TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

Introduction

Transient occurs when the characteristics behavior of an electrical circuit changes with time.
When it occurs, the currents and voltages in some parts of the circuit may many times exceed
those that exist in normal behavior and may destroy the circuit equipment in its proper operation.

The transient behavior of an electrical circuit may distinguish the from its steady-state, in that
during the transients all the quantities, such as currents, voltages, power and energy, are changed
in time, while in steady-state they remain invariant, i.e. constant (in d.c. operation) or periodical
(in a.c. operation) having constant amplitudes and phase angles. The cause of transients is any
kind of changing in circuit parameters and/or in circuit configuration, which usually occur as a
result of switching, faults (either short and/or open circuit), change in the operation of sources,
etc. The changes of currents, voltages etc. during the transients are not instantaneous and take
some time, even though they are extremely fast with duration of milliseconds or even
microseconds.

In the analysis of an electrical system (as in any physical system), we must distinguish between
the stationary operation or steady-state and the dynamical operation or transient-state. An
electrical system is said to be in steady-state when the variables describing its behavior (voltages,
currents, etc.) are either invariant with time (d.c. circuits) or are periodic functions of time (a.c.
circuits). An electrical system is said to be in transient-state when the variables are changed non-
periodically, i.e., when the system is not in steady-state. The transient-state vanishes with time
and a new steady-state regime appears. Hence, we can say that the transient-state, or just
transients, is usually the transmission state from one steady-state to another.

A few methods of transient analysis exist. They include: the classical method, The Cauchy-
Heaviside (C-H) operational method, the Fourier transformation method and the Laplace
transformation method.

Differential Equations Describing Electrical Circuits

Circuit analysis, as a physical system, is completely described by integro-differential equations
written for voltages and/or currents, which characterize circuit behavior. For linear circuits these
equations are called linear differential equations with constant coefficients, i.e. in which every
term is of the first degree in the dependent variable or one of its derivatives. Thus, for example,
for the circuit of three basic elements: R, L and C connected in series and driven by a voltage
source v(t), Fig. 1, we may apply Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to obtain

Fig. 1: Series RL C circuit driven by a voltage source

 v ( t )=V R +v L + v C (1)

Where: v R=iR (a)

di
v L =L (b)
dt
1
v C = ∫ idt (c)
C
Substituting (a), (b) and (c) into (1) will yield;
di 1
v ( t )=iR + L + ∫ idt (2)
dt C
Differentiating both sides of (2) with respect to time will gives;
dv (t) di
2
d i 1
=R + L 2 + i or
dt dt dt C

d i
2
di 1 dv (t )
L 2 + R + i= (3)
dt dt C dt
The second order differential equation is given in (3)
The same results (3) may be obtained by writing two simultaneous first order differential
equations for two unknowns, i and v C
dv C 1
= i (c)
dt C
And
di
v ( t )=iR + L + v C (d)
dt

dv C
After differentiation (d) and substituting by equation (c), we obtain the same (as 3) second
dt
order singular equation. The solution of differential equations can be completed only if the initial
conditions are specified. It is obvious that in the same circuit under the same commutation, but
with different initial conditions, its transient response will be different. For more complicated
circuits, built from a number of loops (nodes), we will have a set of differential equations, which
should be written in accordance with Kirchhoff ’s two laws or with nodal and/or mesh analysis.
For example, consider the 2-loop circuit of Fig. 2, after switching; we will have a circuit, which
consists of two loops and two nodes.

Fig.2: A 2-loop circuit

By applying Kirchhoff ’s laws (KVL and KCL), with three unknowns, i, i L and v Cas follows:
d vC
C + i L −i=0 (i)
dt
d iL
L + R1 i L + Ri=0 (ii)
dt

d iL
L + R1 i L − v C =0 (iii)
dt
Equations (i) –(iii) can then be redundantly transformed into a single second order equation.
dv
First, we differentiate the (iii) once with respect to time and substitute C by taking it from (i).
dt
i i .
After that, we have two equations with two unknowns, L and Solving these two equations for i
L (i.e. eliminating the current i) results in the second order homogeneous differential equation:
2
d iL di L
LCR 2 + ( L+CR R 1 ) +(R+ R 1)i L =0 (iv)
dt dt
Again, let us consider a 3-loop circuit of fig. 3.
 Fig. 3: A 3-loop circuit
We could write three different integro-differential equations (one for each loop) for the circuit as
follows:
d i1 d i2
L −L + R1 i 1=v (t ) (1)
dt dt
d i1 d i2
−L +L + ( R 2+ R3 ) i2 − R3 i 3=0 (2)
dt dt
1
− R 3 i 2 + R3 i 3 + v C → − R3 i 2+ R 3 i 3 + ∫ i 3 dt=0 (3)
C
In this case it is preferable to solve the problem by treating the whole set of (1)-(3) rather than
reducing them to a single one.
Transient Analysis
From mathematics, we know that a number of ways of solving differential equations exist. Here,
we are aiming at analyzing the transient behavior of electrical circuits from the physical point of
view rather than applying complicated mathematical methods. Such a way of transient analysis is
in the formulation of differential equations in accordance with the properties of the circuit
elements and in the direct solution of the obtained equations, using only the necessary
mathematical rules. Such a method is called the classical method or classical approach in
transient analysis. We believe that the classical method of solving problems enables the student
to better understand the transient behavior of electrical circuits.
Exponential solution of a simple differential equation
Let us begin our study of transient analysis by considering the simple source free series RC
circuit of Fig.4.

Fig. 4: A source free RC circuit

After switching we will get a source free circuit in which the pre-charged capacitor C will be
discharged via the resistance R. Under such condition we have:
d vC
i R =i C =i=C (i)
dt
And
Ri+ v c =0 (ii)
Substituting the value of I from (i) into (ii) will yield
d vC
RC + v C =0 (iii)
dt
Integrating (iii) gives;
 1
ln v C =− t +K (iv)
RC

Since the constant can be of any kind, and we may designate K=lnA, we have
1
ln v C =− t +ln A (v)
RC
Taking the antilog of (v) gives;
1
− t
v C =A e RC (vi)
The constant (A) must be selected to satisfy the initial condition v C 0=V o (, which is the initial
voltage across the capacitor. Thus, the solution of (vi) att=0 becomes v C 0=A=V o. Thus (ii) can
be expressed as;
1
− t
v C =V o e RC (vii)
Therefore, with this value of A, we will obtain the desired response.
We shall consider the nature of this response by analyzing the voltage curve of Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: The curve of voltage changing

At zero time, the voltage is the assumed value V 0 and, as time increases, the voltage decreases
and approaches zero, following the physical rule that any condenser shall finally be discharged
and its final voltage therefore reduces to zero.
Let us now find the time that would be required for the voltage to drop to zero if it continued to
drop linearly at its initial rate. This value of time, usually designated by τ , is called the time
constant. The value of τ can be found with the derivative of v C (t) at zero time, which is
proportional to the angle γ between the tangent to the voltage curve at t=0 , and the t-axis, Fig.
5, i.e.

V0 d
tan γ =− = ¿
τ dt
∴ τ =RC (viii)
Substituting (viii) into (vii) will give
 t
−
v C =V o e τ (ix)
The units of the time constant are seconds ¿), so that the exponent t /RC is dimensionless.
Power and Energy Relationships during the Period of Transient Response
Before we continue our discussion of a more general analysis of transient circuits, let us check
the power and energy relationships during the period of transient response. The power being
dissipated in the resistor R , or its reciprocal G , is given by:
2t
−
2
P R=G v C =GV o e
2 RC (x)
and the total dissipated energy (turned into heat) is found by integrating (x) from zero time to
infinite time

[ ]
∞ ∞ 2t 2t
−
RC − RC ∞ 1
w R =∫ PR dt=G V o 2
∫e RC
=−G V o2
e = C V C2 (xi)
0 0 2 0 2
Equation (xi) shows the actual energy being stored in the capacitor at the beginning of the
transient is equal to total energy dissipated. This result means that all the initial energy, stored in
the capacitor, dissipates in the circuit resistances during the transient period.

Now, let us consider a source free RL circuit of Fig. 6

Fig. 6: A source free RL circuit

Initially the switch is at position a and there is a current I 0 ,circulating in the loop containing the
“ideal” inductor. This is the initial equilibrium state of the circuit and its schematic is shown on
Figure 6(a). At time t=0 the switch is moved from position a to position b. Now the resistor R is
incorporated in the circuit and the current I 0 begins to flow through it as shown Figure 6(b)
 Fig. 6(a) Fig. 6(b)

Here, Our goal is to determine the form of the current i(t).

We start by deriving the equation that describes the behavior of the circuit for t>0. The KVL
around the mesh of the circuit on Figure 6(b) gives:
v R ( t )+ v L ( t )=0 (a)
Also, the same current flows through the resistor and the inductor such that;
di
i R =i L =i(t) and v L =L
dt
As a result, equation (a) can be expressed as:

di
Ri ( t )+ L =0 (b)
dt
Rearranging equation (b) will give
di di 1
L =− Ri ( t ) → =− dt (c)
dt i(t ) L/R
Integrating (c) will give;
t
ln i=− +k (d)
L/ R
Like in the case of source free RC circuit, the constant k can be any kind. Thus, taking k to ln A
equation (d) becomes;
t
ln i=− +ln A (e)
L/ R
Taking the antilog of (e) yields;
R
− t
i (t )= A e L (f)
Now, at time t = 0, i(t) = I 0. Thus A can be found from (f) to be = I 0, which when substituted into
equation (f) will give;
t
−
L
R (g)
i (t )=I 0 e
L
The term is defined as the time constant of an RL circuit (τ ¿
R
The current behavior of the RL circuit is as shown below
Worked Example 1
Consider a numerical example. The RL circuit in Fig. 7 is fed by a d.c. current source, I 0=5 A .
At instant t=0 the switch is closed and the circuit is short-circuited. Find:
1) the current after switching, by separating the variables and applying the definite integrals,
2) the voltage across the inductance.

Fig. 7
Solution
Natural and Forced Responses
Here, we will introduce a general approach to solving differential equations by the classical
method. Following the principles of mathematics we will consider the complete solution of any
linear differential equation as composed of two parts: the complementary solution (or natural
response in our study) and the particular solution (or forced response in our study). To
understand these principles, let us consider a first order differential equation, which has already
been derived earlier. In a more general form it is
dv
+ P ( t ) v=Q(t ) (A)
dt

Here Q(t) is identified as a forcing function, which is generally a function(A)of time (or constant, if
a d.c. source is applied) and P(t), is also generally a function of time, represents the circuit
parameters. In our study, however, it will be a constant quantity, since the value of circuit
elements does not change during the transients (indeed, the circuit parameters do change during
the transients, but we may neglect this change as in many cases it is not significant). A more
general method of solving differential equations, such as equation (A), is to multiply both sides
by a so-called integrating factor, so that each side becomes an exact differential, which
afterwards can be integrated directly to obtain the solution. For the equation above (equation A)
the integrating factor is e jPdt ∨¿ e Pt , since P is constant. We multiply each side of the equation
(A) by this integrating factor and by dt and obtain

Pt Pt Pt
e dv + vP e dt=Q e dt (B)

The left side of equation (B) is now the exact differential of v e Pt . Since, d ( v e Pt )=e Pt dv+ vP e Pt dt
, it follows that;
d ( v e Pt )=Q e Pt dt (C)
Integrating both sides of (C) yields
v e =∫ Q e dt+ A
Pt Pt
(D)
where A is a constant of integration.
Finally, multiplying of both sides of equation (D) by e − Pt yields
v ( t )=e
− Pt
∫ Q e Pt dt+ A e − Pt (F)
Equation (F) is the complete solution of the differential equation give in (A)
As we can see, this complete solution is composed of two parts. The first one, which is
dependent on the forcing function Q, is the forced response (it is also called the steadystate
response or the particular solution or the particular integral). The second one, which does not
depend on the forcing function, but only on the circuit parameters P (the types of elements, their
values, interconnections, etc) and on the initial conditions A, i.e., on the ‘‘nature’’ of the circuit,
is the natural response. It is also called the solution of the homogeneous equation, which does not
include the source function and has anything but zero on its right side. Following this rule, we
will solve differential equations by finding natural and forced responses separately and
combining them for a complete solution.
The principle of dividing the solution of the differential equations into two components can also
be understood by applying the superposition theorem. Since the differential equations, under
study, are linear as well as the electrical circuits, we may assert that superposition is also
applicable for the transientstate. Following this principle, we may subdivide, for instance, the
current into two components: i=i ' + i' ' and by substituting this into the set of differential
equations, say of the form;
di 1
∑ (L dt ¿ + Ri + C ∫ idt )=∑ v s ¿
'
∑ (L dt + R i' + C1 ∫ i' dt)=∑ v s ¿
di ¿

''
∑ (L dt + R i' ' + C1 ∫ i' ' dt)=0 ¿
di ¿

It is obvious that by the superimposition of these two equations, the original equation will be
achieved. This means that i◊ is a natural response since it is the solution of a homogeneous
equation with a zero on the right side and develops without any action of any source, and i∞ is a
steady-state current as it develops under the action of the voltage sources v s (which are
presented on the right side of the equations)
The most difficult part in the classical method of solving differential equations is evaluating the
particular integral in equation (F), especially when the forcing function is not a simple d.c. or
exponential source. However, in circuit analysis we can use all the methods: node/mesh analysis,
circuit theorems, the phasor method for a.c. circuits to find the forced response. In relation to the
natural response, the most difficult part is to formulate the characteristic equation and to find its
roots. Here in circuit analysis we also have special methods for evaluating the characteristic
equation simply by inspection of the analyzed circuit, avoiding the formulation of differential
equations. Finally, it is worthwhile to clarify the use of exponential functions as an integrating
factor in solving linear differential equations. As we have seen such differential equations in
general consist of the second (or higher) derivative, the first derivative and the function itself,
each multiplied by a constant factor. If the sum of all these derivatives (the function itself might
be treated as a derivative of order zero) achieves zero, it becomes a homogeneous equation. A
function whose derivatives have the same form as the function itself is an exponential function,
so it may satisfy these kinds of equations. Substituting this function into the differential equation,
whose right side is zero (a homogeneous differential equation) the exponential factor in each
member of the equation might be simply crossed out, so that the remaining equation’s
coefficients will be only circuit parameters. Such an equation is called a characteristic equation.

Characteristic Equation and its Determination

Let us start by considering the simple circuit of Fig. 7(a) in which an RL in series is switching on
to a d.c. voltage source.

Fig. 7
Let the desired response in this circuit be current i(t). We shall first express it as the sum of the
natural and forced current i=i n +i f
The form of the natural response, as was shown, must be an exponential function, i n= A e st
Substituting this response into the homogeneous differential equation, which is;
L(di/dt )+ Ri=0 ,
we obtain;
st st
L s e + ℜ =0∨L s+ R=0 (h)
Equation (h) is a characteristic (or auxiliary) equation, in which the left side expresses the input
impedance seen from the source terminals of the analyzed circuit.
Zin(s)=L s + R (i)
We may treat s as the complex frequency s=s+ jω .
Note that by equating this expression of circuit impedance to zero, we obtain the characteristic
equation. Solving this equation we have;
R L
s=− and τ = (j)
L R
Hence, the natural response is;
R
− t
i n= A e L (k)
Subsequently, the root of the characteristic equation defines the exponent of the natural response.
The fact that the input impedance of the circuit should be equaled to zero can be explained from
a physical point of view.(*) Since the natural response does not depend on the source, the latter
should be ‘‘killed’’. i.e. short-circuited as shown in Fig. 7(b). This action results in short-
circuiting the entire circuit, i.e. its input impedance.

Consider now a parallel L R circuit switching to a d.c. current source in which the desired
response is v L (t), as shown in Fig. 8(a). Here, ‘‘killing’’ the current source results in open-
circuiting, as shown in Fig. 8(b).

Fig. 8
1 1
This means that the input admittance should be equaled to zero. Thus, + =0, ¿ sL+ R=0 ,
R sL
R L
which however gives the same root s=− andτ = (l)
L R
Next, let us consider a more complicated circuit, shown in Fig. 9(a). This circuit, after switching
and short-circuiting the remaining voltage source, will be as shown in Fig. 9(b).
 Fig. 9
The input impedance of this circuit ‘‘measured’’ at the switch (which is the same as seen from
the ‘‘killed’’ source) is;
Z ¿ ( s )=R1 + R3 /¿ R4 /¿( R2 + sL)
Or
1 1 1
Z ¿ ( s )=R1 +( + + )
R3 R 4 R2 + sL
Evaluating this expression and equating it to zero yields;
(R1 R3 + R1 R 4 + R3 R4 )(R2 + sL)+ R 1 R3 R4 =0 ,
R R 1 R3 R4 + R 1 R2 R3 + R1 R 2 R 4 + R2 R 3 R 4
and the root is s=− eq , where Req =
L R 1 R3 + R1 R4 + R 3 R 4
It is worth noting that the same results can be obtained if the input impedance is ‘‘measured’’
from the inductance branch, i.e. the energy-storing element, as is shown in Fig. 9(c). The
characteristic equation can also be determined by inspection of the differential equation or set of
equations.
Consider the second-order differential equation like the one for an RLC circuit below;
2
d i(t) di (t) 1
L 2
+R + i(t )=g(t) (m)
dt dt C
Replacing each derivative by sn, where n is the order of the derivative, we obtain the
characteristic equation;
 2 11 0 2 R 1 1
Ls +R s + s =0 Or s + s + =0 (n)
C L LC
This characteristic equation is of the second order (in accordance with the second order
differential equation) and it possesses two roots s1 and s2.

If any system is described by a set of integro-differential equations, like the ones for a 3-loop
circuit shown in Figure A, the equation for the 3 loops can be written as:
d i1 d i2
L −L + R1 i 1+0. i 3=0 (1)
dt dt
d i1 d i2
−L +L + ( R 2+ R3 ) i2 − R3 i 3=0 (2)
dt dt
1
0. i 1 − R 3 i 2+ R3 i 3 + v C → 0.i 1 − R3 i 2+ R 3 i 3 + ∫ i 3 dt=0 (3)
C

Fig. A
we can rewrite it in a slightly different form as homogeneous equations by replacing the
derivative by sn∧t ℎ e integral by s −1 as follows;
( Ls+ R 1 ) i 1 − sLi2 +0. i3
− Ls i 1 +(Ls + R2 + R3 )i 2 + R3 i3 (3a)

0. i 1 − R 3 i 2+ R3 i 3 +( sC1 + R ) I =0
3 3

We obtained a set of algebraic equations with the right side equal to zero. In the matrix form

[ ][ ] [ ]
Ls+ R1 − sL 0
i1 0
− sL Ls + R2 + R3 R3
i2 = 0 (3b)
1
0 − R3 + R3 i3 0
sC
(3b)
Equation (3b) could be solve for i 1 , i 2 ,∧i 3 using Crammer’s rule as
∆1 ∆2 ∆3
i 1= , i 2= , i 3=
∆ ∆ ∆
Where∆ is the determinant of the system matrix and determinants ∆ 1 , ∆ 2∧∆ 3are obtained from ∆
by replacing the appropriate column (for ∆ 1 the first column is replaced, for ∆ 2 the second
column is replaced, and so forth), by the right side of the equation, i.e. by zeroes. As it is known
from mathematics, such determinants are equal to zero and for the non-zero solution in equation
(3b) the determinant ∆ in the denominator must also be zero. Thus, by equating this determinant
to zero, we get the characteristic equation

[ ]
Ls+ R1 − sL 0
− sL Ls + R2 + R3 − R3
=0 (3c)
1
0 − R3 + R3
sC
Or

[ (
1
)2
] [ ( 1
)]
( Ls+ R 1 ) ( Ls+ R2 + R3 ) sC + R 3 − R3 + sL ( − sL ) sC + R3 +0=0

[ ( 1
) 2
] 2 2 1
( Ls+ R 1 ) ( Ls+ R2 + R3 ) sC + R 3 − R3 − s L ( sC + R 3)=0 (3d)

Simplifying equation (3d) further will yield;

2
s+
L(
R1 eq
+
1
R2 eq C )
s+
1
LC
ϵ=0 (3e)

Where;
R1 R2
R1 eq =
R 1+ R 2
R1 + R 2
R2 eq =
R1 R 2
+ +1
R3 R3

R2
1+
R3
ϵ=
R2
1+
R1

Practices questions
Given a 3 loop system in Fig.Q3, show that the characteristic equation for the system can be
expressed as
2
s+
(
R1 eq
L
+
1
R2 eq C )
s+
1
LC
ϵ=0

Where;
R1 R2
R1 eq =
R 1+ R 2
 R1 + R 2
R2 eq =
R1 R 2
+ +1
R3 R3

R2
1+
R3
ϵ=
R2
1+
R1

Fig.Q3

Note: A clear step by step procedure for expressing the characteristic equation is required