UNIT -1.

2: ECOSYSTEM

The term ecosystem was derived from Greek word – ECO : Home ; SYSTEM : interaction or
interdependent complex. It was first coined by A.G. Tansley( a Botanist of London, UK) in 1935.
Ecosystem was studied in ecology which means the study or science of home.

Definition of ecosystem : It is a system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living
factors of the environment. Ecosystem is the basic unit of nature or ecology.

Types of Ecosystem : 2 types as

A. Man-made ecosystem like Agricultural field, gardens, aquarium, Urban ecosystem, parks,
orchards,etc.
B. Natural Ecosystem
1. Terrestrial or land – based ecosystem
a). Forest ecosystem, (b). Grassland Ecosystem, (c).Desert Ecosystem

2. Aquatic Ecosystem
a). Fresh water Ecosystem : (i)Lotic water ecosystem or flowing water. E.g. Rivers, stream.
(ii)Lentic water ecosystem or still water e.g. Ponds, lakes, wetlands.
b). Marine ecosystem: (i) Brackish water ecosystem e.g. Deltas, estuaries.
(ii) Saline water ecosystem e.g. coastal region, coral reefs, Deep Ocean, etc.

The integral components of the ecosystem (both biotic and abiotic) interact with each other through
several functional aspects and have to maintain a homeostatic condition.
Homeostasis: It is a phenomenon where an ecosystem maintains a functional balance or relatively
stable state of equilibrium amongst its various components.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Structural aspects of an ecosystem: The components of an ecosystem make up the structural
aspects. There are two components of an ecosystem:
A) Biotic components and (B) Abiotic components
A) Biotic components : (i) Producers, (B) Consumer and (D) Decomposer
(i) Producers (Autotrophs): They are photosynthetic or autotrophic plants which are
able to synthesise organic food from inorganic raw material with the help of solar
radiation. Producers are also called the transducers because they are able to change
radiant or light energy into chemical form. All other organisms depend upon them
for their supply of organic compound or food.
(ii) Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Consumers are animal group which feed on other
organisms, they ingest their food and hence they are also called phagotrophs.
Consumers are broadly categories as
(a) Primary Consumer or first order consumer: Herbivores which directly depend
on plants for food. e.g. deer, mouse, squirrel, grasshopper, beetles, cattle,
crustaceans, protozoans, etc.
(b) Secondary consumer or 2nd order consumer: They are the carnivores which feed
on herbivores. E.g. frog, centipede, birds, fishes, snakes, jackal, wild cats, etc.
 (c) Tertiary consumer or 3rd order consumer : These animals feed on primary and
secondary consumers. E.g. owl, peacock, several fishes, lion, tiger, etc.
(iii) Decomposer or saprotrophs (sapros – rotten, trophs – feeders) : They are
saprotrophic micro-organisms which feed on dead bodies of organisms and organic
wastes of living components. Decomposers are also called reducers or detrivores
because they are able to remove or degrade the dead organic matters and break
down the complex organic matters into simpler substances making them available in
soil. They help in quick disposal of the dead organic matters. Thus, they have a vital
role in nature, without them all the nutrients would be tied up in dead matters and
no new life would be produced.

In an ecosystem, the compartment of producer, consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary)

and decomposer are known as the trophic levels of ecosystem.

B) Abiotic Components: Abiotic components of an ecosystem consist of non-living substances

and factors. They are broadly divided into climatic and edaphic factors. Climate is a complex
factor formed by interaction of solar radiations with various constituents of lithosphere,
hydrosphere, latitude and altitude, rocks, etc. to produce variables like temperature,
humidity, precipitation, air currents, light, etc. The edaphic factors include those factors
connected with soil or substratum like topography, background, mineral, elements, pH, etc.
Abiotic factors limit the distribution, behaviour and relationships with other organisms.

FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem functions through several biogeochemical cycles and energy-transfer
mechanisms. Energy transfer in an ecosystem, food chain and food web of an ecosystem,
ecosystem pyramids, biogeochemical cycles, ecological successions, etc. are the integral part of
ecosystem functions.
1. Energy flow in an ecosystem: The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. Solar
energy is gradually transformed to light energy, chemical energy and heat energy. Green
plants absorb light energy and convert into chemical energy. The chemical energy stored in
the food passes from producers to consumers and then to decomposers through food chain.
Most of the light energy is lost due to obstruction by water vapour, dust particles, smoke,
etc. The light which could penetrate the atmosphere is also not used fully as a part of it is
reflected back from the leaf surface. Only 1 – 5% of the total light energy falling on plants is
used for photosynthesis.
The fixation of solar energy by the green plants and its utilization in the form of
food by the living organisms obey the two laws of thermodynamics. According to the 1 st law
–Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form
to another. The 2nd law states that every transformation of energy is accompanied by a
simultaneous degradation of energy from concentrated form to dispersed form i.e. at each
step of conversion some energy is lost as heat energy. It only converts solar energy to
potential chemical energy. This potential energy is used by producers as well as by the
consumers for metabolic works and in the process of work, a greater part of the energy is
transformed into heat energy which escapes and therefore cannot be utilised.
 SUN(ultimate source of energy)

Solar energy (sunlight)

PRODUCER PRIMARY CONSUMER SECONDARY CONSUMER

(plants, phytoplanktons) (herbivores, fish, insects, rodents) (insectivores, birds, frog, large fish)

RAW MATERIAL DEATH REMAINS TERTIARY CONSUMER

(Organic & inorganic state) (Snake, tiger, lion)

DECOMPOSERS
(Bacteria, fungi)

Fig. : Diagrammatic representation of the passes of solar energy at different trophic levels in
ecosystem.

FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

i) Food Chain : The transfer of food energy from producer through a series of organisms
(herbivores to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten. Two
types of food chain : (a) Grazing food chain and (b) Detritus food chain
ii) Food Webs : The interlocking patterns of organisms in food habits.

Grasshopper

Lizard

Grass Rabbit Hawk

Mouse Snake

iii) Ecological Pyramid : It is the graphical representation of the trophic structure and
functions at successive trophic level i.e. producer to consumer and then to decomposer
in the ecosystem. Three types of pyramids : (a) Pyramid of number : The pyramid of
number is upright when the producers are smaller in size as in the case of algae in
aquatic ecosystem. But when the producers are larger than the consumers as in the case
of forest trees, the pyramid ao number is inverted.
(b) Pyramid of Biomass : The total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem at
any time is biomass. The pyramid of biomass for terrestrial ecosystem is upright whereas
that of aquatic ecosystem is inverted or spindle shape as the biomass of phytoplankton
is less than that of zooplanktons in which it is less than that of secondary consumers.
 (c) Pyramid of energy : It graphically represents the amount of energy trapped per unit
time and area in different trophic level of a food chain. The pyramid of energy is always
upright in every ecosystem.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is the replacement of one community or ecosystem by another in
succession and continues until a climax or final stage is attained. Replacement of one
community depends on the types of ecosystem.

Sere : The whole sequence of communities that replaces one another ina given area is called a sere.
E.g. Hydrosere : Replacement of communities undergoes in aquatic ecosystem, Xerosere :
Replacement of communities undergoes on rock or lithosphere.
Serial or successional communities : The individual communities that replace one another in a given
area during the course of succession.
Kinds of succession : 6 types
1. Primary succession : First succession or establishment of community on the habitat that has
never been occupied before. E.g. newly formed glaciers, deltas, lakes and bare rocks. This
succession takes 100 to 1000 years to attain its complex or final stage.
2. Secondary succession : When succession begins on the disturbed habitat which have been
destroyed by natural or human such as fire, clearing or abandoned cultivation, felling trees,
flooding, etc. To attain final stage in this succession it took about 10 to 100 years.
3. Autogenic succession : Succession due to the modification of physical environment by the
community itself. E.g. socio-forestry, agro-forestry, jhum cultivation, clearing land, setting
fire, etc.
4. Allogenic succession : Succession cause by the external forces or agent other than the
organism. E.g. weathering deposits, deposition of sand along river banks, or silt deposits or
lake bottom, etc.
5. Autotrophic succession : Early communities of succession that are predominated by plants
than animal groups, here the rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of respiration.
6. Heterotrophic succession : Early successional communities are predominated by
heterotrophs like bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and small animals. Here the rate of
respiration is higher than the rate of photosynthesis.

Process or stages of ecological succession : 7 stages

i) Nudation : Succession always begin on a bare or denuded area, so formation of bare
land is nudation. E.g. erosional areas, land forms of volcanic eruption, flood plains,
drought affected lands or bare lands due to activities like storm, fire, or humans, etc.
ii) Invasion : The first colonizers invade the bare region by seeds or spores or other
propagules through wind or animal activities. The number of invaded species depend on
migratory animal groups, ecological barriers and climatic conditions.
iii) Establishment or ecesis : The invaded species begin to grow and starts reproducing for
succession. The first species which become established in the new bare area are called
pioneer species.
iv) Colonisation : The pioneer species reproduces, multiply and colonise to make their own
population.
 v) Competition : The established species reproduce and compete among themselves for
space, nutrition and other resources through intra-specific and inter-specific
competition. During this process many species are eliminated, only the stronger species
will survive. Survival of the species depends on the ecological amplitudes, higher
reproductive capacity and allelopathic properties.
vi) Reaction : The pioneer species interact with the habitat and modify the physical
environmental conditions and it is known as reaction. The result of reaction are changed
in soil quality, water, temperature , humidity, etc. This modified environment may not
be favourable for the existing community and is being slowly replaced by the next
community. Thus, types of community changes until a climax stage or an equilibrium
between community members and their physical environment is attained.
vii) Stabilization : The stable stage community is the climax stage of ecological succession. It
is the last stage and the community structure remain unchanged and the community is
said to be established or stabilised stage.

ECOSYSTEM TYPES

1. FOREST ECOSYSTEM: Forest ecosystem encompasses all the living(biotic) components like
plants, animals, and microorganisms, along with the non-living (abiotic) factors like soil,
water , and climate; all interacting within a specific forest area. It is a complex biodiverse
region, the plant and animal species are closely dependent on each other and together they
form different types of forest communities.

Forest types of INDIA

a) Coniferous Forest: Found in Himalayan mountain region of H.P., Uttarkhand, J & K,
Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. The region is dominated by tree species like deodar,
spruce, fir, etc.
b) Broad-leaved forest: 2 types. (i)Evergreen forest – Found in high rainfall areas of
Western Ghats, NE India and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. (ii) Deciduous forest :
Found in regions where there is moderate seasonal rainfall that lasts only for few
months. E.g. rosewood, Malabar kino, teak, Indian laurel, mango, bamboo, etc.
c) Thorne Forest: Found in semi-arid regions of India mainly dominated by xerophytic
plants.
d) Mangrove Forest: Mainly found in coastal areas of river deltas, plants are uniquely
adapted to be able to grow in a mix of saline and freshwater conditions. The mangrove
trees have breathing roots called pneumatophores that emerge from the mud banks for
oxygen absorption, underground root growth, nutrient absorption, etc.

Forest Services
1. Controls the overflow of water in streams and rivers which eventually cause flood.
2. Forest cover reduces surface run-off of rainwater and help to recharge the ground water.
3. Regulate the local temperature.
4. Maintain carbon-oxygen balance.
5. Provides food and shelters to many wild birds and animals.
 6. Food, fodder, timber, medicinal herbs, fruits, roots, etc. are harvested from forest.

Threats to forest ecosystem

i) Over-exploitation of forest products for timber and fuel wood.
ii) Conversion of locally available forest plant species into monoculture plantation.
iii) Over-utilisation of forest resources in an unsustainable manner.
iv) Forest fire, road making, mining and dam construction impose a vast destruction to the
wild species both plants and animals.
v) Forest cover is decreasing from 33% to 11% in the last century. In 2023, globally the
forest cover was recorded as 31% while for India the cover was 21.76%.

Forest Conservation Measures

i) Sustainable usage of forest resources.
ii) Alternative means of fuel to replace fuel wood.
iii) Best policy is to increase the green mass through afforestation.
iv) Forest protection under the declaration of national parks and wildlife sanctuary.
v) Involving the local community in Joint Forest Management (JFM).

POND ECOSYSTEM

Pond ecosystem is the simplest example of aquatic ecosystem to observe the cyclic changes. Ponds
often dried up after the monsoon season and are covered by terrestrial plants for the rest of the
year. During rainy season various life forms like algae, microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails,
and worms emerge from the floor of the pond and even more complex species like crabs, frogs and
fish return to the pond. Plant species like floating macrophytes, rooted aquatic vegetation around
the periphery emerges during this period. The biotic and abiotic components ( pH, temperature,
aquatic nutrients, DO, free CO2, alkalinity, turbidity, sediment, etc.) and interaction like food chain,
nutrient cycle, gaseous exchanges, succession, etc. existed in the water filled pond. During dry
season the pond gets dry up and surrounding grasses and terrestrial plants spread into the moist
mud that is exposed. Animals like frogs, snails and worms remain dormant in the mud, awaiting the
next monsoon.