International Journal of GEOMATE, April, 2025 Vol.28, Issue 128, pp.

84-91
ISSN: 2186-2982 (P), 2186-2990 (O), Japan, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21660/2025.128.g14195
Geotechnique, Construction Materials and Environment

PERMEATION GROUTING USING ALKALI-ACTIVATED GROUT

FOR LIQUEFACTION CONTROL

*Jemy C. Chua1, Naoaki Suemasa2, Kazuya Itoh3, Takamitsu Sasaki4 and Koichi Nagao5
1,2,3
Graduate School of Integrative Science and Engineering, Tokyo City University, Japan
4
Kyokado Engineering Co. Ltd., Japan; 5Sato Kogyo Co. Ltd., Japan

*Corresponding Author, Received: 27 Jan. 2025, Revised: 05 Feb. 2025, Accepted: 10 Feb. 2025

ABSTRACT: Earthquakes worldwide raise significant concerns, particularly in densely populated areas. In the
field of geotechnical engineering, the persistent challenge of liquefaction demands attention. Soil liquefaction is
an event where the surrounding soil loses its strength and behaves like a liquid when shear stress is experienced.
Permeation grouting is a method of ground improvement that is compact and not destructive. It achieves
densification and solidification of the ground by permeating grout solution at low pressure. Conventionally,
solution-type grouts or cement-type grouts are used. However, the study proposes the use of alternative materials
to help reduce waste and carbon footprint of the grout. The mixture used in the study was a suspension-type grout
composed of blast furnace slag and calcium carbonate powder, activated by sodium hydroxide. To quantify the
feasibility of the grout formula for permeation grouting, several preliminary analysis and permeation tests were
done. The results demonstrated that the grout mixture effectively developed sufficient strength for liquefaction
control while maintaining low permeation pressure. Although clogging can occur with suspension-type grouts,
adjusting variables such as injection rate and implementation of two-stage permeation mitigated negative effects.
Optimization allowed the grout mixture to achieve a permeation radius of 0.8 meters during the one-dimensional
test, slightly exceeding the ideal range of 0.75 meters. Subsequent two-dimensional and preliminary centrifuge
modeling tests confirmed that filtration of grout particles in the soil occurred, and that alkali-activated grout could
serve as a viable alternative for permeation grouting.

Keywords: Permeation grouting, Alkali-activated material, Clogging mechanism, Liquefaction control

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Permeation Grouting

Constant seismic activity results in a considerable One of the greatest features of permeation
number of earthquakes. Soil liquefaction is a grouting lies in its simplicity. The concept of this
phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a method is to permeate grout solution into the ground
soil are reduced to the point where the soil can no using a pump and a nozzle that is inserted
longer support loads. Effective stress in soil means a underground as shown in Fig.1. Along with this,
summation of granular contact forces, when total administration of the grout solution uses relatively
stress from soil and pore water pressure reaches low pressure that limits noise and impact to the
equilibrium, liquefaction happens [1]. Fine sandy soil ground. This means that the initial bearing capacity of
profiles with low cohesion strength are the most the soil will not be affected during the permeation
susceptible soil types. There are several ways to deal process, allowing improvement of ground even with
with liquefaction, physical ways like compacting or structures built above. As a non-destructive soil
through chemical solidification. Cement has caught a improvement technique which only utilizes simple
lot of attention to be used as a reinforcement material and compact machinery, it is beneficial in urban areas
for its versatility and ease of use. Though being a very where infrastructures are abundant, and space is not
good material, it emits harmful emissions through its readily available.
production. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) estimated that emissions must be
reduced by 60% to prevent substantial climate change
[2]. Constant effort must be made to reduce emissions.
Ground improvement is a branch of geotechnical
engineering that deals with altering the properties of
a soil to meet the required parameters. Regarding
liquefaction, the topsoil layer is the most treated
portion of the ground as this is where most
liquefaction occurs. A technique that combines both Fig. 1 Permeation grouting concept
physical and chemical improvement is permeation
grouting.

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Typically, permeation grouting uses two types of 3. MATERIALS

grout solutions, solution-type and suspension-type.
Solution-types use water glass as its main ingredient Silica sand #6 was the sand chosen to be used for
for gelation, thus, is more expensive and requires the experiments because of its size that was not too
extensive understanding of the reaction between an fine yet not too coarse. This type exhibits a balance
acid and a base. However, being a solution, it easily between permeability and grain size that also
permeates the ground with little resistance [3]. The simulates liquefiable soil. It is also resistant to
other type, on which this study focuses, is the changes in soil pH, which minimizes its influence on
suspension-type grout formula. Suspension-types use the performance of the grout formula.
fine powders, typically cement or pozzolans, Blast furnace slag (BS), calcium carbonate
suspended in water. Being not limited to solutions, it (CaCO3), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were tested
offers a higher versatility to suit different ground for its potential to be used in permeation grouting.
conditions. Moreover, it generally develops a higher Physical properties are shown in Fig. 2 while
strength. This can be attributed to the additional chemical properties were analyzed through XRF. It
densification of the ground resulting from the was found that BS was composed of 48.8% calcium
permeation of fine particles. The main disadvantage, oxide (CaO), 31.1% silicon dioxide (SiO2), and
however, is that clogging of the particles within the 13.2% aluminum oxide (Al2O3). In soil improvement,
voids of the soil is a prominent problem which limits the presence of high amount of lime may potentially
the range and increases injection pressure. improve properties of soil when mixed [6]. Observing
Cement is currently being used as material for the spectrum from XRD analysis, it was determined
grouting. To improve the groutability, past studies that BS was amorphous in nature. This means that it
tackled micro-cement that was finer than ordinary tends to break down easier when exposed to an
cement, at about 2µm to 30µm. Using finer particles alkaline environment, aiding polymer formation.
and increasing the water content were found to With the other materials, both CaCO3 and NaOH used
increase the performance of the grout mixture when were standard laboratory reagents.
permeated into the ground [4][5]. Considering these,
similar physical properties of alternative materials
were sought and discussed in the following chapters.

1.2 Objective and Scope

The main objective is to formulate an alternative

suspension grout formula using by-products to
improve the soil properties enough to mitigate the risk
of liquefaction. The grout is aimed to be administered
into the top layers of soil with the goal of maximizing
permeation radius while minimizing injection
Fig. 2 Grain size distribution of BS and CaCO3
pressure. The study investigates the performance of
the grout, particularly the injection pressure and
To assess the grout materials for groutability,
range, permeation shape and the developed strength
groutability ratio (GR) and sphericity (ØS) of the
using various permeation tests and centrifuge
material were analyzed. GR is the ratio of D15 of the
modeling. The soil type used throughout the study
soil to D85 of the grout, and this estimates the
was sand with non-reactive components and all
feasibility of a material to be used for permeation. A
samples were saturated prior to permeation.
GR value of less than 11 is not advised to be used for
grouting [7][8]. BS and CaCO3 had a ratio of 38.91
2. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
and 13.31, respectively, showing its potential for
grouting. Comparing the materials with conventional
Permeation grouting has been around for quite
micro-cement, BS and CaCO3 had a finer particle
some time but continuously uses conventional
distribution and this aids in grouting performance.
materials that release harmful emissions. Modifying
Apart from the particle size, shape also plays a factor.
the composition of the grout solution to eco-friendlier
A round shape offers lower friction and flow more
alternative helps reduce the carbon footprint while
freely compared to jagged shapes which interlock and
maintaining or even exceeding the performance of
restrict movement. Sphericity assesses the roundness
conventional materials. Application of geopolymers
of a particle by how close it resembles a perfect
into permeation grouting is a relatively new topic that
sphere. A value of 1 means perfect sphere and near 0
has a high potential for mass application due to its
means very angular. Using microscope images of the
simplicity and efficiency. Repurposing wastes to
material and Powers chart [9], it can be deduced that
lower the carbon footprint of soil improvement
BS and CaCO3 scored approximately 0.17 to 0.35,
contributes to the sustainability of our environment.
and 0.25 to 0.49, respectively.

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4. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS 4.2 Short-type Permeation Test

4.1 Unconfined Compression Test Permeation grouting is a very simple procedure,

but understanding how each material interacts with
The standard size used for testing is a sample with the soil and the relationship between injection volume
a height of 10cm and a diameter of 5cm. The soil and pressure is a complex process. A lot of factors
samples were made with silica sand #6 at a relative influence the efficiency of permeation of the grout to
density of 60%. For the grout mixture, 1:1 ratio of the soil, such as particle size, grout concentration,
BS:CaCO3, by weight, was used and formulated to a injection pressure, and many other factors. To
concentration of 20% grout particles to void volume. understand the behavior of grouting, one-dimensional
This meant that 20% of the void volume was meant permeation tests were performed. The short-type
to be filled with grout particles, by weight. Different permeation apparatus was used to model 20cm length
molarities of NaOH were used to check for optimal of soil. The grout injection flow was from the bottom-
molarity. Samples were cured at ambient temperature up, against gravity. This simulates the hardest path
with high humidity for 28 days before being subjected the grout will travel through when injected into the
to compression tests. A speed of 1% strain per minute ground. To maintain uniformity, the sand and density
was adopted and continued until failure or 15% strain, used for the test was the same as the UCT test. Filter
whichever came first. layers were placed as shown in Fig. 5 to assist with
distribution of grout throughout the cross section
upon permeation. It also served to prevent sand
flowing backwards and from getting pushed out by
the pressure towards the output located in the top-end.

Fig. 3 UCS of BS mixes after 28 days

From Fig. 3, it can be observed that a lower

concentration of 0.5M resulted in better strength Fig. 5 Short-type permeation apparatus
development. The initial assumption was that higher
concentration of alkaline solutions provides better Injection pressure is crucial in permeation
activation of the materials and therefore should grouting, so a 1MPa water pressure sensor was
develop greater strength. Assessing the results, installed between the apparatus and the pump that
however, states the opposite. It was assumed that the continuously monitors the injection pressure as the
occurrence of the bell-shaped curve was due to setting permeation commences. An upper limit of 400kPa
time and excess unreacted alkaline molecules. Since injection pressure was imposed to prevent
higher molarity hastens the reaction of the precursors, disturbance and fracturing of the soil layer that may
it may have contributed to incomplete or suboptimal create path of lesser resistance which leads to uneven
formation of the polymer chains. While excess distribution of grout particles. The pump utilized in
alkaline molecules may trigger redissolution of the this study was a mono pump, or a helical rotor pump,
already formed polymers, leading to a weaker which operates by trapping a fixed volume of fluid
structure. Apart from the strength differences, the and then forcing it into the discharge pipe.
developed strength of the samples can be attributed to The grout mixture was 1:1 ratio of BS:CaCO3.
the formation of C-A-S-H and C-S-H gels and Using the weight of the de-aired water used for
densification that was confirmed with the microscope saturation, 20% of which was used as basis for the
images of the solidified sample in Fig. 4. mass of dry materials. The grout mixture was
formulated at a concentration of 3%, meaning 97%
was water and 3% were solid particles, by weight.
Different flow rates of 25, 50, 100, and 150mL/min
were done, resulting in flow velocities (upward
direction) inside the apparatus of 1.3, 2.6, 5.1, and
7.6cm/min, respectively. For the alkaline activator,
1M and 0.5M concentration of NaOH were used to
check whether a bell-shaped curve in compression
Fig. 4 1000x magnification of cured samples strength can also be observed in this experiment.

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A two-stage permeation process was performed in subjected to compression tests. Results demonstrated
the permeation experiment. The first stage consisted that low flowrates tend to have increased strength in
of only BS and CaCO3, and the second stage was the the area near the injection port and less further up the
alkaline solution. The pozzolans and the activator soil, while higher flows tend to have lower strength in
were split into two different permeation phases to the bottom portion but higher in the upper portion.
prevent any premature activation of the material This indicated that higher flowrates had a higher
during the duration of permeation. Another benefit of penetration that resulted in better permeation radius.
having a separate alkaline solution permeation is the Some samples broke upon demolding, making it
ability to properly compute for the minimum required unsuitable for testing.
amount of alkaline solution. This lessens the overuse In permeation grouting, a balance between
of alkaline solutions that may be detrimental to the injection pressure, grout retained, and strength
environment. developed is needed. Considering the variables,
The result of the injection pressure to the grout 100mL/min was deemed to be the optimal flowrate as
volume injected can be observed in Fig. 6. The this offered the best pressure profile and considerable
sudden drop of pressure around 2 liters marked the developed strength. Apart from the flowrate, Fig. 8
end of the first stage and the start of the second stage. shows a similar pattern of 0.5M solution developing
Low flow rates showed erratic pressure profile while a higher strength was observed.
higher flow rates showed lower and smoother
pressure profile.

Fig. 8 UCS of 1M (left) and 0.5M (right) samples

4.3 Long-type Permeation Test

This test had the same properties as the short-type

Fig. 6 Pressure profile of different flow rates but scaled to a longer soil column designed to
simulate the ideal permeation radius of suspension
The behavior of the grout mixture under different grouts of 0.75m. Shown in Fig. 9, the apparatus was
flowrates can be better understood using Fig. 7. Low made with 11-10cm acrylic molds that were bolted
flow rates tend to clog the materials due to the lack of together to form a 1m long soil column.
pushing force which can lead to continuous clogging
and unclogging as reflected with the frequent sudden
rise and drop of pressure in Fig. 6. On the other hand,
high flow rates tend to flow more freely due to the
increased pushing force. This distributes the grout
materials deeper in the soil matrix, leading to less
clogging. However, having too high of a flow rate
prevents the materials from settling at all, causing
reduced overall grout concentration retained within
the soil voids.
Fig. 9 Long-type permeation apparatus

From the results of the short-type permeation

tests, 100mL/min flow rate was adopted in this test
and 0.5M NaOH solution was used. In Fig 10, the
grout injection pressure gradually rose as the
permeation commenced as more particles situate in
the voids. Fluctuations were noticed just after the 4L
injection volume, this can be related to frequent
Fig. 7 Effect of flow rate to the grout particles clogging and unclogging of the particles, resulting in
spikes and downs in pressure. Achieving the desired
As mentioned, the short-type sample consists of 20% grout concentration retained in the soil, second
20cm solidified soil sample. This was divided into stage permeation started at the 6L mark. Since the
two-10cm cylinders as upper part and lower part, then 0.5M NaOH was a solution, the flow rate was

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adjusted to 150mL/min to increase distribution and insight into how the grout flows within the soil strata
efficiency. It was assumed that it did not contribute to and how this affects the surrounding ground.
clogging and the increased flow provided better For the two-dimensional permeation test, a flat-
distribution of the grout particles. box type aluminum apparatus was used. The inner
box dimensions were 36cm wide by 41cm deep with
a thickness of 5cm. Inside the box was an acrylic
mold that had a circular form with a diameter of 30cm
to contain the soil sample for permeation grouting.
The reason for the circular form as opposed to the
typical rectangular shape was for the ease of drainage.
Essentially, having a circular dimension simulates an
infinite drainage dimension with minimal influence
of the boundaries. Differentiating from normal
rectangular shape, having a circular form means that
Fig. 10 Long-type permeation pressure profile the thickness of soil is equal from the port to the
drainage area. Drainage holes, for expelling liquid
After curing inside the apparatus for 7 days, the outside the container, were located at the top-portion
samples were carefully de-molded and cured with an of the container. By allowing water to drain from the
additional 21 days in ambient temperature with high container, the water level can be maintained.
humidity, shown in Fig. 11. After a total of 28 days The nozzle for permeation was installed in the
of curing, the samples were subjected to unconfined center of the circular soil sample seen in Fig. 13-14.
compression tests and results tallied in Fig. 12. Based It had several openings to enable permeation in all
on the strength developed, the grout was able to directions. In the acrylic inner box, silica sand #6 was
penetrate about 90cm from the injection port. With up used which had the same relative density of 60%.
to 80cm part developing strength enough for Surrounding the sand was a steel mesh that helps
liquefaction control, which is above 100kPa. This separate the sand from the gravel layer. A water
meant that the grout mixture successfully permeated pressure sensor was installed between the injection
up to 0.8m, slightly exceeding the ideal permeation port and the pump.
range of 0.75m.

Fig. 11 Demolded samples Fig. 13 Aluminum box apparatus and nozzle

Fig. 14 Completed 2D sample

Prior to permeation, the sample was vacuum-

Fig. 12 UCS of long-type samples
saturated, meaning saturated under vacuum. By doing
this, trapped air can be minimized to obtain a fully
4.4 Two-dimensional Permeation Test
saturated condition of the soil. The grout was
prepared to permeate a radius of 5cm from the
The one-dimensional permeation test developed
injection port with the aim of achieving 20%
understanding regarding the permeation radius of the
concentration. Using the same grout mixture,
formulated grout formula. The next step towards the
permeation commenced. Due to the shape of the
feasibility of the grout solution for permeation
nozzle and the minimal grout amount, permeation
grouting is the two-dimensional permeation test
pressure was relatively low, only reaching about
which injects grout omnidirectionally. This gives

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8kPa. Though pressure is an important factor, the 5. CENTRIFUGE MODELING

main objective of the two-dimensional permeation
test was to see how the grout spreads throughout the Geotechnical centrifuge is a complex piece of
sand sample, and how the fine particles situate in the equipment utilized in the field of geotechnical
voids. Similar to the one-dimensional test, two-stage engineering. Its main function is to enable conducting
permeation was also performed. To aid with tests of various real-scale structural and geotechnical
visualization of the permeation, coloring was added. systems in a controlled laboratory scale model. It
Red for the first stage and blue for the second stage. works by adjusting the gravitational acceleration of a
The green marker in the container showed the desired sample to achieve a similar stress condition to a real-
10cm diameter circle. This can be observed in Fig. 15. scale structure in a small-scale model. By enabling
During permeation, water (red) was detected to flow small-scale modeling of big structures, the cost can be
freely leaving the grout (white) particles situated in minimized, and variables can be easily adjusted.
the voids. Calculating the required amount of Apart from the size, timescale can also be modified
activator, exact solution can be permeated to activate depending on various conditions. To accurately
the grout materials. While it did not permeate as a model a real-scale structure in a small model, various
circular shape as predicted, this provided good insight scaling laws are being followed.
into the permeation behavior of the grout.

Fig. 15 Grout after 1st stage (left) & 2nd stage (right) Fig. 17 Tokyo City University Mark III Centrifuge

With a separate second stage, the amount of 5.1 20G Permeation Test
alkaline solution needed for the treated area can be
estimated depending on the targeted volume. Upon For accurate testing of grout permeation in actual
completion of the grouting process, the alkaline stress conditions, centrifuge modeling was
solution (blue) was observed to cover almost the same performed. However, permeation grouting under
volume as the volume occupied by the grout particles centrifuge field has yet to be evaluated whether it is
(white). This way, excess alkaline can be minimized, feasible or not. To check for the feasibility of
saving on costs and preventing alkaline pollution or permeation grouting under a higher gravitational
leakage to the surrounding ground. Checking for acceleration, preliminary testing was done,
alkaline pollution resulting from permeation, pH tests substituting the grout formula with water only.
within and around the treated area were done after 7 Similar to the 1G test, this aims to observe the
days of curing. From Fig. 16, it can be concluded that permeation shape of injected fluid to the soil sample.
minimal alkaline pollution happened after permeation Along with visual analysis, various mini water
grouting, showing little to no change of pH outside pressure sensors labelled as 1, 2, 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3
the treated area. Sand is naturally slightly alkaline in were also installed around the injection port as shown
nature, so it was expected that the pH level of the in the diagram in Fig. 18. Data obtained from the
untreated zone to be around 8 to 9. sensors helps understand the pressure changes
happening during permeation.

Fig. 16 pH test results around the treated area

Fig. 18 Water pressure sensors setup

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Similar soil conditions were used for the setup of 2, recorded less water pressure. Comparing sensors
the apparatus. During the saturation phase however, 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, sensor 3.1 recorded the highest value
blue water was used to saturate the sample. The among the three and was attributed to its proximity to
reason why blue water was used for saturation and not the injection port. As the distance increases, the
for permeation was because only clear water was pressure also dissipates. This meant that the
permitted to enter the centrifuge device to prevent any permeation pressure is inversely related to the
future difficulties arising from using colored water. distance and affected by grout flow.
Using colored water for saturation and clear water for
permeation gave the same visual result as the 1G test.
The acceleration set for the test was 20 times the
gravitational force, 20G. The estimated maximum
bulb diameter of an improved area in a real-world
scale was 3 meters. Using the scaling law of linear
dimensions (1/n), n being the gravitational
acceleration, a prototype of 3 m diameter can be
scaled to just 15 cm diameter in the scale model [10].
The centrifuge platform gradually spun and raised
Fig. 20 Water pressure under centrifuge field
sideways until 20G was reached. Confirming
everything was stable, permeation commenced. The
permeation continued until the desired 15cm diameter Table 1 Water pressure during permeation (kPa)
was achieved. The resulting permeated area is Sensor 1 2 3.1 3.2 3.3 Port
highlighted in Fig. 19. The egg-shaped permeated Before 25.4 39.1 23.0 28.7 33.3 27.5
area can mean that in increased acceleration During 27.4 41.0 25.0 30.7 35.1 29.4
environment, the uncovered top-portion of the soil Change 2.09 1.84 1.95 1.90 1.80 1.92
sample played a significant role. The small variation
in soil thickness was multiplied by the increased 6. CARBON STORAGE
acceleration, leading to a noticeable difference in the
effective flow resistance of the soil layer. With a One of the problems towards sustainability is the
lower resistance on the top portion, the permeated continuous increase in carbon emissions. To aid the
liquid flowed towards it. This was not as apparent health of the environment, alternative materials were
during the 1G test, and confirming this phenomenon investigated for their potential. In terms of
under centrifuge conditions contributed to better permeation grouting, substituting conventional use of
understanding of the flow characteristics. cement to slag and calcium carbonate, a greener grout
formula can be formulated. Using the proposed ratio
and concentration, an approximate quantity of carbon
emission can be made. Calcium carbonate contains a
carbon dioxide molecule, by incorporating into the
ground, a carbon storage system can be realized.
From the calculations made in Table 2, a net emission
of 1.1kg was expected in improving 1 cubic meter of
soil. Comparatively, cement usage emits about 50kg
to 180kg of CO2, depending on the amount used.
Fig. 19 20G Permeation test and highlight
Table 2 Carbon emissions per 1m3 calculation
The pressure profile obtained from the sensors is
plotted in Fig. 20, and data tallied in Table 1. The Amount Emission Total
gradual rise of the pressure was the acceleration of the Parameter
(kg) (kg CO2/kg) (kg CO2)
centrifuge equipment. Upon reaching 20G, each BS 44.13 0.040 1.765
sensor had a different value because of the NaOH 8.830 0.625 5.516
positioning of the sensors within the soil. A shift in CaCO3 (P) 44.13 0.300 13.239
flow due to the commencement of permeation, at CaCO3 (S) 44.13 -0.440 -19.417
around 1000s, was detected by the sensors, - Net emission per 1m3 1.103
registering a rise in pressure. Looking at Table 1, the Note: in CaCO3, P – Production; S – Storage
largest value recorded was from the water sensor
located above the injection port. This varied from the 7. DISCUSSION
anticipated pressure readings as sensors 1, 2, and 3.2
were expected to have the same pressure readings. The proposed grout mixture was able to achieve
The difference may be caused by the variation in flow satisfactory performance as per the permeation tests.
since most of the permeated water flowed upwards As several factors influence the overall strength and
towards sensor 1. In contrast, the bottom one, sensor permeation radius in grouting, exact comparison

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between two kinds of mixtures can be difficult. 9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Compared to micro-cement, BS used in this study
were finer in particle size and this increases its The researchers would like to thank Engr.
groutability [5]. Along with this, increasing the water Tsuyoshi Tanaka of Tokyo City University for his
content aids performance. With the filtration effect of assistance with the geotechnical centrifuge device.
soil confirmed by the 2D test, using a low
concentration grout mixture can be feasible as 10. REFERENCES
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required alkaline activator, minimizing pollution. permeability evaluation method of suspension
In terms of carbon footprint, the proposed grout grout. Proceedings of the 20th SEAGC – 3rd
solution approximately emits 1.1 kg CO2 for AGSSEA, Jakarta, Indonesia, 2018, pp. 389-394.
improving 1 m3 of soil under the same experimental [9] Zheng, J., Zhang, Z., Li, C., Li. Z., and Gao, L.,
conditions, which was significantly lower compared Laboratory on a smartphone for estimating
to conventional use of cement as the main material. angularity of granular soils, Acta Geotechnica,
From the various permeation tests which yielded Vol. 17, 2022, pp. 2651-2674.
satisfactory values in terms of permeation radius, [10] Taylor, R. N., Geotechnical Centrifuge
unconfined compressive strength, and minimal Technology, Taylor and Francis, 2007, pp. 1-296.
carbon footprint, it was deemed that the grout
mixture, made with slag and calcium carbonate and Copyright © Int. J. of GEOMATE All rights reserved,
activated by sodium hydroxide, has a potential to be including making copies, unless permission is obtained
a viable alternative as a grout formula for permeation from the copyright proprietors.
grouting for liquefaction control.

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