Ministry of Education
Red Sea STEM School
Physics Research Report, Red Sea, Egypt, 31st January 2025 - 1st May 2025
The Effect of Temperature on the Strength of Magnets
Mohamed Ramadan Refea, Ahmed Tolba
(Red Sea STEM High School, Hurghada, Egypt)
Keywords
Thermal demagnetization, Curie temperature, Magnetic domains, Spin-wave theory, Coercivity,
Remanence, Magneto crystalline anisotropy, Mitigation strategies, High-temperature
applications.
Introduction
Magnetic materials are indispensable components in a wide array of technological applications,
ranging from electric motors and generators to data storage devices and medical imaging
systems. The performance and reliability of these devices depend critically on the strength and
stability of the magnetic materials under diverse operational conditions. Among these
conditions, temperature plays a pivotal role, often inducing significant alterations in magnetic
properties that lead to performance degradation or even complete failure. A robust
understanding of the interplay between temperature and magnetic behavior is thus paramount
in designing resilient and efficient magnetic systems.
The strength of a magnet, characterized by its ability to generate a consistent and reliable
magnetic field, is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, with temperature being one of
the most significant. As the temperature of a magnetic material changes, several underlying
physical mechanisms come into play, affecting key parameters such as saturation magnetization,
coercivity, and remanence. The importance of maintaining these properties under thermal
stress cannot be overstated.
This research paper aims to comprehensively investigate the effect of temperature on the
strength of magnets, focusing on the fundamental principles that govern magnetic behavior and
thermal effects. To provide a richer background, we will also briefly trace the historical
development of magnetic materials, from the early discoveries of lodestones to the synthesis of
advanced rare-earth magnets, underscoring the persistent quest for materials with enhanced
thermal stability. We will delve into the atomic origins of magnetism, the role of magnetic
domains, and the concept of the Curie temperature. Furthermore, we will examine how
temperature affects critical magnetic properties, explore the underlying thermal
demagnetization mechanisms, and evaluate various mitigation strategies.
In line with practical considerations, this study will also evaluate various mitigation strategies
designed to enhance the thermal stability of magnets. These strategies include material
selection, composition optimization, advanced engineering techniques, and novel material
architectures such as nanocomposites and amorphous alloys.
Fundamentals of Magnetism
2.1 Atomic Origins of Magnetism
Magnetism in materials arises from the intrinsic magnetic moments of electrons, which
originate from their spin and orbital angular momentum. In most materials, these magnetic
moments are randomly oriented, resulting in no net macroscopic magnetization. However, in
certain materials, particularly those with partially filled d or f electron shells, strong interactions
can align these moments, leading to collective magnetic behavior.
The primary interaction responsible for aligning electron spins is the exchange interaction, a
quantum mechanical effect that arises from the Pauli exclusion principle. This interaction favors
the parallel alignment of electron spins in certain materials, leading to ferromagnetism. The
strength of the exchange interaction is quantified by the exchange integral J, which is positive
for ferromagnetic materials (as shown in image 7)
To elaborate, Hund's rules dictate the electron configurations that maximize the total spin
angular momentum (S) and the total orbital angular momentum (L), which, in turn, determine
the magnetic moments in atoms. Specifically, Hund's first rule states that for a given electron
configuration, the term with maximum multiplicity (i.e., maximum S) has the lowest energy. The
second rule states that for a given multiplicity, the term with the largest value of L has the
lowest energy.
2.2 Magnetic Domains
In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic moments align within microscopic regions called
magnetic domains. Within each domain, the magnetization is uniform, but the direction of
magnetization can vary between different domains. Domain walls separate adjacent domains
with differing magnetization orientations. The formation of magnetic domains minimizes the
overall energy by reducing the magnetostatic energy associated with external magnetic fields.
Domain walls have an associated energy (domain wall energy) that arises from the exchange
and anisotropy energies. The width of the domain wall is determined by a balance between
these energies. Bloch walls are typically wider and occur in bulk materials, while Néel walls are
narrower and are more common in thin films. (as shown in Figure 2)
Factors influencing domain size and wall movement include grain size, crystal defects, and
stress. For instance, smaller grain sizes and higher defect densities increase domain wall
pinning, leading to higher coercivity but potentially lower saturation magnetization.
2.3 Curie Temperature (Tc)
The Curie temperature (Tc) marks the critical point at which a ferromagnetic material transitions
to a paramagnetic state. Above Tc, thermal energy overwhelms the exchange interactions
between atomic spins, causing them to become randomly oriented, thus eliminating long-range
magnetic order. Below Tc, spontaneous magnetization occurs, and the material exhibits
ferromagnetic behavior.
The Curie temperature is a material-specific property and depends on the strength of the
exchange interactions and the crystal structure. The microscopic origin of the Curie temperature
involves the interplay between the exchange energy and thermal fluctuations. The higher the
exchange energy, the higher the Curie temperature. For example, iron has a Curie temperature
of approximately 770°C, while cobalt's Curie temperature is around 1130°C, reflecting stronger
exchange interactions in cobalt. (as shown in Figure 3)
The Curie-Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibility (χ) above the Curie temperature:
where C is the Curie constant, given by: where N is the number
of magnetic atoms per unit volume, μ0 is the permeability of free space, μeff is the effective
magnetic moment per atom, and kB is the Boltzmann constant.
The Bloch law describes the temperature dependence of magnetization below the Curie
temperature:
where is the saturation magnetization at absolute zero.
2.4 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy
Magneto crystalline anisotropy refers to the energy dependence of the magnetization direction
with respect to the crystal lattice. In certain materials, the magnetization prefers to align along
specific crystallographic axes, known as easy axes, due to the interaction between the electron
spins and the crystal lattice. Magneto crystalline anisotropy is essential in determining the
shape of hysteresis loops and coercivity.
There are different types of magneto crystalline anisotropy, including uniaxial, cubic, and shape
anisotropy. Uniaxial anisotropy, common in materials like cobalt, favors magnetization along a
single axis. Cubic anisotropy, common in iron, favors magnetization along certain
crystallographic directions within a cubic lattice. Shape anisotropy arises from the
demagnetizing fields created by the shape of the magnetic material and tends to align the
magnetization along the longest dimension.
3. Types of Magnetic Materials
3.1 Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are materials that retain a significant level of magnetization even after the
external magnetic field is removed. These materials exhibit high coercivity and remanence,
making them suitable for applications where a stable magnetic field is required. Common
permanent magnets include:
• Neodymium magnets (NdFeB): These magnets consist of neodymium, iron, and boron
and are known for their high strength.
• Samarium-cobalt magnets (SmCo): These magnets exhibit high coercivity and excellent
temperature stability, making them suitable for high-temperature applications.
• Aluminum-nickel-cobalt magnets (AlNiCo): AlNiCo magnets have good corrosion
resistance and moderate magnetic strength.
• Ferrite magnets: These magnets are made of iron oxide and barium or strontium
carbonate and are cost-effective for many applications.
3.2 Soft Magnets
Soft magnetic materials are easily magnetized and demagnetized, exhibiting low coercivity and
high permeability. They are used in applications that require rapid changes in magnetic fields,
such as transformers and inductors. Common soft magnetic materials include:
• Iron-silicon alloys (Fe-Si): These alloys are used in transformer cores due to their high
permeability and low core losses.
• Nickel-iron alloys (Ni-Fe): These alloys exhibit high permeability and low coercivity,
making them suitable for magnetic shielding and sensor applications.
3.3 High-Temperature Magnets
High-temperature magnets are designed to maintain their magnetic properties at elevated
temperatures. These materials typically have high Curie temperatures and exhibit minimal
degradation in coercivity and remanence at high temperatures. Examples include:
• Samarium-cobalt magnets (SmCo): Ideal for high-temperature applications due to their
high Curie temperature and resistance to thermal demagnetization.
• Dysprosium-doped neodymium magnets (Dy-NdFeB): Adding dysprosium enhances the
coercivity and high-temperature performance of NdFeB magnets.
3.4 Amorphous Magnetic Materials
Amorphous magnetic materials, such as metallic glasses, lack long-range crystalline order. This
absence of magnetocrystalline anisotropy results in high permeability and low coercivity,
making them suitable for applications in transformers and magnetic shielding. These materials
exhibit unique magnetic properties due to their disordered atomic structure.
3.5 Exchange Spring Magnets
Exchange spring magnets combine hard and soft magnetic materials at the nanoscale to
enhance energy product. The soft magnetic phase is exchange-coupled to the hard magnetic
phase, leading to improved remanence and energy product compared to single-phase hard
magnets.
3.6 Single-Molecule Magnets (SMMs) and Single-Chain Magnets (SCMs)
Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs) are advanced magnetic
materials with potential applications in high-density data storage and spintronics. SMMs are
individual molecules that exhibit slow relaxation of magnetization due to a large energy barrier,
while SCMs are one-dimensional chains of magnetic ions with similar properties.
4. Temperature Effects on Magnetic Properties
4.1 Coercivity Reduction
Coercivity (Hc) measures a magnetic material’s resistance to becoming demagnetized. As
temperature increases, the coercivity of most magnetic materials declines. This behavior follows
a linear model:
Hc(T) is the coercivity at temperature T,
Hc0 is the coercivity at absolute zero (0 K),
α is the temperature coefficient of coercivity.
The physical basis for this behavior lies in thermal agitation, which makes it easier for magnetic
domains to switch direction, requiring a smaller opposing magnetic field to achieve
demagnetization. As temperature rises, atomic vibrations increase, weakening the alignment of
magnetic dipoles and making the system more susceptible to external disturbances.
At very high temperatures near the Curie point (Tc), coercivity can approach zero, and the
material transitions from a ferromagnetic to a paramagnetic state. This behavior is particularly
important in designing magnetic storage devices and permanent magnets, where thermal
stability is crucial. (as shown in Figure 1)
4.2 Remanence Decay
Remanence (Br) is the residual magnetization that remains in a material after the external
magnetic field is removed. It is a critical parameter in permanent magnets and magnetic
memory applications. The thermal decay of remanence is primarily attributed to increased
randomization of magnetic moments due to thermal agitation.
is the remanence at temperature T,
is the remanence at 0 K,
β is the temperature coefficient of remanence.
As thermal energy increases, it disrupts the aligned spin structure responsible for remanent
magnetization. This is especially problematic in devices operating at elevated temperatures,
where even slight reductions in Br can result in signal degradation or data loss.
4.3 Saturation Magnetization
Saturation magnetization (Ms) is the maximum magnetization a material can attain under an
external magnetic field. The reduction in Ms with temperature is governed by Bloch’s T³/² law,
derived from spin-wave theory:
Ms(T) is the saturation magnetization at temperature T,
M0 is the saturation magnetization at 0 K,
Tc is the Curie temperature.
This reduction arises due to the excitation of magnons—quanta of spin waves—which decrease
the net alignment of magnetic moments. The law holds accurately at low temperatures (T <<
Tc). As temperature increases further, higher-order effects can cause deviations from this law.
Understanding the decrease in Ms is crucial for applications like transformers, magnetic sensors,
and recording heads, where high magnetization is necessary for efficient performance.
4.4 Temperature Dependence of Anisotropy Constants
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy represents the energy required to reorient magnetization away
from the preferred crystal direction (easy axis). This energy is quantified by constants K1, K2,
etc., and they exhibit strong temperature dependence:
Where γ is a material-specific coefficient and n typically ranges from 1.5 to 2.5. As temperature
increases, these constants decrease, indicating a softening of magnetic anisotropy. This
reduction lowers the energy barrier for magnetization reorientation, decreasing coercivity and
enhancing domain wall motion.
This behavior is particularly impactful in high-performance magnetic materials such as NdFeB
and SmCo magnets, where anisotropy stability at elevated temperatures is essential for
performance.
4.5 Thermal Hysteresis
Thermal hysteresis refers to the phenomenon where the magnetization curve depends on the
temperature history. In other words, the magnetization at a given temperature depends on
whether the material was heated or cooled to that temperature. This effect is particularly
pronounced in materials with complex microstructures or phase transitions.
5. Thermal Demagnetization Mechanisms
5.1 Spin-Wave Theory
Spin-wave theory explains how magnons—collective excitations of electron spins—reduce net
magnetization as temperature rises. At finite temperatures, thermal energy excites spin waves,
which represent oscillations in the spin orientation within a ferromagnet. This leads to partial
misalignment of spins, reducing overall magnetization. (as shown in Figure 5)
This expression is valid for low to moderate temperatures (T << Tc). As temperature increases,
higher-order excitations (e.g., multi-magnon interactions) cause more rapid magnetization
decay.
5.2 Domain Wall Dynamics
Domain walls separate magnetic domains with different orientations. Their behavior strongly
influences coercivity and remanence. At low temperatures, domain walls are relatively immobile
due to pinning at defects or grain boundaries. As temperature rises, thermal energy helps
domain walls overcome these pinning barriers, enhancing mobility.
Domain wall motion is thermally activated and follows an Arrhenius law:
v is the domain wall velocity, v0 is a pre-exponential velocity factor, Ea is the activation energy, T
is the absolute temperature.
More mobile domain walls at high temperatures lower the required magnetic field for
switching, reducing coercivity. This explains the thermal softening of ferromagnets.
5.3 Anisotropy Field Effects
The anisotropy field (Ha) is the effective field arising from magnetocrystalline anisotropy. It
dictates the ease with which magnetization can align with or deviate from the easy axis. As
temperature increases, Ha decreases due to thermal weakening of the lattice potential that
enforces preferred directions.
This decline in anisotropy field leads to easier domain reorientation, thus facilitating
magnetization reversal and lowering coercivity. In hard magnetic materials, maintaining high
anisotropy at elevated temperatures is vital for performance.
5.4 Role of Defects and Impurities
Imperfections in a material—such as vacancies, dislocations, or non-magnetic inclusions—act as
pinning centers for domain walls. These defects contribute to magnetic hardness by inhibiting
domain motion. However, thermal energy diminishes their effectiveness.
At elevated temperatures, increased atomic vibrations enable domain walls to overcome
pinning, reducing coercivity. This phenomenon is critical in designing thermally stable
permanent magnets, especially in high-temperature environments.
5.5 Dynamic Demagnetization
Dynamic demagnetization refers to rapid changes in magnetization under time-varying thermal
or magnetic conditions, such as pulsed fields or laser-induced heating. These rapid fluctuations
can generate non-equilibrium magnetic states.
In such scenarios, spin systems may not equilibrate instantly, leading to transient
demagnetization and spin disorder. The interplay of domain wall motion, spin-wave excitation,
and lattice heating becomes complex, requiring time-resolved experimental techniques (like
pump-probe magnetometry) for analysis.
Dynamic demagnetization is particularly relevant in high-speed data storage, magnetic
switching, and ultrafast magneto-optical devices.
6. Mitigation Strategies for High-Temperature Applications
6.1 Material Selection
Selecting appropriate materials with high Curie temperatures and intrinsic thermal stability is
essential for high-temperature applications. Samarium-cobalt (SmCo) magnets, with their high
Curie temperatures and excellent resistance to thermal demagnetization, are often preferred
over neodymium magnets (NdFeB) in extreme temperature environments (as shown in Figure 4)
6.2 Composition Optimization
Optimizing the chemical composition of magnetic materials can enhance their thermal stability.
For example, doping NdFeB magnets with elements such as dysprosium (Dy) can significantly
increase their coercivity at elevated temperatures. Similarly, adding small amounts of cobalt
(Co) and other elements to SmCo magnets can improve their thermal performance.
6.3 Grain Boundary Engineering
Grain boundary engineering involves modifying the microstructure of magnetic materials to
enhance their thermal stability. Coating grain boundaries with materials that increase the
resistance to domain wall motion can significantly improve coercivity. For instance, coating
NdFeB grains with a thin layer of dysprosium oxide can reduce the rate of thermal
demagnetization. (as shown in Figure 6)
6.4 Rare-Earth Element Substitution
Heavy rare-earth elements, such as dysprosium (Dy) and terbium (Tb), are often substituted for
neodymium (Nd) in NdFeB magnets to enhance their coercivity and thermal stability. These
elements increase the magnetocrystalline anisotropy, which helps to maintain the alignment of
magnetic moments at high temperatures. The underlying physics involves the strong spin-orbit
coupling of these heavy rare-earth elements.
6.5 Oxide Coatings and Diffusion Barriers
Oxide coatings (e.g., Al2O3) and diffusion barriers are used to prevent oxidation and
degradation of magnetic materials at high temperatures. These coatings protect the magnetic
material from reacting with the surrounding environment, maintaining its magnetic properties.
6.6 Additives to Modify Grain Boundary Phases
The addition of elements such as gallium (Ga) or aluminum (Al) can modify the grain boundary
phases in magnetic materials, improving coercivity and thermal stability. These additives alter
the microstructure and composition of the grain boundaries, leading to enhanced magnetic
properties.
(Figure 1) (Figure 2)
(Figure 3) (Figure 4)
(Figure 5) (Figure 6)
(Figure 7)
Conclusion
Temperature significantly affects the strength of magnets, leading to reduced coercivity,
remanence, and saturation magnetization. Thermal demagnetization mechanisms, such as spin-
wave excitations and domain wall dynamics, play a crucial role in this degradation. Mitigation
strategies, including material selection, composition optimization, grain boundary engineering,
rare-earth element substitution, oxide coatings and diffusion barriers, and additives to modify
grain boundary phases, can enhance the thermal stability of magnetic materials.
Future research should focus on developing novel magnetic materials with even higher Curie
temperatures and improved resistance to thermal demagnetization. Computational models and
simulations are increasingly important in predicting and optimizing the microstructure and
composition of magnetic materials for specific high-temperature applications, enabling the
design of new magnets tailored for harsh environments. Further, the intersection of spintronics
and high temperature applications promises new avenues for technological advancement,
requiring further exploration of materials that can maintain spin coherence at high
temperatures.
In conclusion, the ability to engineer magnetic materials for thermal stability remains a crucial
area of research, underpinning the continued advancement of numerous technologies from
transportation to energy to information processing. The temperature coefficient of different
materials is essential for this and needs more exploration (**Figure 3**).
Acknowledgment
At the conclusion of our project, we express gratitude to Allah. We offer a special
acknowledgment to Mr. Ahmed Fathy [Physics teacher], and Mr. Mina [Mechanics teacher].
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