1

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

on
“Highway Construction”
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF DEGREE IN

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

STUDENT NAME

ROLL NO:

UNDER THE
GUIDANCE OF

NAME OF GUIDE
DESIGNATION OF GUIDE
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
 2

I.K. GUJRAL PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR, PUNJAB

2025

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the Project entitled Topic name in
B.Tech and submitted in the Civil Engineering Department of the Universal Institute of
Engineering and Technology is carried under the Supervision of Guide Name, Desgination, Civil
Engineering Department.

Date: Adarash Sharma

Roll No.-2207843

Signature of the Student

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my/our
knowledge

Signature of the Supervisor

Guide Name
Designation
Department of Civil Engineering

The B. Tech Viva –Voce Examination of Student name has been held on and
accepted

Signature of Supervisor Signature of External Examiner

Signature of HoD
 3

Acknowledgement

The internship opportunity I had with (Eagle Infra India Ltd.-Inderdeep Construction
Company) was a great chance for learning and professional development. Therefore, I
consider myself as a very lucky individual as I was provided with an opportunity to be a
part of it. I am also grateful for having a chance to meet so many wonderful people and
professionals who led me though this internship period.

Bearing in mind previous I am using this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude

and special thanks to the (Er. ASHOK THAKUR), (QS & BILLING PLANNING ENGINEER)
in Eagle Infra India Ltd. Who in spite of being extraordinary busy with his duties, took
time out to hear, guide and keep me on the correct path and allowing me to carry out
my project at their esteemed organization and extending during the training.

I express my deepest thanks to (Mr. MITHILESH KUMAR SINGH), (SENIOR PROJECT

MANAGER) for taking part in useful decision & giving necessary advices and guidance
and arranged all facilities to make life easier. I choose this moment to acknowledge his
contribution gratefully.

I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I will

continue to work on their improvement, in order to attain desired career objectives.
Hope to continue cooperation with all of you in the future,
Sincerely,
ADARASH SHARMA
Collage: Universal Group of Institution
Branch: B.Tech CE, 4th Year
Roll No.: 2207843
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COMPLETION CERTIFICATE LETTER ISSUED FROM THE

DEPARTMENT
 5

CONFIRMATION TRAINING LETTER ISSUED FROM THE DEPARTMENT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO. Content Page No.

1. Certificate 4
2. Confirmation Letter 5
3. Table of Contents 6
4. Overview on MSIDC 7-8
5. Details about MSIDC Project 9-10
6. Introduction 11
6.1 Scope of Highway engineering 11
6.2 Important technical terms related to roads 11-12
6.3 Highway development in India 13
6.4 Modern developments 13
6.4.1. Jayakar Committee 14-15
6.4.2. Central Road Fund 15
6.4.3. Indian Road Congress 15-16
6.4.4. Nagpur Road Congress 16
6.5 Central Road Research Institute 17
6.5.1. Classification of Roads 17
6.5.2. Classification of roads Acc. to location 17
a. National Highways 17-18
b. State Highways 18
c. Major district roads 18
d. Other district roads 18
e. Village Roads 18
6.6 Highway Project 19
7. Planning and Design 20
7.1. The stage of Highway Development 21
7.1.1. Planning 21-24
7.1.2. Project Development 25-26
7.1.3. Final Design 26-29
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7.1.4. Right-of-Way 30-32

7.1.5. Construction 32-36
8. Geotechnical Considerations 37
8.1. Importance of Geotechnical Engg. 37
8.2. Key Geotechnical Investigation & Assessments 37-40
8.3. Geotechnical Challenges in Highway Construction 40
9. Pavement Design 41
9.1. Requirements of a pavement 41
9.2. Function 42
9.3. Types of Pavements 43
9.3.1. Flexible Pavements 43-47
9.3.2. Rigid Pavements 48-63
10. Construction Techniques 64
10.1. Construction Staking 64-66
10.2. Clearing & Grubbing of the Road Construction Area 66-67
10.3. General Equipment Considerations 68
10.4. Bulldozer in Road Construction 68-70
10.5. Hydraulic Excavator in Road Construction 70-71
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Overview:

Maharashtra - State Infrastructure Development Corporation (MSIDC) is an

undertaking of Government of Maharashtra established to develop physical
infrastructure sectors not only in Maharashtra but also across the country and the
globe with an aim to spur development in a sustainable manner - environmentally,
economically, and socially.
Formed under the aegis of PWD, MSIDC will bring its experience and expertise to
transcend the learning curve and accelerate achieving India's goal of becoming a USD 5
Trillion economy. It aims to partner with other economies globally to develop state-of-
the-art infrastructure living the Indian philosophy of "Vasudhaiv kutumbakam"
meaning "The world is one family".

MSIDC (Maharashtra State Infrastructure Development Corporation) is a government

undertaking focused on developing physical infrastructure in Maharashtra and beyond,
aiming for sustainable development and contributing to India's economic
growth. MSIDC has undertaken a 6,000-km road project worth Rs 37,000 crore,
ensuring that these roads are constructed using high-quality cement concrete.

 Mission:
MSIDC's mission is to be the driving force behind the holistic development of
Maharashtra's infrastructure, aiming for sustainable development in an
environmentally, economically, and socially responsible manner.
 9

 Scope:
MSIDC works to develop infrastructure projects not only within Maharashtra but also
across the country and globally, partnering with other economies to develop state-of-
the-art infrastructure.

 Under the Aegis of PWD:

MSIDC is formed under the aegis of the Public Works Department (PWD).

 Examples of Recent Projects:

 Port Facilities Expansion
 New Greenfield Polymer Factory
 Plastic Bottles & Packaging Expansion Project
 New Sewage Treatment Plant in Goa
 Civil Hospital Campus Expansion
 Pune-Shirur Road project

 Vision:
MSIDC aims to transcend the learning curve and accelerate achieving India's goal of
becoming a USD 5 Trillion economy.

 Philosophy:
MSIDC strives to live the Indian philosophy of "Vasudhaiv Kutumbakam" (meaning
"The world is one family").
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 DETAILS ABOUT MSIDC PROJECT

1) Project of 49C
EPC-AM-II (49C) Improvement to Mangrulpir Darwha
Loni Belora Akolabazar Ghatanji Shivini Road SH- 290
Bagwadi to Jawla phata, From Chainage 42+000 to
PROJECT 69+890 (Length=27.890 Km.)

Total cost of project – 123.88 Cr.

Maharashtra State Infrastructure Development

Corporation (MSIDC)
CLIENT

ASSUCUTIVE ENGINEER M/s Lion Engineering consultants Pvt. Ltd.

EPC CONTRACTOR Eagle Infra India Ltd – Inderdeep Construction

COMPLETION PERIOD 30 Months from date of Appointment including
Construction period
STRUCTURE 26 Hume Pipe Culvert (HPC), 06 Box Culvert

2) Project of 51A

EPC-AM-II (51A) Improvement to Sawangi Satefal Ner

Babhulgaon Wadki Chargaon Antargaon Road From
Chainage 0+00 to 31+00 (Sawangi to Ner) on EPC mode
PROJECT (Length=30.614 Km.)

Total cost of project – 134.59 Cr.

Maharashtra State Infrastructure Development

CLIENT Corporation (MSIDC)

ASSUCUTIVE ENGINEER M/s Lion Engineering consultants Pvt. Ltd.

EPC CONTRACTOR Eagle Infra India Ltd – Inderdeep Construction

COMPLETION PERIOD 30 Months from date of Appointment including
Construction period
STRUCTURE 15 Minor Bridge, 59 Hume Pipe Culvert (HPC), 14 Box
Culvert

PROJECT SCOPE
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 Project Length of package (49C)

(2 lane length) : 27.890 km
 Proposed Configuration: Majority Length 2-lane Divided Carriageway with 7 m.
Shoulder 01 m Earthen Shoulder on either side.
 Pavement Type: Rigid Pavement
 Hume Pipe Culvert (HPC) : 26 Nos.
 Box Culvert : 06 Nos.

 Project Length of package (51A)

(2 lane length) : 30.614 km
 Proposed Configuration: Majority Length 2-lane Divided Carriageway with 7 m.
Shoulder 1.5 m Earthen Shoulder on either side.
 Pavement Type: Rigid Pavement
 Minor Bridge : 15 Nos.
 Hume Pipe Culvert (HPC) : 59 Nos.
 Box Culvert : 14 Nos.

INTRODUCTION
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Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with adequate

road network. Roads are the major channel of transportation for carrying goods and
passengers. They play a significant role in improving the socio-economic standards of a
region. Roads constitute the most important mode of communication in areas where
railways have not developed much and form the basic infra-structure for the
development and economic growth of the country. The benefits from the investment in
road sector are indirect, long-term and not immediately visible. Roads are important
assets for any nation. However, merely creating these assets is not enough, it has to be
planned carefully and a pavement which is not designed properly deteriorates fast.
India is a large country having huge resource of materials. If these local materials are
used properly, the cost of construction can be reduced. There is various type of
pavement which differ in their suitability in different environments. Each type of
pavements has its own merits and demerits. Despite a large number of seminars and
conference, still in India, 80.4% roads are having flexible pavements and 19.57% roads
are in rigid pavements. India has one of the largest road networks in the world (over 3
million km at present).

Scope of Highway engineering:

Apart from the design, construction and maintenance of different types of roads,
highway engineering also includes the study of the following topics:
· Development, planning and locations of roads;
· Materials required for their construction
· Highway traffic performance and its' control
· Drainage of roads etc.

Important technical terms related to roads:

Some important terms having immediate concern with highway engineering are
discussed below:
 Road:
A public through fare over which vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians etc. may lawfully move
from one place to another is called a road or highway.
Usually, the term highway is used for an important road of national or state importance
in a country.

 Traffic:
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The vehicles, cycles, carts, pedestrians etc. traveling together on a road constitute the
traffic.
 Foot way:
The portion of roadway of an urban road reserved only for pedestrians is called foot
path, side walk or foot way. The minimum width of side walk should be 1.5 meters.
 Cycle track:
The portion of roadway of an urban road reserved only for bicycles is called cycle track.
The minimum width of cycle track should be 2 meters.
 Motor way:
The portion of roadway of an urban road reserved for use only by high speed and
power-driven vehicles is called motor way, express way or super highway.
The land width for an express way is recommended as 50 to 60 meters. The function of
express way is to cater for movement of heavy volumes of motor traffic at high speeds.

Highway development in India:

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Excavations in the sites of Indus valley, Mohenjo-dero and Harappan civilizations

revealed the existence of planned roads in India as old as 2500-3500 BC. The Mauryan
kings also built very good roads. Ancient books like Arthashastra written by Kautilya, a
great administrator of the Mauryan times, contained rules for regulating traffic, depths
of roads for various purposes, and punishments for obstructing traffic.
During the time of Mughal period, roads in India were greatly improved. Roads linking
North-West and the Eastern areas through Gangetic plains were built during this time.
After the fall of the Mughals and at the beginning of British rule, many existing roads
were improved. The construction of Grand-Trunk Road connecting North and South is a
major contribution of the British. However, the focus was later shifted to railways,
except for feeder roads to important stations.

Modern developments

The first World war period and that immediately following it found a rapid growth in
motor transport. So, need for better roads became a necessity. For that, the
Government of India appointed a committee called Road development Committee with
Mr. Jayakar as the chairman. This committee came to be known as Jayakar committee.

Jayakar Committee

In 1927 Jayakar committee for Indian road development was appointed. The major
recommendations and the resulting implementations were:
 Committee found that the road development of the country has become beyond
the capacity of local governments and suggested that Central government
should take the proper charge considering it as a matter of national interest.
 They gave more stress on long term planning programme, for a period of 20
years (hence called twenty-year plan) that is to formulate plans and implement
those plans with in the next 20 years.
 One of the recommendations was the holding of periodic road conferences to
discuss about road construction and development. This paved the way for the
establishment of a semi-official technical body called Indian Road Congress (IRC)
in 1934.
 The committee suggested imposition of additional taxation on motor transport
which includes duty on motor spirit, vehicle taxation, and license fees for
 15

vehicles plying for hire. This led to the introduction of a development fund called
Central Road fund in 1929. This fund was intended for road development.
 A dedicated research organization should be constituted to carry out research
and development work. This resulted in the formation of Central Road Research
Institute (CRRI) in 1950.

Central Road Fund (CRF), 1929

 On recommendation of the Jayakar committee, the central road fund was

enforced on first march, 1929.
 The petrol tax surcharge at the rate of two annas per gallon (2.64 paise per
litters) of the petrol consumed by motor traffic was imposed to build the road
development fund.
 Out of annual revenue, thus collected, 20% was to be retained by the central
government. for meeting expenses on the on the administration purpose,
research and the development of roads under its charge.
 The balance 80% of the central road fund was to be distributed among the
provinces, according to their petrol consumption, for maintenance and
construction of roads.

Indian Road Congress (IRC), 1934

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) is the Apex Body of Highway Engineers in the country.
The IRC was set up in December, 1934 on the recommendations of the Indian Road
Development Committee best known as Jayakar Committee set up by the Govt. of India
with the objective of Road Development in India.
 To promote and encourage the science and practice of building and maintenance
of roads;
 To provide a channel for the expression of collective opinion of its members
regarding roads;
 To promote the use of standard specifications and to propose specifications;
 To advise regarding education, experiment and research connected with roads;
 To hold periodical meetings, to discuss technical questions regarding roads;
 To suggest legislation for the development, improvement and protection of
roads;
 To suggest improved methods of administration, planning design, construction,
operation, use and maintenance of roads;
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 To establish, furnish and maintain libraries and museums for furthering the
science of road making;
 To publish, or arrange for the publication of proceedings, journals, periodicals
and other literature for the promotion of the objects of the Society;
 To accept subscriptions, subsidies, donations, endowments and gifts in
furtherance of the objects of the Society;
 To grant pay, prizes, honoraria, or scholarships (including traveling scholarships)
for meritorious work in furtherance of the objects of the Society.

Nagpur road congress 1943

The Second World War saw a rapid growth in road traffic and this led to the
deterioration in the condition of roads. To discuss about improving the condition of
roads, the government convened a conference of chief engineers of provinces at
Nagpur in 1943. The result of the conference is famous as the Nagpur plan.
A twenty-year development programme for the period (1943-1963) was finalized. It
was the first attempt to prepare a co-ordinated road development programme in a
planned manner.
The roads were divided into four classes:
 National highways which would pass through states, and places having national
importance for strategic, administrative and other purposes.
 State highways which would be the other main roads of a state.
 District roads which would take traffic from the main roads to the interior of the
district. According to the importance, some are considered as major district
roads and the remaining as other district roads.
 Village roads which would link the villages to the road system.
The committee planned to construct 2 lakh kms of road across the country within 20
years.
They recommended the construction of star and grid pattern of roads throughout the
country.
One of the objectives was that the road length should be increased so as to give a road
density of 16kms per 100 sq.km.

Central road research institute:

 17

In 1950, Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) was started at New Delhi. This institute
is considered as one of the National laboratories of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research in India. This institute is mainly engaged in applied research and
offers technical advice to state governments on various problems concerning to roads.

Classification of roads:

Roads are classified into different categories as under: -

 According to location
 According to importance
 According to traffic
 According to tonnage

Classification of roads according to location:

According to location and financial responsibility, non-urban roads in India are

classified into the following five categories: -
 National Highways (NH)
 State Highways (SH)
 Major District Roads (MDR's)
 Other District Roads (ODR's)
 Village Roads (VR's)
This classification of roads was done as per recommendations made in the Nagpur plan
finalized the Indian Roads Congress in 1943. This classification is, therefore, popularly
known as IRC classification of road.
The different categories of roads according to this classification are discussed below: -

1. National highways:

The main highways running through the length and breadth of the country connecting
major parts, foreign highways and capitals of states etc. are known as National
Highways (NH's).
These highways constitute the main arteries of transport in the country and are also of
military importance. National highways should have the carriageway of at least two-
lane widths. They should have the modern type of surfacing. The responsibility of
construction and maintenance of these roads lies with the central govt.
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2. State highways:

The highways linking the district headquarters and important cities within the state or
connecting them with National highways or with highways of the neighbouring states
are known as state highways (SH's).
These highways are also called provincial highways. These highways serve as arterial
routes of traffic to and from district roads within the state. State highways should
preferably be of two-lane width. They should also have a modern type of surfacing. The
responsibility of construction and maintenance of these road lies with state
governments. However, the central government gives grant for the development of
these roads.

3. Major district roads:

The important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and
connecting these places with each other or with the main highways are known as
Major District Roads (MDR's).

4. Other District Roads:

The roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market
canter’s, Tehsil headquarters, block development headquarters, railway
stations etc. are known as Other District Roads (ODR's).

5. Village Roads:
The roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or with the nearest
road of higher category are known as Village roads.

Highway Project:
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In a new highway project, engineer has to plan, design and construct either a network
of new roads or a road link. It should contain information such as...
 General details of the project and its importance
 Feature of the road including selection of the route, alignment, traffic etc.
 Road design and specification
 Drainage facilities and cross drainage structures
 Material, labour and equipment
 Rates
 Construction programming and
 Other miscellaneous items like diversion roads, traffic control, road side
amenities, rest houses etc.

The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project;

 Key map
 Index map
 Preliminary survey plan
 Details plan and longitudinal section
 Detailed cross-section
 Land acquisition plans
 Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
 Drawings of road intersections
 Land plans showing quarries etc.

Planning and Design

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In highway construction projects, planning and design are crucial, involving site
surveys, defining road alignment and cross-sections, considering traffic flow, safety, and
environmental impact, and developing detailed construction plans.

Site Survey and Analysis: Before construction can begin, the site must be
thoroughly surveyed and analyzed. This involves evaluating the existing conditions of
the area, including natural features such as terrain, waterways, and vegetation, as well
as any man-made structures that may impact the road’s construction.

Defining Road Alignment and Cross-Section: Once the site analysis is complete,
the road’s alignment and cross-section are defined. The alignment refers to the path
that the road will follow, while the cross-section defines the width and shape of the
road.

Determining Materials and Equipment: Once the road’s alignment and cross-
section are defined, the materials and equipment needed for construction can be
determined. This includes the type and quantity of materials such as asphalt, concrete,
and gravel, as well as the equipment needed to transport, mix, and apply them.

Creating a Detailed Construction Plan: Finally, a detailed construction plan is

created, outlining the entire construction process from start to finish. This plan
includes timelines, budgets, and contingency plans for unexpected events or delays.
The planning and design phase is critical to the success of the road construction
project. Proper planning ensures that the project is completed on time and within
budget, while also ensuring that the road is safe, functional, and meets the needs of
the community it serves.

THE STAGES OF HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT

Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the highway
development process are: planning, project development (preliminary design), final
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design, right-of-way, and construction. After construction is completed, ongoing

operation and maintenance activities continue throughout the life of the facility.

Figure 1.1 Although these activities are distinct, there is considerable overlap between
all phases of highway planning and development.

Planning

The initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project takes
place during the planning stage. This problem definition occurs at the State, regional,
or local level, depending on the scale of the proposed improvement. This is the key
time to get the public involved and provide input into the decision-making process. The
problems identified usually fall into one or more of the following four categories:
1. The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure
repair).
2. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access
to transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
3. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems
that can only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
4. Developmental pressures along the route make a re-examination of the number,
location, and physical design of access points necessary (access).
Whichever problem (or set of problems) is identified, it is important that all parties
agree that the problem exists, pinpoint what the problem is, and decide whether or
not they want it fixed. For example, some communities may acknowledge that a
roadway is operating over its capacity but do not want to improve the roadway for fear
 22

that such action will encourage more growth along the corridor. Road access may be a
problem, but a community may decide it is better not to increase access,

Obtaining a community consensus on the problem requires proactive public

involvement beyond conventional public meetings at which well-developed design
alternatives are presented for public comment. If a consensus cannot be reached on
the definition of the problem at the beginning, it will be difficult to move ahead in
the process and expect consensus on the final design.

 Planning Occurs at Three Government Levels

State Planning. At the State level, State DOTS are required to develop and maintain a
statewide, multimodal transportation planning process. Broad categories of highway
 23

improvement needs are defined, based primarily on ongoing examinations of roadway

pavement conditions and estimates of present-day and 20year projections of traffic
demands. In addition, each State is required to conduct biennial inspections of its
major bridges (and similar, less frequent, inspections of minor structures) to determine
their structural adequacy and capacity. In a number of States, regional transportation
plans for multiple counties are prepared within the context of the statewide planning
process. Every few years, the State selects improvement projects based on the long-
range plan and includes them in the Statewide Transportation Improvement Program,
or STIP.

Regional Planning. State efforts are supplemented in urbanized areas with a

population of more than 200,000 through the metropolitan transportation planning
process. Metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs) develop their own regional plans,
unlike nonMPO areas, which must rely on the State planning process. The metropolitan
planning process requires the development of a long-range plan, typically prepared
with a 20 to 25year planning horizon. The plan not only defines a region's multimodal
transportation needs, but also identifies the local funding sources that will be needed
to implement the identified projects. Each urbanized area or MPO then uses this
information to prepare a shorter, more detailed listing and prioritization of projects for
which work is anticipated within the next 3 to 5 years. The listing of these projects is
referred to as the shortrange Transportation Improvement Program, or TIP The TIP is
incorporated into the STIP.

Local Planning. Most cities and counties follow a similar process of project
identification, conceptual costing, and prioritization of the roadways for which they are
responsible. Generally, these are roads that are not the responsibility of the State DOT.
However, the State must work with localities to get their input into the long-range plan
and STIP.

 Factors To Consider During Planning

It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential
impact that a proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in the
 24

conceptual phase. During planning, key decisions are made that will affect and limit the
design options in subsequent phases. Some questions to be asked at the planning stage
include:
 How will the proposed transportation improvement affect the general physical
character of the area surrounding the project?
 Does the area to be affected have unique historic or scenic characteristics?
 What is the safety, capacity, and cost concerns of the community?
Answers for such questions are found in planning level analysis, as well as in public
involvement during planning.
Physical
Safety Capacity
Character

Cost Other

Historic and
Environmental Multimodal
Scenic
Quality Consideration
Characteristics
Figure 1.2 Factors to consider in planning.

PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into
the project development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies.
The level of environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of
 25

the project. It can range from a multiyear effort to prepare an Environmental Impact
Statement (a comprehensive document that analyzes the potential impact of proposed
alternatives) to a modest environmental review completed in a matter of weeks.
Regardless of the level of detail or duration, the product of the project development
process generally includes a description of the location and major design features of
the recommended project that is to be further designed and constructed, while
continually trying to avoid, minimize, and mitigate environmental impact.

The basic steps in this stage include the following:

 Refinement of purpose and need
 Development of a range of alternatives (including the "no build" and traffic
management system [TMS] options)
 Evaluation of alternatives and their impact on the natural and built environments
 Development of appropriate mitigation

In general, decisions made at the project development level help to define the major
features of the resulting project through the remainder of the design and construction
process. For example, if the project development process determines that an
improvement needs to take the form of a four-lane divided arterial highway, it may be
difficult in the design phase to justify providing only a two-lane highway. Similarly, if
the project development phase determines that an existing truss bridge cannot be
rehabilitated at a reasonable cost to provide the necessary capacity, then it may be
difficult to justify keeping the existing bridge without investing in the cost of a totally
new structure.
 26

Figure 1.3 Scoping brings all participants into the process

Scoping

Just as in planning, there are many decisions made during the scoping phase of project
development, regardless of the level of detail being studied. Therefore, it is important
that the various stakeholders in the project be identified and provided with the
opportunity to get involved (see Figure 1.3). Agency staff can identify stakeholders by
asking individuals or groups who are known to be interested or affected to identify
others and then repeat the process with the newly identified stakeholders. A good
community impact assessment will also help identify stakeholders and avoid
overlooking inconspicuous groups. The general public should not be omitted, although
a different approach is usually needed with the general public than with those who are
more intensely interested. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has recently
published a guide entitled, Community Impact Assessment: A Quick Reference for
Transportation, that describes this community impact assessment process.

FINAL DESIGN
After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description agreed
upon as stated in the environmental document, a project can move into the final
design stage. The product of this stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and
estimates (PS&Es) of required quantities of materials ready for the solicitation of
construction bids and subsequent construction. Depending on the scale and complexity
of the project, the final design process may take from a few months to several years.
The need to employ imagination, ingenuity, and flexibility comes into play at this stage,
within the general parameters established during planning and project development.
Designers need to be aware of design related commitments made during project
planning and project development, as well as proposed mitigation. They also need to
 27

be cognizant of the ability to make minor changes to the original concept developed
during the planning phase that can result in a "better" final product.
The interests and involvement of affected stakeholders are critical to making design
decisions during this phase, as well. Many of the same techniques employed during
earlier phases of the project development process to facilitate public participation can
also be used during the design phase.

The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design, including:

 Developing a concept
 Considering scale and
 Detailing the design.

a) Developing a Concept
A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it toward a specific
direction. There are many elements in a highway, and each involves a number of
separate but interrelated design decisions. Integrating all these elements to achieve a
common goal or concept helps the designer in making design decisions.
Some of the many elements of highway design are illustrated in Figure 1.5, including:
a. Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and shoulders
b. Traffic barriers
c. Overpasses/bridges
d. Horizontal and vertical alinement, and affiliated landscape.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.4 All elements of highway design

need to be part of an overall
concept.
 28

(d)

Having a multidisciplinary team can assist in establishing a design "theme" for the road
or determining the existing character of a corridor that needs to be maintained. Design
consistency from the perspective of physical size and visual continuity is an important
factor when making such improvements, and a multidisciplinary design team can assist
in maintaining that consistency.

b) Considering Scale
People driving in a car see the world at a much different scale than people walking on
the street. This large discrepancy in the design scale for a car versus the design scale
for people has changed the overall planning of our communities. For example, it has
become common in many suburban commercial areas that a shopper must get in the
car and drive from one store to the next. Except in the case of strip malls, stores are
often separated by large parking lots and usually have no safe walkways for
pedestrians. This makes it difficult to get around any other way but by car. This type of
design scale is in sharp contrast to preautomobile commercial areas that commonly
took the form of "main streets," where walking from one store to the next, was the
norm.

Elements (or a lack of elements) along the roadside also contribute to the perceived
width of the road and can even affect the speed at which motorists travel. With all else
being equal, the wider the perceived road, the faster motorists will travel. Along with
horizontal and vertical alinement, cross-section elements, and other elements, such as
vegetation along the roadway, buildings close to the road, on street parking, and even
noise walls, may contribute to reducing the perceived width and speed of the road.
Considering these elements is important in designing a facility that is compatible with
its surroundings.
 29

Figure 1.5 Relatively minor differences in roadway cross section and the treatment of
the roadway edge can have major effects on perceived width.

c) Detailing the Design

Particularly during the final design phase, it is the details associated with the project
that are important. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that important
design details are considered and that they are compatible with community values.
Often it is the details of the project that are most recognizable to the public. A special
type of tree that was used as part of the landscape plan, antique lighting, brick
sidewalks, and ornamental traffic barriers are all elements of a roadway that are easily
recognizable and leave an impression. Because of their visibility, the treatment of
details is a critical element in good design.

 RIGHTOFWAY, CONSTRUCTION, AND MAINTENANCE

Once the final designs have been prepared and needed right-of-way is purchased,
construction bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and
construction is initiated. During the right-of-way acquisition and construction stages,
 30

minor adjustments in the design may be necessary; therefore, there should be

continuous involvement of the design team throughout these stages. Construction may
be simple or complex and may require a few months to several years. Once
construction has been completed, the facility is ready to begin its normal sequence of
operations and maintenance.
Even after the completion of construction, the character of a road can be changed by
inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of sections of
guardrail damaged or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever spare guardrail
sections may be available to the local highway maintenance personnel at the time. The
maintenance personnel may not be aware of the use of a special guardrail design to
define the "character" of the highway. When special design treatments are used,
ongoing operation and maintenance procedures acknowledging these unusual needs
should be developed. For example, the Oregon DOT has developed a special set of
maintenance procedures for its scenic and historic highways.

ELEMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL PROCESS

Table 1.1 summarizes the five basic stages in highway planning and development.

Stage Description of Activity

Planning State DOTs, MPOs, and local governments
identify transportation needs and program
project to be built within financial constraints.
Project The transportation project is more clearly
Development defined. Alternative locations and design
features are developed and an alternative is
selected.
Design The design team develops detailed PS&Es.
Additional land needed for the project is
Right-of-Way
purchased.
The State or local government selects the
Construction
contractor, who then builds the project.
Table 1.1 Summary of the Highway Planning and Development Process

In other words, a successful highway design process includes the following:

 31

 Early and continuous public involvement throughout the project

 The use of visualization techniques to aid the public
 Early and continuous use of a multidisciplinary design team
 The application of flexible and creative design criteria

Some of these elements are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Public Involvement. A successful highway process includes public involvement. To

be effective, public involvement must be sought from the beginning, during the
definition of need for the project. The public should be involved while there are the
greatest opportunities for changes in the design. This will result in a smoother and
faster process.

Public input can also help in assessing the characteristics of the area and determining
what physical features are most valued by the community, thus having the greatest
potential for impact. Knowing the features of an area are valued may help designers
avoid them altogether and reduce the need for mitigation and the likelihood for
controversy. After working with the community to define the project and assess the
physical character, continuous public involvement is important to gain input on
possible alternatives.
Identifying community values, defining the project need with the public, gathering
information on the area, and solving design conflicts with the public necessitate a
proactive public involvement effort going far beyond the usual presentation of well-
developed design alternatives at formal public meetings and hearings. For example, by
using a workshop meeting format early in project design, highway designers can ask
members of the public to identify types of design features that they find appealing or
unappealing. In September 1996, the FHWA and the Federal Transit Administration
(FTA) issued Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decisionmaking, which
describes a wide variety of these innovative public involvement techniques.'

Visualization Tools. The most effective communication between two parties takes
place when both speak the same language. This can be achieved in design using
illustrations that show the public what a project will look like before it is built.
Increasingly, computer-generated visualization tools are being used for this purpose.
 32

Designers can communicate conceptually what they are planning for an area, and
citizens can react with a certain degree of confidence that they understand what is
being communicated to them. Lower end computer systems use a photograph taken of
the existing project area and superimpose a drawing, using computer graphics, of what
the new construction will look like. Visualization tools, such as these, help the public
gain a better understanding of the proposed improvement project.

 Pre-Construction

Before the actual road construction can begin, there are several preparatory tasks that
need to be completed. These tasks fall under the pre-construction phase, which
includes the following:

 Clearing the site and preparing the subgrade

Clearing the site involves removing any obstructions, such as trees, rocks, or buildings,
that may hinder the construction process. The subgrade, which is the natural soil or
rock beneath the road surface, must also be prepared. This involves removing any
unsuitable materials and compacting the subgrade to create a stable foundation for the
road.

 Installing drainage systems

Proper drainage is crucial in road construction, as it prevents water from accumulating
on the road surface and causing damage. During the pre-construction phase, drainage
systems such as culverts and ditches are installed to channel water away from the road.
 33

 Establishing the construction site

The construction site is established by setting up temporary offices, storage areas, and
other facilities that are necessary for the construction process. This includes setting up
fencing, signage, and safety barriers to ensure that the site is secure and safe for
workers and the public.
 34

 Mobilizing equipment and materials

Once the construction site is established, equipment and materials are brought in to
begin the construction process. This includes heavy machinery such as excavators,
bulldozers, and graders, as well as materials such as asphalt, concrete, and gravel.
By completing these pre-construction tasks, the construction site is ready for the next
phase of the road construction process: the actual construction.
 35

 Construction

Once the pre-construction activities are completed, it’s time to start the construction
process. This phase involves several crucial steps that must be performed accurately
and efficiently to ensure the quality and durability of the road. Here are the main steps
involved in the construction phase:

 Grading and paving the sub-base

The first step in the construction phase is to grade and pave the sub-base. This involves
preparing the ground and adding a layer of crushed stone or gravel to create a stable
foundation for the road.

 Installing the base course and binder course

Once the sub-base is completed, the next step is to install the base course and binder
course. The base course is made up of a layer of dense graded aggregate, while the
binder course is made up of asphalt concrete. These layers provide additional stability
and strength to the road.

 Applying the surface course

After the base course and binder course are completed, the surface course is applied.
This is the topmost layer of the road and is made up of high-quality asphalt concrete.
The surface course provides a smooth and even driving surface.
 36

 Installing pavement markings and signage

The final step in the construction phase is to install pavement markings and signage.
This includes painting lines on the road, adding reflective markers, and installing signs
to indicate speed limits, crosswalks, and other important information for drivers.
By following these steps, a road construction project can be completed successfully,
with a road that is safe, durable, and high-quality.

Post-Construction

Once the road surface is complete, there are still important steps to be taken to ensure
the longevity and safety of the road.
1. Inspecting and testing the road surface: Before opening the road to traffic, the
surface must be inspected and tested for quality and safety. This can include
testing for smoothness, skid resistance, and pavement thickness, among other
factors. Any deficiencies must be addressed before the road can be opened.
2. Completing final cleanup and demobilization: After the road is open to traffic,
the construction site must be cleaned up and all equipment and materials
demobilized. This includes removing any temporary structures, disposing of any
waste materials, and restoring the site to its original condition.
3. Conducting ongoing maintenance and repairs: Proper maintenance and repairs
are critical to ensuring the road remains safe and functional over time. This can
include routine inspections, repairs to any cracks or potholes, and regular
resurfacing to maintain the integrity of the pavement.
By following these post-construction steps, road construction projects can be
completed successfully and safely, with a focus on long-term durability and usability.

Geotechnical considerations
 37

Geotechnical considerations are crucial in highway construction, focusing

on understanding and managing the behaviour of soil and rock to ensure stability and
safety. This includes assessing soil properties, groundwater conditions, and potential
hazards like landslides or settlement, all of which influence pavement design and
infrastructure stability.

1. Importance of Geotechnical Engineering in Highway Construction:

 Foundation Stability:
Geotechnical engineers ensure that the highway foundation can adequately support
the weight of the pavement and traffic loads, preventing settlement or failure.
 Pavement Design:
Understanding soil properties is essential for designing the appropriate thickness and
type of pavement layers to withstand traffic and environmental conditions.
 Drainage:
Proper drainage is crucial to prevent water from accumulating beneath the pavement,
which can weaken the soil and lead to pavement damage.
 Slope Stability:
Geotechnical engineers assess the stability of slopes and embankments, particularly in
areas prone to landslides or erosion, to prevent failures.
 Groundwater Management:
Understanding groundwater levels and its impact on soil behaviour is crucial for
preventing problems like heave or instability.

2. Key Geotechnical Investigations and Assessments:

 Soil Testing: Laboratory and field tests are conducted to determine soil
properties like strength, compressibility, and permeability.
 38

 Groundwater Investigation: Monitoring and assessing groundwater levels and its

interaction with the soil are essential.

 Site Characterization: Geotechnical engineers conduct detailed site

investigations to understand the soil and rock conditions, including stratigraphy
and subsurface conditions.

 Bearing Capacity Assessment: The capacity of the soil to support the load of the
highway is assessed.
 39

 Settlement Prediction: Estimating the amount of settlement that may occur

under the highway's load is important for designing the pavement.

 Slope Stability Analysis: Analyzing the stability of slopes and embankments to

prevent failures.
 40

3. Geotechnical Challenges in Highway Construction:

 Unstable Soils:
Dealing with expansive soils, soft clays, or other unstable soils can pose significant
challenges.
 Landslides:
Areas with steep slopes or unstable ground are prone to landslides, requiring
specialized engineering solutions.
 Groundwater Problems:
High groundwater levels or seasonal fluctuations can lead to instability and pavement
damage.
 Subsidence:
Settlement of the ground due to mining or other activities can cause problems for
highways.

 Environmental Considerations:
Geotechnical engineering must also consider environmental impacts, such as pollution
from construction materials or soil contamination.

Introduction to Pavement Design

 41

Overview

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to
provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favourable light
reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that
the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will
not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally
recognized as serving this purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements.
This chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers, and their functions, and
pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of pavements
affecting the riding quality.

Requirements of a pavement
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on
the sub-grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing
visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Function
 Load Distribution:
 42

Pavements are designed to spread the concentrated weight of vehicles across a

wider area, preventing excessive stress on the subgrade and ensuring it doesn't
deform or fail under repeated loading.
 Durability and Functionality:
Pavements provide a safe, smooth, and durable surface for traffic, capable of
withstanding various weather conditions and traffic loads over its design life.

Types of pavements
 43

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by
grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible
pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road).
On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by
flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement
concrete roads). In addition to these, composite pavements are also available. A thin
layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with most
desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction
because of high cost and complex analysis required.

Flexible pavements

Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-
grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Load transfer in granular structure

 44

Deflection on flexible pavement

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the
stress decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution
characteristic, flexible pavements normally have many layers. Hence, the design of
flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system. Based on this, flexible pavement
may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has to be of best quality to
sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will
experience lesser magnitude of stress and low-quality material can be used. Flexible
pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the
form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on
low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume
roads such as national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of
the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-grade
then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the
design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses
produced should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

Typical layers of a flexible pavement

 45

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course,
tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-
grade, and natural sub-grade (Figure 2).

Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.
Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with
water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be
thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat:
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface
like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids,
and forms a water tight surface.

Figure 2: Typical cross section of a flexible pavement

Surface course
 46

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete (AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also, it will
prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying
base, sub-base and sub-grade,
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and
skid- resistant riding surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the
weakening effect of water.

Binder course
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates
having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so
replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in more economical
design.

Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
drainage It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or
stabilized materials.

Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion
of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open
graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-
grade and the base course A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For
example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the
additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course
may not be provided.

Sub-grade
 47

The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from
the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should
be compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

Failure of flexible pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking.
The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load
repetitions to tensile strain and this relation can be determined in the
laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible
pavements as indicated by permanent deformation or rut depth along wheel load path.
Two design methods have been used to control rutting: one to limit the vertical
compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to a tolerable
amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking
and thermal fatigue cracking.
 48

Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to
a wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure 3.
Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the
prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is
only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be
called as base or sub-base course.

Figure 3: Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement

 PQC (Pavement Quality Concrete)

PQC (Pavement Quality Concrete) Road refers to a road constructed using Pavement
Quality Concrete (PQC), a specific type of cement concrete designed for high-strength,
durable, and rigid road surfaces, particularly for heavy traffic areas.
 PQC is a type of cement concrete used for the top layers of roads, highways, and
runways.
 It is designed to withstand heavy loads, high-impact forces, and wear and tear
from traffic and environmental factors.
 PQC is known for its high strength, durability, and resistance to abrasion.
 49

Why is PQC used for roads?

 PQC ensures a rigid and strong surface capable of distributing heavy loads of
traffic.
 It resists wear and tear from repeated traffic use, weathering, and environmental
factors.
Construction of PQC Roads
 PQC roads are typically constructed using automatic truss screed machines for a
consistent screed finish of concrete.
 The construction process involves vibration and levelling to ensure a dense,
compacted surface.
 Texturing machines are used to create grooves for skid resistance.
 Curing and joint cutting are important steps to control cracking and ensure
strength development.
Materials used in PQC Roads
 Ordinary Portland Cement (IS 269), Portland Pozzolana Cement (IS 459), and
Portland Slag Cement (IS 1489) can be used for PQC.
 Crushed aggregates with a maximum size of 32mm can be used.
 Clean coarse river sand conforming to IS:383 is used.
 Water conforming to IS:456-2000 is used.
 Different types of admixtures conforming to IS:6925 & IS:9103 can be used.
 50

 DLC (Dry Lean Concrete)

DLC road cross-section" refers to a road section where Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) is used
as a sub-base or base course, typically in rigid pavements. DLC is a type of concrete
with a high aggregate-to-cement ratio, making it less expensive and easier to compact
than conventional concrete. DLC is commonly used as a base or sub-base layer in rigid
pavements (like concrete pavements) to provide a stable foundation for the top layers.
 Cross-Section:
The cross-section of a road with DLC would show the pavement structure, including the
DLC layer, the pavement surface (e.g., concrete slab), and potentially other layers like a
sub-grade.
Key Features:
 Pavement Structure: The DLC layer, typically 150mm thick, is placed beneath the
concrete slab or other surface course.
 Roadway Width: The width of the road, including lanes and shoulders.
 Embankment/Cut Slopes: The slopes of the earthwork on either side of
 Drainage Structures: Features for managing rainwater runoff.
 51

 GSB (Granular sub-base)

Granular sub-base (GSB) is a layer of crushed stones or gravel that's used as a sub-base
for roads and other structures. It's a vital component of road construction that
provides structural support, load distribution, drainage, and a stable base for the upper
layers.

 Equipment and Machinery for Granular Sub Base:

The following sets of equipment are necessary for the GSB construction work.
 Grader/Loader/Excavator as required
 Vibratory Rollers (80 -100 KN static weight)
 Water Tanker (10,000 Litres)
 Tippers/Dumpers -10T /20T (as per site requirement)

 GSB Material:
The GSB material shall be crushed stone aggregate free from organic and other
deleterious constituents or natural river bed material having proper gradation.
 It shall conform to grading-I of table 400-1 of MORTH specification, with the
percentage passing 0.075mm size restricted to 5%.
 The material shall have four days of soaked CBR of a minimum of 30%
 52

Physical properties of GSB Material:

 The portion of the total aggregate passing through a 4.75mm sieve shall have a
sand equivalent value of not less than fifty when tested following the
requirement of IS 2720 (Part-37).
 A mix of different sizes of crushed aggregates from approved sources shall be so
proportioned to achieve the specified grading.
 The Proportioning shall be done by ascertaining the proper gradation of the
individual ingredients and the blend determined by trial-and-error method to
achieve the gradation specified.
 MDD & OMC shall be established for the material blend, and it will be ensured
before the actual execution of that material used in GSB layer has a CBR value of
30% or more when compacted and finished.
 In case of variation of gradation in the course of work, the proportion shall be
suitably modified, and the entire required test shall be carried out per relevant
specification.
 The material shall be blended at source/crusher to achieve the specified
gradation and shall be jointly checked at the site for conformance to gradation
and other tests as defined in section 900 of MORTH.

IS Sieve Designation (mm) Percent by weight passing the IS sieve Grading-I

 53

75 100

53 80 – 100

26.5 55 – 90

9.5 35 – 65

4.75 25-55

2.36 20 – 40

0.425 10- 25

 Granular Sub Base Construction Method:

Spreading of GSB Layer:

 Mark the outside lines of the GSB layer with lime powder or pegs on the
completed subgrade.
 Requisite sub-surface drain and drain outlet at the level of sub-grade/sub-base
shall be completed before GSB construction.
 Before the sub-base is laid, the existing subgrade will be finished by removing all
vegetation and other Sub-extraneous matter, lightly sprinkled with water if
necessary and rolled with two passes of 80 -100 KN smooth wheeled roller.
 After loading material with the help of a loader on the dumpers, transported it
to the GSB location.
 The required material shall be dumped between the limiting lines previously
marked with the help of lime powder.
 The material of the GSB layer confirming shall be spread in layers of uniform
thickness of 150 mm compacted thickness for new flexible pavement, and 150
mm compacted thickness for Service Roads and rigid pavement. A grader shall
be used for this activity.
 The moisture content of the material should have OMC +1.0% or –2.0%; if not,
either a mixing or drying process must be adopted. Water can be added to raise
 54

the moisture content to the required limits. After spraying water with the
browser, the material shall be properly mixed to obtain a homogeneous mix. The
mixing can continue with the help of a grader. The grader shall then carry out the
final well-defined grading.

Compaction of GSB Layer:

 55

 Compaction of Granular Sub Base shall start immediately after achieving the
required moisture content.
 The compaction shall be done with a vibratory compactor.
 The compaction pattern, including the number of passes required, shall be
finalized after the full-scale experiment at the site to achieve 98% of MDD
determined as per IS: 2720 (Part -8). The general pattern shall be as follows:
o Initial rolling: Two static passes with a Vibratory roller
o Subsequent rolling: Four vibratory pass
 One roller pass shall include both forward and reverse movement of the roller.
The speed of the roller shall not exceed 5.0 Km /Hour.
 The compaction shall commence from the lower edge and move to the upper
edge width by width.
 Quality control tests shall be carried out prior to the commencement of the next
layer.
 The compaction behind the structure shall be accomplished with a vibratory
roller or plate compactors to achieve 98% of MDD.
 The surface of GSB layer shall have a suitable cross fall to enable efficient surface
drainage.
 The finished level GSB shall be within the tolerance limits specified.1, i.e. +06
mm to – 06 mm.

Subgrade
He foundation of the pavement structure is known as subgrade. Preparation of
subgrade consists of all operations before the pavement structure is placed over it and
compacted. The subgrade may be situated on an embankment, by excavation, or at the
existing ground surface. In all the above cases, Site Clearance Clearing Grubbing
Operation should be done before starting the pavement structure construction. After
that, the grading operation is started as per the design and drawing of the highway
plan and profile. Subgrade performance depends on two corresponding factors, which
are as follows.
 Load bearing capacity: Compaction, moisture content, and soil type usually
affect subgrade load bearing capacity.
 Volume changes: When exposed to excessive moisture or freezing conditions,
most soils undergo volume changes, affecting subgrade performance.
 56

 Construction Equipment:
 57

The following sets of equipment are necessary for the planned progress of road
subgrade construction work.
 Excavator
 Tippers /Dumpers
 Motor Graders
 Vibratory Compactor
 Water Bowser with Sprinklers etc.
 58

 Subgrade Construction Process:

 The subgrade in road construction shall be prepared as per the MORTH
specifications if it is not mentioned in the construction contract technical
specifications.
 The limits of filling shall be marked by fixing batter pegs at regular intervals on
both sides of the layer, and the working line should be marked with lime
powder.
 The layer should be built 300mm wider than the designed and drawing
dimensions so that after proper compaction is achieved up to the toe, the
surplus materials shall be trimmed to get the properly compacted slopes of the
subgrade.
 Where the fill is to be deposited against an existing subgrade, continuous
horizontal benches of 300 mm wide shall be cut into the old slope.
 In the cutting section, where cutting is to be done up to the subgrade top, its top
layer shall be loosened and re-compacted as per technical specification.
 The topsoil in the borrow area shall be removed by grubbing or stripping so that
earth without vegetation is excavated and loaded for the subgrade layer.
 Soil from approved borrow areas shall be excavated with Excavators and loaded
onto tippers or dumpers for transportation to the stretch ready to receive fill
Material.
 The material shall be dumped between the limiting lines marked with lime
powder.
 The material shall be spread in layers of a uniform thickness not exceeding
250mm of compacted thickness. A grader or a combination of dozer and grader
can be used for this activity.
 The grader will initially spread the heap of earth dumped over a stretch
maintaining an approximate line and level.
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 The material should have an Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) at this stage,
ranging from +1% to –2%.
 The mixing or drying process should be adopted if OMC is not found within the
permissible limit.
o When the material at the site is too Dry: Additional water shall be added
to increase the moisture content up to the permitted limit. After
sprinkling water with the browser, the material shall be thoroughly mixed
with the help of a grader to obtain a homogenous mix. After that, the
grader shall carry out the final precise grading.
o When the material at the site is too Wet: If the material at the site is too
wet, it shall be dried by aeration and exposure to the sun until the
moisture content is acceptable.
 When a combination of grader and dozer is used, the dozer shall carry out the
initial spreading of borrowed material to the approximate line and level. After
that, the grader shall carry out the final precise grading.
 The in-situ moisture content shall be checked with the help of a rapid moisture
meter.

Quality Control:
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 The poor soil should be avoided if possible, but when it is required to build over
weak soils, several techniques are used to improve subgrade performance, as
follows.
o Remove poor soil and replace it with higher quality fill material.
o Soil stabilization using admixtures can increase subgrade stiffness and
reduce swelling tendencies of soil.
o Additional base layers can help to spread pavement loads over a larger
subgrade area.
 Required maximum laboratory dry unit weight when tested as per IS:2720 (Part
8), and it should not be less than 18 Km/cum
 Relative compaction as a percentage of maximum laboratory dry density as per
IS:2720 (Part 8) is not less than 98%.
 Construction of subgrade with approved material satisfying a minimum CBR of
5% should be followed.

 Embankment
The earthen material, which is laid and compacted to raise the grade line of a
proposed highway or railway above the Existing Ground Level (EGL) of the original
ground, is called a road embankment. The grade line of the road may be raised due to
some reasons, which are as follows:
 keeping subgrade above Ground Water Table (GWT)
 preventing damage to the pavement from the surface and capillary water.
 To maintain the designed vertical alignment of the road.

Embankment design considerations include filling height, the material used, settlement
consideration and stability analysis. In the case of grater fill height and weak
foundation soil, ground improvement is necessary to control the settlement of the
foundation soil. After construction, due to consolidation or fill height settlement or
both, the embankment may settle.
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Embankment Settlement:
 When road embankment foundation consists of compressible soil with high
moisture content
 Due to inadequate compaction of filled layers during construction operation

Action Measure:
The following action can be taken to eliminate settlement risk during construction
operations.
 To increase the foundation soil consolidation rate by providing a sand drain.
 By proper compaction of filled layers during construction operation

Embankment Construction Equipment:

 Excavator
 Tippers /Dumpers
 Motor Graders
 Vibratory Compactor
 Water Bowser with Sprinklers etc.

Embankment Construction Material:

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 The Embankment material shall be soil, moorum and gravel, fly ash or a mixture
of these three.
 The material shall satisfy the requirements defined in the clauses of the
construction contract document.
 The materials used in the works shall be suitable roadway/drainage/structure
excavated material or borrowed material approved by the Engineer as per
requirements of MORTH Specifications.

Embankment Material Properties:

 Maximum Dry Density (MDD):
o For embankments, up to a height of 3.0m is 1.52 T/cum
o For embankments more than 3.0m in height, 1.60 T/Cum
o A separate density requirement as per the contract specification shall
apply for fly ash.
 CBR: Minimum CBR requirement NIL
 Coarse material: Size not more than 75mm
 Free swell index: Not exceeding 50% (to be used only below 500mm of top of
the embankment)
 Liquid Limit: Not exceeding 70
 Plasticity Index: Not exceeding 45

Road Embankment Construction:

 Atterberg limits, MDD, OMC, and in-situ dry density of the material at ground
level shall be checked.
 Any unsuitable material shall be removed as directed by the Engineer and
replaced with suitable material.
 Embankment may be constructed by laying suitable material in layers not
exceeding 250mm thickness.
 Each layer is compacted by rolling to a satisfactory degree or the required
density achieved before the next layer is placed.
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 Compaction is carried out at optimum moisture content so as to take benefit of

maximum dry density using a specified compacting effort and equipment.
 All the measurements of filling shall be taken at every stage of construction.

Quality Control and Testing:

 The compaction control shall be achieved on each layer by taking a random
density measurement as specified in clause 903.2.2 of MORTH specifications.
 Field density tests shall be conducted by sand replacement method/non-
destructive tests (Nuclear density gauge method).
 When density measurement reveals soft areas in the embankment, these are
compacted further. If the specified compaction is not achieved, the material in
the soft area shall be removed and replaced by approved material, compacted to
the specification.
 Record of testing shall be maintained in pictorial/chart form showing the details
like date of testing, bore area used and log number of approval requests etc., as
necessary to monitor the activity.
 The following tests are Pertinent to Embankment (Ref clause 903.2 of MORTH)

Construction Techniques
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Road Construction Techniques

Construction Staking

Prior to the construction activity the design information has to be moved from the
plan to the ground. This is accomplished by staking. Slope stakes are an effective
way to insure compliance with the design standards and to keep soil disturbance to
an absolute minimum. Various staking methods can be employed. (Dietz et al.,
1984; Pearce, 1960) The method discussed here is but one example.

Stakes, marking various road design points, are typically obliterated during the
clearing and grubbing phase. In order to relocate the stakes (centerline, slope
stakes) it is helpful to establish reference points outside the clearing limits.
Reference points should be set at least 3 to 5 meters behind the uphill clearing
limits. On the average, reference points (or RP's) should be set at least every 70 to
100 meters. Typically, reference points are placed at points where the center line
alignment can be easily re-established, such as points of curvature. Figure 102
shows the necessary stakes and stake notation needed by the equipment operator
to construct a road.

Stakes are used by the equipment operator in locating where to begin cutting. If the
selected starting point is too high, considerably more material has to be cut in order
to construct the proper subgrade (Figure 103). For example, if the cut results in a 20
percent wider subgrade, approximately 50 percent more volume has to be
excavated. (See Section 3.2.2.) If the cut is placed too low, an overstepped cut slope
or extra side casting may result, both of which are undesirable.

Starting the cut at the proper point becomes more important as the side slope
increases. As a rule, slope stakes should be set when sideslopes exceed 40 to 45
percent depending on the sensitivity of the area and the operator's experience.

The use of RP's (Reference Points) or slope stakes for proper excavation is shown in
Figure 104. Here, the engineer stands on the preliminary centerline of the construction
grade and sights for the RP. A slope reading of 30 percent and a slope distance of 5.53
m is recorded. Converting the slope distance of 5.53 m to a horizontal distance of 5.30
m and to a vertical distance of 1.59 m allows the engineer to determine how much the
"present" or preliminary centerline has to be shifted to conform with the design
centerline. The RP tag requires 6.50 m horizontal distance to centerline with a vertical
drop of 4.80 m. From that information, it can be seen that an additional 1.56 m [4.80 -
(1.59 + 1.65) = 1.56] has to be cut and the present location has to be shifted by 1.2 m
(6.50 - 5.30 = 1.20). Height of instrument or eye-level is assumed to be 1.65 m .
 65

Figure 1. Road cross section showing possible construction information.

Figure 2. The effect of improperly starting the cut as marked by the slope stake. Starting the cut too
high results in excess excavation and side cast. Starting the cut too low leaves an overstepped cut
bank
 66

Figure 3. Construction grade check. Engineer stands on center of construction grade and sights to RP
tag. Measured distance and slope allow for determination of additional cut.

Clearing and Grubbing of the Road Construction Area

Preparing the road right-of-way or construction area is referred to as clearing and

grubbing. During the clearing phase, trees are felled. Grubbing refers to the clearing
and removal of stumps and organic debris. Trees should be felled and cleared a
minimum of 1 to 3 m from the top of the cut or toe of the fill (Figure 4). The logs can be
decked outside the construction area (Figure 4, B to E) or skidded away

Figure 4. Clearing limits in relation to road bed widths. Significant quantities of organic materials are
removed between B and E. Stumps are removed between B and D. Stumps may be left between D
and E. Organic debris and removed stumps are placed in windrows at F to serve as filter strips (see
Section 6.3.1).
 67

This additional width between construction width and forest edge ensures that space
is available to deposit organic debris outside the road construction width and that
there is no overlap between forest edge and construction area.

A good construction practice to follow is to remove stumps that are within the
construction width (Figure 4, B to E). Trees should be felled to leave a stump 0.8 to 1.2
m high. This helps bulldozers in stump removal by providing added leverage.

Organic overburden or topsoil typically has to be removed over the full construction
width (Figure 4, B to D). This is especially true where organic layers are deep or
considerable sidecast embankment or fills are planned. Organic material will
decompose and result in uneven settlement and potential sidecast failure. Organic
material should be deposited at the lower edge of the road (Figure 4, E to F). This
material can serve as a sediment filter strip and catch wall (see Section 6.3.1), however
care should be taken that this material is not incorporated into the base of the fill. Past
road failures show that fill slope failures have been much more frequent than cut slope
failures (70 percent and 30 percent, respectively). In most cases, poorly constructed
fills over organic side cast debris was the reason for the failures.

If pioneer roads are constructed, they are often built at the top of the construction
width and are usually nothing more than a bull dozer trail. When considerable side hill
fill construction is planned, however, the dozer trail should be located at the toe or
base of the proposed fill. The trail will serve as a bench and provide a catch for the fill
to hold on (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Pioneer road location at bottom of proposed fill provides a bench for holding fill material of
completed road.
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General Equipment Considerations

The method and equipment used in road construction is an important economic and
design factor in road location and subsequent design. A road to be built by an operator
whose only equipment is a bulldozer requires a different design than a road to be built
by a contractor equipped with hydraulic excavator, scrapers, and bulldozer. Table 38
lists common road construction equipment and their suitability for the different phases
of road construction. A bulldozer can be used in all phases of road construction from
excavation and drainage installation to final grading. The front end loader performs
well in soft material. Front end log loaders can be fitted with a bucket extending their
usefulness under the correct conditions.

Bulldozer in Road Construction:

Probably the most common piece of equipment in forest road construction is the
bulldozer equipped with straight or U-type blades. These are probably the most
economical pieces of equipment when material has to be moved a short distance. The
economic haul or push distance for a bulldozer with a straight blade is from 17 to 90
meters depending on grade. The road design should attempt to keep the mass balance
points within these constraints.

The road design should consider the following points when bulldozers are to be used
for road construction.

1. Roads should be full benched. Earth is side cast and then wasted rather than used to
build up side cast fills.

2. Earth is moved down-grade with the aid of gravity, not up-grade.

3. Fill material is borrowed rather than pushed or hauled farther than the economic
limit of the bulldozer.

4. Rock outcrops should be bypassed. Unless substantial rock blasting is specified

requiring drilling and blasting equipment, solid rock faces should be avoided (This,
however, is primarily a road locator's responsibility.)
 69

ggggg

Table 1. Road construction equipment characteristics. (from OSU Extension Service, 1983).

When using bulldozers, the practice of balancing cut and fill sections should be used
only when:

- sideslopes do not exceed 45 to 55 percent

- proper compaction equipment is available such as a "grid roller" or vibrating or

tamping roller

- fills have a sufficient width to allow passage of either compaction equipment or

construction equipment, such as dump trucks.

Adequate compaction cannot be achieved with bulldozers alone. The degree of

compaction exerted by a piece of equipment is directly related to its compactive
energy or ground pressure. Effective ground pressure is calculated as the weight of the
vehicle divided by the total ground contact area, or the area of tires or tracks in
contact with the surface. Bulldozers are a low-ground pressure machine and therefore
 70

are unsuitable for this process. Ground pressure of a 149 kW (200 hp), 23 tonne
bulldozer (Cat D7G, for example) is 0.7 bar (10.2 lb / in2). By comparison, a loaded
dump truck (3 axles, 10 m3 box capacity) generates a ground pressure of 5 to 6 bar
(72.5 to 87.1 lb / in2).

Figure 6. Maximum production rates for different bulldozers equipped with straight blade in relation
to haul distance. (from Caterpillar Handbook, 1984).

Hydraulic Excavator in Road Construction

The hydraulic excavator is a relatively new technology in forest road construction. This
machine basically operates by digging, swinging and depositing material. Since the
material is placed, as opposed to pushed and/or sidecast, excellent control is achieved
in the placement of the excavated soil. This feature becomes more important as the
side slope increases. Fill slope lengths can be shortened through the possibility of
constructing a catch wall of boulders along the toe of the fill. This feature is particularly
important when side slopes increase to over 40 percent.

Mass balance along the centerline is limited to the reach of the excavator, typically
about 15 to 20 meters. However, because of excellent placement control, construction
of a balanced cross section can be achieved with considerably less excavation. Raveling
disturbance and erosion is reduced as well because of lesser excavation and little or no
downhill drifting of embankment material (Figure 7)
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Figure 7. Fillslope length reduction by means of catch wall at toe of fill.

Production rates for hydraulic excavators are given in Table 2. Production rates are
shown for three different side slope classes. The values given are for a medium sized
excavator with a 100 kW power rating (e.g., CAT 225, Liebherr 922).

Side slope Production rate

% meter / ...hour

0 - 40 12 - 16

40 - 60 10 - 13

> 60 8 - 10

Table 2. Production rates for hydraulic excavators in relation to side slopes, constructing a 6 to 7 m
wide subgrade

The excavator production rate approaches the dozer production rate as side slope
increases. There are now indications that excavator production rates are higher than
dozer production rates on slopes steeper than 50 percent. This difference will increase
with increased rock in the excavated material. The bucket of the excavator is much
more effective at ripping than the dozer blade. Excavators are also more effective at
ditching and installing culverts.