Air pressure drops, and temperature get colder
fly. (Upper Tropopause / Lower Stratospher) as you climb higher within the troposphere
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
STRATOSPHERE
Extends from the top of the tropopause to about
50km above the ground. The ozone layer is
found within the stratosphere. The lower
boundary of the stratosphere is the tropopause
while the upper boundary is the stratopause.

The ozone heats this layer up as it absorbs

energy from incoming ultraviolet (UV) radiation The Temperature rises as you move upward
from the Sun. through the stratosphere.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
MESOSPHERE
Extends upwards to a height of about 85km above the
ground. This is where most meteors burn up from
outer space. Temperatures once again grow colder
as you rise up.

This is also where you can find the coldest

temperatures in Earth’s atmosphere about -90°C (-
130° F). Another layer between the mesosphere and
thermosphere is the mesopause.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
THERMOSPHERE
High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are
absorbed in the thermosphere, raising its temperature to
hundreds or at times thousands of degrees. However, the
air in this layer is so thin that it would feel freezing cold to
humans. The upper boundary can be found at 500 –
1000km above the ground.

This layer also contains the Karman Line at 100 km, which
is the boundary between earth’s atmosphere and outer
space. In addition, this is also where most satellites orbit
the earth.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
EXOSPHERE
Although some experts consider the thermosphere to be the
uppermost layer of our atmosphere, others consider the
exosphere to be the actual "final frontier" of Earth's
gaseous envelope.

There is no clear-cut upper boundary where the exosphere

finally fades away into space. Different definitions place the
top of the exosphere somewhere between 100,000 km
(62,000 miles) and 190,000 km (120,000 miles) above the
surface of Earth.
 THE STANDARD
ATMOSPHERE
PREPARED BY: ENGR. JOHN CEDRIC JIMENEZ
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Aerospace vehicles can be divided into two basic
categories

• Atmospheric – those that fly within the sensible

atmosphere (airplanes / helicopters).
• Space Vehicles – operates outside the sensible
atmosphere (satellites, Apollo Lunar Vehicles, deep space
probes, etc.).
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
The earth’s atmosphere is a dynamically changing system,
constantly in a state of flux. The pressure and temperature of
the atmosphere depend on a number of factors such as:

Altitude
Location on the globe (longitude and latitude)
Time of day
Season
Solar sunspot activity
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Thus, in order to unify these factors in terms of design and
performance of flight vehicles, there is a defined standard
atmosphere to relate flight tests, wind tunnel results, and
general airplane design and performance to a common
reference.

The standard atmosphere gives mean (average) values of

pressure, temperature, and density brought forth by
experimental balloon and rocket measurements combined
mathematical models of the atmosphere.
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
PROPERTY OF GAS METRIC ENGLISH

PRESSURE 𝑁𝑁 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

2 , Pa, atm 2
, 2 . 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
DENSITY 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
, 3
𝑚𝑚3 3
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
TEMPERATURE °𝐶𝐶 , 𝐾𝐾 °𝐹𝐹 , °𝑅𝑅

AIR SPEED 𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

, , , 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑟𝑟
GAS CONSTANT 𝐽𝐽 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
, ,
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝐾𝐾 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − °𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − °𝑅𝑅
MASS 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
Intuitively, we all know the meaning of altitude. We think of it
as the distance above the ground. But it must be precisely
defined for quantitative use in engineering. There are six
different altitudes we will discuss:
• Absolute
• Geometric
• Geopotential
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Density
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
GEOMETRIC ALTITUDE
Imagine if we flew up straight into the
sky in a helicopter and drop a tape
measure to the ground, the
measurement on the tape would be, by
definition, the geometric altitude, 𝒉𝒉𝑮𝑮
This is the geometric height above
sea level (ASL).
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
Now if we would drill a hole through the
ground to the center of the earth and
extend the tape measure until it hit the
center, then the measurement is now, by
definition, the absolute altitude, 𝒉𝒉𝒂𝒂 .

If r is the radius of the earth, then:

𝒉𝒉𝒂𝒂 = 𝒉𝒉𝑮𝑮 + 𝒓𝒓
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
The absolute altitude is important, especially for space flight, because
the local acceleration of gravity, g varies with the absolute altitude
𝒉𝒉𝒂𝒂 .
VARIATION OF GRAVITY WITH ALTITUDE
Where:
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒈𝒈𝟎𝟎 = sea level gravity 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓
𝒈𝒈 = 𝒈𝒈𝟎𝟎 = 𝒈𝒈𝟎𝟎
𝒉𝒉𝒂𝒂 𝒓𝒓 + 𝒉𝒉𝑮𝑮
𝒈𝒈 = local gravity at a given height

𝒉𝒉𝒂𝒂 =absolute altitude

𝑟𝑟 = radius of earth – 𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎 JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
GEOPOTENTIAL ALTITUDE
a fictitious altitude that considers the change in gravity
with height. It's a way to simplify calculations by assuming a
constant gravitational acceleration, even though it actually
varies with altitude.

it's the altitude required for a unit mass to gain the same
amount of potential energy as if lifted to a given geometric
altitude under a constant gravitational field
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
HYDROSTATIC EQUATION
It is a model which will allow us to
calculate variations of P, 𝜌𝜌, and T as
functions of altitude.

It describes the relationship between

pressure and height in a static fluid,
like the atmosphere, where the
pressure at a given height is equal to
the weight of the fluid above it.
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
The keystone of the standard
atmosphere is a defined variation
of Temperature with altitude,
based on experimental evidence.

Note that it consists of a series of

lines with different meanings:
• Straight lines: isothermal /
constant-temperature
• Inclined lines: gradient regions
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

• 0 – 11 km: Gradient
• 11 – 25 km: Isothermal (T = 216.66 K)
• 25 – 47 km: Gradient
• 47 – 53 km: Isothermal (T = 282.66 K)
• 53 – 79 km: Gradient
• 79 – 90 km: Isothermal (T= 156.66 K)
• 90 – 105 km: Gradient
• 105 and above: Isothermal (T = 225.66 K)
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

These values are calculated

using mathematical formulae
which we will not discuss
here. However, as a
substitute for knowing which
specific P, 𝜌𝜌, and T values
we have with each specific
altitude, we will be referring to
the given tables for SI and
English units.
JCCJ
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
STANDARD SEA LEVEL CONDITIONS (SSLC) VALUES:
PRESSURE DENSITY
𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝝆𝝆𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌/𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝝆𝝆𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔/𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑

TEMPERATURE MASS GAS CONSTANT

𝑱𝑱
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏°𝐶𝐶 → 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐊𝐊 𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐 𝒍𝒍𝒃𝒃𝒎𝒎 𝑹𝑹 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌−𝑲𝑲
𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇−𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓°𝐹𝐹 → 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓°𝑹𝑹 𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐 𝒍𝒍𝒃𝒃𝒎𝒎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔−°𝑹𝑹
𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇−𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
= 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟒 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍−°𝑹𝑹
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
Imagine you are in an airplane flying at some real, geometric
altitude. However, at this altitude, you measure the acutal
4 𝑁𝑁
outside air pressure to be 6.16 × 10 𝑚𝑚2 . From the table of
values, we can see that it corresponds to an altitude of 4km.
Therefore, definition, you are flying at a pressure altitude of
4km.

Same goes for temperature and density. _(blank)_-altitude

is basically the altitude that is dependent upon that certain
parameter (pressure, temp, or density).
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
True altitude corrected for
non-standard pressure.

When you set your altimeter to

29.92 in Hg (101325 Pa) you're
flying at standard pressure
altitude. Above 18,000 ft. MSL,
all aircraft are required to set
their altimeter at 29.92 in Hg.
JCCJ
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
DENSITY ALTITUDE
Pressure altitude corrected for non-
standard temperature.

In layman's terms it directly affects

the performance parameters of any
aircraft, and in effect it is the
equivalent altitude of where,
performance-wise, the aircraft
“thinks” it's at. The higher the
density altitude, the lower the aircraft
performance, and vice versa.
JCCJ
DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE
TEMPERATURE ALTITUDE
An altitude related to the actual
temperature at a given level,
typically used for performance
corrections.

It's the altitude where a specific

temperature would occur under
standard atmospheric
conditions.
JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 1

The flight test data for a given airplane refer to a level-flight

maximum-velocity run made at an altitude which simultaneously
corresponded to a pressure altitude of 30,000 ft and a density
altitude of 28,500 ft. Calculate the temperature of the air at the
altitude at which the airplane was flying for the test.

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 1
The flight test data for a given airplane refer to a level-flight maximum-velocity run made at an altitude
which simultaneously corresponded to a pressure altitude of 30,000 ft and a density altitude of 28,500
ft. Calculate the temperature of the air at the altitude at which the airplane was flying for the test.

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 1
The flight test data for a given airplane refer to a level-flight maximum-velocity run made at an altitude
which simultaneously corresponded to a pressure altitude of 30,000 ft and a density altitude of 28,500
ft. Calculate the temperature of the air at the altitude at which the airplane was flying for the test.

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 1 - SOLUTION
In order for us to calculate the temperature, we will need to use the equation of
state. For this to work, we need to find out the corresponding pressure and density
from the given altitudes.
Using equation of state:
Given: 𝑷𝑷
𝑷𝑷 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 ⇒ 𝑻𝑻 =
𝒉𝒉𝑷𝑷 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝝆𝝆𝑹𝑹
𝒉𝒉𝝆𝝆 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
6.2966 × 102
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
From appendix B – 𝑻𝑻 =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝟐𝟐 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 9.4082 × 10−4 1716
𝑷𝑷 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − °𝑅𝑅
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝝆𝝆 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 𝑻𝑻 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 °𝑹𝑹 JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 2

If an airplane is flying at an altitude where the actual pressure

4 𝑁𝑁
and temperature are 4.72 × 10 𝑚𝑚2 and 255.7 𝐾𝐾, respectively,
what are the pressure, temperature, and density altitudes in
kilometers?

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 2
𝑁𝑁
If an airplane is flying at an altitude where the actual pressure and temperature are 4.72 × 104 𝑚𝑚2
and 255.7 𝐾𝐾, respectively, what are the pressure, temperature, and density altitudes in kilometers?

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 2 - SOLUTION For density altitude, compute first
density using equation of state:
𝑁𝑁 4
𝑷𝑷 = 4.72 × 10 2 𝑷𝑷
𝑚𝑚 𝑷𝑷 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 ⇒ 𝝆𝝆 =
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
𝑻𝑻 = 255.7 𝐾𝐾 4.72 × 104
𝑁𝑁
𝑚𝑚2 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝝆𝝆 = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝟑𝟑
𝐽𝐽 𝒎𝒎
Looking at the given table of standard 287 255.7 𝐾𝐾
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝐾𝐾
atmosphere values, we can see that:

Press Alt. = 𝟔𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Temp Alt. = 𝟒𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 2 – SOLUTION – CONT.

Looking at appendix A we can’t see the exact value of what we’re looking for. For
this we will use interpolation to get the exact value of our altitude:

Formula for interpolation:

𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 − 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 + (𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 )
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏
Wherein:

• 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

• 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
• 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑢𝑢′ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑢𝑢′ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 2 – SOLUTION – CONT.

Looking at appendix A we can’t see the exact value of what we’re looking for. For
this we will use interpolation to get the exact value of our altitude:

Formula for interpolation:

𝒚𝒚 −𝒚𝒚
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 −𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 (𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 ) Altitude (y) Density (x)
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
6,200 6.4561
𝟔𝟔𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑−𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝒚𝒚 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + 𝟔𝟔.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒−𝟔𝟔.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
(𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 − 𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑) 6,300 6.3845

𝒚𝒚 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 3

Consider an airplane flying at a pressure altitude of 33,500 ft and a density altitude of

32,000 ft. Calculate the outside air temperature

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 4

Consider an airplane flying at some real altitude. The outside pressure and
temperature are 2.65 × 104 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and 220 𝐾𝐾 respectively. What are the pressure and
density altitudes?

JCCJ
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY
ALTITUDES
EXAMPLE 4
.

JCCJ
 AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS:
AIR DATA PROBES
ENGR. JOHN CEDRIC JIMENEZ
JCCJ
 TYPES OF AIR DATA PROBES
AIR DATA SYSTEM:

• the Pitot-Static system

• one Total Air
Temperature (TAT) probe
• two Angle Of Attack
(AOA) Sensors
• two Air Data Computers
(ADCs)
• and the Electric Flight
Instruments.

JCCJ
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT)
The TAT indication is
comprised of outside air
temperature (OAT) plus ram
rise. TAT indication on the
ground will approximate OAT.

The total air temperature

(TAT) probe is electrically
heated to prevent erroneous
readings due to ice
conditions, and is
automatically controlled by
air/ground relays.

JCCJ
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT)
Bleed air provided by the
engine bleed air distribution
manifold creates a negative
pressure which draws outside
air across the sensing
elements at such a rate that
the anti-ice heaters have a
negligible effect. This feature
permits accurate TAT readings
to be displayed while the
airplane is on the ground or in-
flight at low airspeeds.

JCCJ
 ANGLE OF ATTACK SENSORS
The Angle of Attack (AOA)
sensors measures the direction
of airflow relative to the
fuselage. The sensor vane
aligns itself with the prevailing
airstream, rotating a central
shaft

A viscous damper in the AOA

vane stabilizes vane
movements and reduces the
effects of turbulence. The
sensor has a solid-state vane
heater which provides
continuous de-icing/anti-
icing.
JCCJ
 TYPES OF PRESSURE

STATIC PRESSURE DYNAMIC PRESSURE TOTAL PRESSURE

Pressure caused by a
It is the pressure fluid's velocity. A Pressure exerted when
exerted on an object if continuous physical force the flow is slowed down
the object is moving exerted on an object by to zero velocity.
together with the flow. something such as air on
fluid

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
Basic Parts
• Pitot-tube
⚬ Pressure Chamber
⚬ Drain hole
⚬ Heating Element
• Static Port
• Alternate Static Source
• Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
• Vertical Speed Indicator
(VSI)
• Altimeter (ALT)

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
Pitot-tube = Total
Pressure

Total Pressure = Static +

Dynamic

Static Port = Static

Pressure

JCCJ
ALTIMETER
• Measures the height of an
aircraft above a given pressure
level.
• Measures pressure altitude
when set at 29.92 in Hg (SSLC)
• Measured in feet (ft)
• Has a barosetting knob for
altimeter setting.

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE
• Indicated Altitude. The altitude indicated on the
altimeter when the correct barometric pressure is
set.
• True Altitude. Height above sea level (MSL).
• Absolute Altitude. Height above ground level
(AGL). Constantly changing, absolute altitude is the
distance measurement of your airplane above the
ground.

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE
• Pressure Altitude. The altitude indicated on the altimeter
based on a ‘standard atmospheric level’, this is sometimes
used in flight planning calculations.
• Density Altitude. This is the Pressure Altitude adjusted for
temperature variations (density altitude affects aircraft
performance).

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE
INDICATEDALTITUDE
Indicated altitude is simply the

altitude you read directly off your

altimeter when the correct

barometric pressure is set.

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE

TRUE ALTITUDE
Vertical distance of your

airplane above sea level.

Height above mean sea level

(MSL).

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE

ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
Constantly changing, absolute

altitude is the distance

measurement of your airplane

above the ground. Height above

ground level (AGL).

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
The altitude indicated on the altimeter
based on a ‘standard atmospheric level’, this
is sometimes used in flight planning
calculations.
When you set your altimeter to 29.92, you're
flying at standard pressure altitude. Above
18,000 ft. MSL, all aircraft are required to set
their altimeter at 29.92 in Hg.

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE

DENSITY ALTITUDE

Pressure altitude corrected for

non-standard temperature.

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– TYPESOF ALTITUDE
DENSITY ALTITUDE
When it's hot outside, your airplane

doesn't perform as well. Your takeoff

distance is longer, and you don't climb

as fast. That's because when it's hot,

density altitude increases, and your

airplane "feels" like it's flying at a higher

altitude.

JCCJ
 ALTIMETER– COMMONERRORS
• Inconsistent Airflow. Interrupted airflow to the external static port during flight
can cause the altimeter to give inaccurate readings. This is commonly
associated with gusty wind conditions, or during certain manoeuvres.
• Elasticity. The continual expansion and contraction of the altimeter’s operating
parts during normal use can result in the parts losing some of their rigidity,
becoming naturally more flexible resulting in inaccurate readings.
• Pilot Error. The correct barometric pressure must be entered into the altimeter
in order for it to give accurate results. Pilot error is one of the most common
reasons altimeters fail to give accurate readings; a difference of 1″ Hg can cause
an altitude deviation of 1,000 feet.

JCCJ
ALTIMETER– COMMONERRORS
• Air Density. The density of air alters from one area to the next,
just as it does on the ground. Errors in altimeter readings over
long flights are commonly associated with changes in air
density.
• Static Port Blockages. Something blocking the external static
port would obviously prevent the altimeter from detecting and
changes to altitude.

JCCJ
 ALTIMETER
Aneroid Barometer

• Aneroid Wafer
• Connected to Static Port
• Barometric Adjustment
Knob
• Kollsman window
• 2 or 3 Needle
⚬ Largest - hundreds of
feet
⚬ Smallest - thousands of
feet
⚬ Thin - Ten Thousands of
feet
JCCJ
 ALTIMETER

Differential Pressure Instrument

INCREASE ALTITUDE – PRESSURE GOES DOWN – WAFER IS

EXPANDED
JCCJ
 ALTIMETER

Differential Pressure Instrument

DECREASE ALTITUDE – PRESSURE GOES UP – WAFER IS

CONTRACTED
JCCJ
 VERTICAL SPEED
INDICATOR
• Indicates whether the
aircraft is climbing,
descending, or in level flight
• VSI is measured in feet per
minute (ft/min).
• Sometimes called VVI -
Vertical Velocity Indicator

JCCJ
 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

Differential Pressure Instrument

• Diaphragm
• Calibrated Leak
• Accelerometer (IVSI - Instantaneous VSI)
JCCJ
 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

Differential Pressure Instrument

DECREASE ALTITUDE – PRESSURE GOES UP – WAFER

EXPANDES
JCCJ
VSI – COMMONERRORS
• Lag. Because the calibrated leak may take a while to equalize
the reading may take a while to stabilize (approx. around 6-9
seconds). This is especially prevalent during abrupt aircraft
movements such as turbulence, or during rapid prolonged
climbs and descents.
• Blocked Static Port. A blocked static port will disrupt the
flow of air, resulting in inaccurate readings (it is likely the VSI
will give a zero indication or read incorrectly).

JCCJ
 AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
• Uses both Pitot tube + Static Port
• Airspeed measured in miles per
hour (mph) or knots (kts)
• Measures Indicated Airspeed
(IAS)
• Vfe - White Arc
• Vno - Green Arc
• Caution Speed - Yellow Arc
• Vne - Red Line
JCCJ
ASI– TYPESOF AIRSPEED
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS). The Airspeed Indicator reading
without any consideration for atmospheric conditions or
potential installation and instrument errors. The Indicated
Airspeed is used to give the manufacturers
recommendations for aircraft performance indications
relating to take off, landing, and stall speeds.
• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS). The Indicated Airspeed
corrected for installation error and instrument error. Under
certain operating conditions installation and instrument
errors may total several knots.

JCCJ
ASI– TYPESOF AIRSPEED
• True Airspeed (TAS). The Calibrated Airspeed
corrected for altitude related atmospheric
conditions such as temperature variations and air
density. The True Airspeed is used for flight
planning calculations.
• Groundspeed (GS). The aircraft’s actual speed
over the ground, or the True Airspeed adjusted for
wind resistance factors (headwind, tailwind etc.).

JCCJ
 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Differential Pressure Gauge

• ASI Pressurized Case

• Diaphragm
• Handstaff Pinion
• Pointer

Bernoulli’s Equation:

Dynamic Pressure + Static Pressure

= Total Pressure
JCCJ
 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Bernoulli’s Equation:

JCCJ
 ASI– COMMON ERRORS
• Static Port Blockages. Debris, insects, water or ice blocking the
external static port prevents the Airspeed Indicator from giving
a correct reading as air is unable to enter the port. If the static
system is blocked but the pitot tube remains clear, it is
important to note that the Airspeed Indicator will continue to
operate but will give inaccurate readings.
• Pitot Tube Blockages. As with above, any debris or blockages to
the external pitot tube will result in incorrect readings.

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

SCENARIO 1: PITOT TUBE BLOCKED

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
SCENARIO 1: PITOT TUBE BLOCKED

ASI WILL DROP TO

ZERO (0)

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

SCENARIO 2: PITOT TUBE & DRAIN HOLE BLOCKED

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
SCENARIO 2: PITOT TUBE & DRAIN HOLE
BLOCKED

• AIR PRESSURE IS TRAPPED, ASI WILL

FREEZE AT THE LAST INDICATION
• IF STATIC PORT IS UNBLOCKED AND
ALTITUDE IS CHANGED - ASI WILL
CHANGE SLIGHTLY
• OTHERWISE, YOU HAVE TWO
ALTIMETERS!

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

JCCJ
SCENARIO 3: BLOCKED STATIC PORT
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
SCENARIO 3: BLOCKED STATIC PORT
• ASI WILL INDICATE A
HIGHER/LOWER SPEED
DEPENDING ON ALTITUDE
• VSI WILL READ ZERO
• ALTIMETER WILL FREEZE

• USE ALT. STATIC PORT (LESS

ACCURATE)

JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
SCENARIO 3: BLOCKED STATIC PORT
• WHAT IF THERE’S NO
ALTERNATE OR BROKEN ALT.
STATIC SOURCE?

• PRAY 🙏🙏🙏🙏🙏🙏

• BREAK THE GLASS OF THE VSI!

⚬ VSI will be INOP but it will
serve as a static source,
which is better than nothing!
JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
• Air France Flight 447
⚬ Airbus A330
⚬ June 2009
⚬ 228 fatalities
• Reported Cause:
⚬ Aircraft suffered temporary
inconsistencies between the airspeed
measurements—likely resulting from ice
crystals obstructing the aircraft's pitot
tubes—which caused the autopilot to
disconnect. Causing the crew to make
incorrect inputs that led to a stall. They
couldn’t recover from.
JCCJ
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
• Walkarounds are a must!
• Visible inspection for all external
sensors.
• Make use of anti-ice / de-icing
procedures to ensure no blockage.

JCCJ