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Handbook of Scales in Tourism and Hospitality Research
Handbook of Scales in Tourism
and Hospitality Research

Dogan Gursoy

Washington State University, USA

Muzaffer Uysal

Virginia Tech, USA

Ercan Sirakaya-Turk

University of South Carolina, USA

Yuksel Ekinci

University of Reading, UK

Seyhmus Baloglu

University of Nevada, USA

 CABI is a trading name of CAB International

CABI CABI
Nosworthy Way 38 Chauncy Street
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Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 T: +1 800 552 3083 (toll free)

Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 T: +1 617 395 4051
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cabi.org

© Dogan Gursoy, Muzaffer Uysal, Ercan Sirakaya-Turk, Yuksel Ekinci and Seyhmus
Baloglu 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any
form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gursoy, Dogan.
Handbook of scales in tourism and hospitality research / Dogan Gursoy, Muzaffer
Uysal, Ercan Sirakaya-Turk, Yuksel Ekinci, Seyhmus Baloglu.
   pages cm
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-1-78064-453-0 (hbk : alk. paper) 1. Tourism--Research--Methodology.
2. Hospitality industry--Research--Methodology. I. Uysal, Muzaffer. II. Sirakaya-Turk,
Ercan. III. Ekinci, Yuksel. IV. Baloglu, Seyhmus. V. Title.

G155.7.G87 2014
910.72--dc23

2014030465

ISBN-13: 978 1 78064 453 0

Commissioning editor: Claire Parfitt

Editorial assistant: Emma McCann
Production editor: Shankari Wilford

Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India

Printed and bound in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 Contents

About the Authors xiii

1 Introduction 1
Selection of the Scales 2
Format of the Scale Presentations – The General Template 2
Name of the scale 2
Objective of the construct 3
Description3
Development3
Sample(s) and pilot test 3
Measurement issues 4
Source of the scale 4
Related sources 5
Scale Categories 5
Motivation Scales 5
Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes Scales 6
Image Scales 6
Performance Evaluation, Quality Assessment, Loyalty and Satisfaction Scales 7
Tourist Behavior Scales 7
Human Resources Scales 7
Scales Related to Hospitality and Tourism Operations 8
Concluding Comments and Limitations 8
References9

2 Motivation Scales 11
Travel Motivation Scales 12
Tourist Motivations Scale 1 (Snepenger, King, Marshall, & Uysal, 2006) 12
Tourist Motivations Scale 2 (Fodness, 1994) 13
Tourist Motivations Scale 3 (Alegre, Cladera, & Sard, 2011) 14
Rural Tourists’ Travel Motivations Scale (Xie, Costa, & Morais, 2008) 16
Tourists’ Motivations for Travelling to Rural Areas Scale (Frochot, 2005) 18

 v
vi Contents

Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Demilitarized Zone in

Vietnam Scale (Le & Pearce, 2011) 19
Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Northern Territory
of Australia Scale (Mohsin, 2005) 21
Motivations for Participating in Ethnic and Recreational Travel
Activities Scale (Kim & Littrell, 2001) 24
Motives for a Secular Pilgrimage Scale (Hyde & Harman, 2011) 25
Alumni’s Motivations to Return back to their University as Tourists Scale
(Schofield & Fallon, 2012) 27
International Tourist Role Scale (Mo, Howard, & Havitz, 1993) 29
Novelty Seeking in Tourism Scale (Lee & Crompton, 1992) 30
Golf Travelers’ Motivations Scale (Kim & Ritchie, 2010) 32
Golf Vacationers’ Novelty Scale (Petrick, 2002) 34
Seniors’ Travel Motivations Scale (Jang & Wu, 2006) 36
Travel Motives Scale (Sellick, 2004) 38
Agritourist Needs and Motivations Scale (Srikatanyoo & Campiranon, 2010) 41
Motivations for Choosing B&B Accommodations Scale
(Chen, Lin, & Kuo, 2012) 43
Festival Attendance Motivation Scales 44
Event (Festival) Motivations Scale 1 (Uysal, Gahan, & Martin, 1993) 44
Event (Festival) Motivations Scale 2 (Mohr, Backman, Gahan, & Backman, 1993) 46
Benefits of Visiting a Multicultural Festival Scale (Lee, Arcodia, & Lee, 2012) 48
Motivations to Attend Culinary Events Scale (Smith & Costello, 2009) 50
Motivations for Attending Cultural Events Scale (Kerstetter & Mowrer, 1998) 51
Motivations for Attending the 1996 Jerash Festival Scale
(Schneider & Backman, 1996) 53
Motivations for Attending Urban Festivals Scale (Scott, 1996) 54
Umbria Jazz Festival Motivations Scale (Formica & Uysal, 1996) 56
Motivations for Attending Art Festivals Scale (Kruger & Saayman, 2012) 58
Casino Gambling Motivation Scales 59
Motivations of Korean Casino Gamblers Scale (Lee, Lee, Bernhard, &
Yoon, 2006) 59
Chinese Tourists’ Motivations to Travel to Casinos in Macau Scale (Wong &
Rosenbaum, 2012) 61
Slot Gambling Motivations Scale (Chen, Shoemaker, & Zemke, 2013) 63
Sporting Events Participation Motivation Scales 65
Spectator Travel Motivation and Athlete Motivation for Racing Scales
(Kruger, Saayman, & Ellis, 2012) 65
Winter Sport Tourism Motivation Scale (Alexandris, Kouthouris,
Funk, & Giovani, 2009) 67
Leisure Benefits Sought by Golf Event Spectators Scale (Lyu & Lee, 2013) 69
Cruise Motivation Scales 71
Motivations for Taking Cruise Holidays Scale (Hung & Petrick, 2011) 71
Motivations for Attending Travel Exhibitions 73
Visitors’ Motivations for Attending Consumer Travel Exhibitions Scale
(Rittichainuwat & Mair, 2012) 73
Visitors’ Motivations for Attending the World Culture Expo Scale
(Lee, Lee, & Wicks, 2004) 75
Other Motivation Scales 77
Family Reunion Travel Motivation Scale (FRTMS) (Kluin & Lehto, 2012) 77
Tourists’ Motivation to Consume Local Food Scale (Kim & Eves, 2012) 78
Airport Shopping Motivations Scale (Geuens, Vantomme, & Brengman, 2004) 81
 Contents vii

Cultural Experiences Motives Scales (Kay, 2009) 82

Local Food Consumption Motivations Scale (Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2012) 85

3 Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes Scales 87

Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Tourism Scales 88
Tourism Impacts, Antecedents of Tourism Impacts and Support for
Tourism Scale (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004) 88
Tourism Impact Attitude Scale (TIAS) (Lankford & Howard, 1994) 90
Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale (SUSTAS) (Choi & Sirakaya, 2005) 91
Residents’ Perceptions of Tourism Impacts and Support for Tourism Scale
(Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011) 94
Impact of Tourism on Residents Scale (Tomljenovic & Faulkner, 1992) 96
Residents’ Attitudes toward Tourism Scale (Andereck & Vogt, 2000) 98
Local Community Residents’ Perceptions and Support for the Pitons
Management Area (PMA) Scale (Nicholas, Thapa, & Ko, 2009) 102
Shared Beliefs, Shared Behavior, Interaction Emotional Solidarity
Scale (Woosnam & Norman, 2010) 104
Tourism Impact Scale – Economic, social, cultural, environmental
constructs (Kim, Uysal, & Sirgy, 2013) 106
Urban Tourism Impact Scale (Chen, 2001) 108
Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Festivals Scales 110
Residents’ Perceptions of Festival Impacts Scale 1 (Delamere,
Wankle, & Hinch, 2001) 110
Residents’ Perceptions of and Expectations from Festival Impacts
Scales (Delamere, 2001) 112
Perceived Impacts of Festivals and Special Events Scale (Gursoy,
Kim, & Uysal, 2004) 115
Social Impacts of Events Scale (Fredline, Jago, & Deery, 2003) 117
Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Mega Events Scales 119
Host Perceptions towards a Mega Event Scale (Zhou & Ap, 2009) 119
Residents’ and Visitors’ Perceptions of an Expo Event
(Jeong & Faulkner, 1997) 120
Residents’ Reactions to a Major Tourist Event Scale
(Fredline & Faulkner, 1998) 123
Residents’ Perceptions of Impacts of the 2002 World Cup on South Korea
Scale (Kim, Gursoy, & Lee, 2006) 126
Residents’ Perceptions on Impacts of the FIFA 2002 World Cup Scale
(Kim & Petrick, 2005) 128
Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Gaming Scales 131
Residents’ Attitudes toward Legal Gambling Scale
(Kang, Long, & Perdue, 1996) 131
Riverboat Gaming Impact Scale (Chen & Hsu, 2001) 132
Other Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes Scales 133
Residents’ Perceptions of Social Capital Properties of Tourism Scale
(Park, Lee, Choi, & Yoon, 2012) 133
Trust in Government Actors Scale (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2012) 135

4 Image Scales 137

Destination Image Scales 137
Cognitive Destination Image Scale (Alcañiz, García, & Blas, 2009) 137
Country Image and Destination Image Scales (Martínez & Alvarez, 2010) 140
Destination Image of Turkey Scale (Tasci, Gartner, & Cavusgil, 2007) 142
viii Contents

Destination Image of South Korea Scale (Kim, Hallab, & Kim, 2012) 144
International Image of Korea Scale (Kim & Morrison, 2005) 146
Destination Emotion and Personality Scales 147
Destination Emotion Scale (Hosany & Gilbert, 2010) 147
Destination Personality Scale (Ekinci & Hosany, 2006) 149
Brand Equity Scales 150
Brand Equity Scale (Hsu, Oh, & Assaf, 2012) 150
Cruise Brand Equity Scale (Douglas, Mills, & Phelan, 2010) 152
Consumer-Based Brand Equity Scale (Nam, Ekinci, & Whyatt, 2011) 153
Other Image Scales 155
Farm Tourism Image Scale (Chen, Chang, & Cheng, 2010) 155
Celebrity Involvement and Destination Image Perceptions Scales
(Lee, Scott, & Kim, 2008) 157
The Perceived Image and Advertising Effectiveness of Celebrity
Endorsers in a Tourism Context Scale (Van der Veen & Song, 2010) 158
Perception of Wellness Tourism Scale (Chen, Liu, & Chang, 2003) 160

5 Performance Evaluation, Quality Assessment, Loyalty and Satisfaction Scales 163

Lodging Quality Scales 163
Guest House Service Expectations Scale (Radder & Wang, 2006) 163
LODGSERV Scale (Knutson, Stevens, Wallaert, Patton, & Yokoyama, 1990) 166
HISTOQUAL Scale (Frochot & Hughes, 2000) 168
Service Quality of Bed and Breakfast Operators Scale (Mangan & Collins, 2002) 171
Service Quality of Rural Accommodations Scale (Albacete-Sáez,
Fuentes-Fuentes, & Lloréns-Montes, 2006) 173
Hotel Service Quality Scale 1 (Akbaba, 2006) 175
Hotel Service Quality Scale 2 (Ekinci, Prokopaki, & Cobanoglu, 2003) 177
Hotel Service Quality Scale 3 (Wilkins, Merrilees, & Herington, 2007) 178
Hospitality Services Evaluation Scale (Ariffin, 2013) 180
Service Attitude Scale (Kuo, Chen, & Lu, 2012) 182
E-Travel Service Quality Scales 183
E-Travel Service Quality Scale 1 (Ho & Lee, 2007) 183
E-Travel Service Quality Scale 2 (Tsang, Lai, & Law, 2010) 185
Hotel Website Quality Scale (Kim, Rachjaibun, Han, & Lee, 2011) 187
Restaurant Quality Scales 189
Customer Perceptions of Restaurant’s Physical Environment Scale
(Han & Ryu, 2009) 189
Service Fairness Scale (Namkung, Jang, Almanza, & Ismail, 2008) 190
Restaurant Atmospherics Scale (Heung & Gu, 2012) 192
Dimensions of Foodservice Hygiene Scale (Fatimah, Boo,
Sambasivan, & Salleh, 2011) 194
Servicescapes Scale (Spielmann, Laroche, & Borges, 2012) 196
Festival Quality Scales 198
Festival Program Quality Scale (Yan, Zhang, & Li, 2012) 198
Participant and Vendor Perceptions of Special Event Service Quality
Scale (Wicks & Fesenmaier, 1993) 200
Other Quality Scales 202
Group Package Tour Service Evaluation Scale (Wang, Hsieh, Chou, & Lin, 2007) 202
ECOSERV Scale (Khan, 2003) 204
Tourists’ Ecological Expectations from Hotels Scale (Bastič & Gojčič, 2012) 206
Performance of Functional Congruity Measurement Scale
(Hung & Petrick, 2011) 208
 Contents ix

Service Quality Scale for Hong Kong Hotel Spas Scale (Tsai, Suh, & Fong, 2012) 209
Service Quality Scale for Travel Agency Services Scale (Millan & Esteban, 2004) 210
Relationship Marketing Practices Quality Scale (Marteh, Agbemabiese,
Kodua, & Braimah, 2013) 213
Service Quality of Airline Lounge Scale (Han, Ham, Yang, & Baek, 2012) 215
Satisfaction and Loyalty Scales 216
Tourism Destination Satisfaction Scale (Campo-Martinez & Garau-Vadell, 2010) 216
Satisfaction with Travel/Tourism Services related to Different Travel Phases Scale
(Neal, Uysal, & Sirgy, 2007) 218
Overall Satisfaction Scale for the Masters’ Games Scale (Ryan & Lockyer, 2002) 219
Mature Motorcoach Travelers’ Satisfaction Scale (Hsu, 2003) 221
Customer Satisfaction Scale for Alpine Ski Areas Scale (Matzler, Füller,
Renzl, Herting, & Späth, 2008) 223
Tourist Shopping Satisfaction Scale (Wong & Wan, 2013) 224
Casino Attributes that Affect Gamblers’ Repatronage Intentions Scale
(Yi & Busser, 2008) 225

6 Tourist Behavior Scales 229

Decision Making and Buying Behavior Scales 229
Purchase Decision-Making Criteria Scale (Ozdipciner, Li, & Uysal, 2010) 229
Attributes Affecting Selection of Private Kitchens Scale (Chan & Lam, 2009) 231
Family Function and Leisure Travel (FFLT) Scale (Lehto, Choi, Lin, &
MacDermid, 2009) 232
Importance of Souvenirs Scale (Wilkins, 2011) 234
Determinants of Convention Participation Scale (Yoon & Zhao, 2010) 235
Convention Participation Decision-Making Scale (Yoo & Chon, 2008) 237
Factors Affecting Conference Attendance’s Decision-Making Process Scale
(Mair & Thompson, 2009) 238
Wine Tourism Incentives Scale (Marzo-Navarro & Pedraja-Iglesias, 2012) 240
Behavioral Intention Scale (Ayeh, Au, & Law, 2002) 242
Formative Referent Scale (Gardiner, King, & Grace, 2013) 243
Customer Engagement (CE) Scale (So, King & Sparks, 2012) 243
Hotel Choice Criteria Scale (Yavas & Babakus, 2005) 246
The Switching Barrier Scale (Han, Back, & Kim, 2011) 247
Importance of Cruise Ship Attributes Scale (Xie, Kerstetter, & Mattila, 2012) 249
Knowledge and Information Scales 251
Tourist Information Needs Scale (Vogt & Fesenmaier, 1998) 251
Independent Tourist Knowledge and Skills Scale (Tsaur, Yen, & Chen, 2010) 254
Consumer Information Expectations from Restaurant Menus Scale (Mills &
Thomas, 2008) 255
Hong Kong Residents’ Reasons for Using Travel Guidebooks Scale
(Wong & Liu, 2011) 256
Online Behavior Scales 259
Tourist Attitudes toward Internet Use in Vacation Decision Making Scale
(Duman & Tanrisevdi, 2011) 259
Internet Apprehensiveness Scale (McCroskey, 1978) 261
Web Page Persuasiveness Scale (Kim & Fesenmaier, 2008) 262
Motivations for Travel Knowledge Sharing on Social Networking Sites Scale
(Huang, Basu, & Hsu, 2010) 263
Online Transaction Costs Scale (Kim & Li, 2009) 265
Social Media Participation Benefits Scale (Kang, Tang, & Fiore, 2014) 267
Dimensions of Gastronomy Blogs Scale (Wang, 2011) 268
x Contents

Travel Risk and Travel Constraints Scales 270

Perceived Travel Risks Scale (Rittichainuwat & Chakraborty, 2009) 270
Tourist Worries Scale (Larsen, Brun, & Øgaard, 2009) 273
Travel Risks Scale (Sellick, 2004) 275
Constraint Factors of Chinese Outbound Tourists Scale (Li, Zhang, Mao, &
Deng, 2011) 276
Constraints to Cruising Scale (Hung & Petrick, 2010) 278
Price and Value Scales 279
Perceived Overall Value of the Purchase of a Tourism Product Scale
(Sanchez, Callarisa, Rodriguez, & Moliner, 2006) 279
Temporal and Contextual Cues of Reference Price Scale
(Karande & Magnini, 2010) 282
Perceived Value Scale (Al-Sabbahy, Ekinci & Riley, 2004) 283
Consumer Value Scale (Sparks, Butcher, & Bradley, 2008) 284
Involvement Scales 287
International Leisure Travelers’ Involvement Scale (Gursoy & Gavcar, 2003) 287
Cycle Tourists’ Enduring Involvement Scale (Ritchie,
Tkaczynski, & Faulks, 2010) 288
Wine Involvement Scale (Sampaio, 2012) 289
Tourist Experience Scales 291
Tourists’ Experience Scale (Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2008) 291
Guest’s Hotel Experience Scale (Knutson, Beck, Kim, & Cha, 2009) 292
Memorable Tourism Experience (MTE) Scale (Kim, Ritchie, &
McCormick, 2012) 294
Emotional Experiences Scale (Han & Jeong, 2013) 296
Tourist Characteristics Scales 298
Psychographic Characteristics of the Chinese Outbound Tourists Scale
(Chow & Murphy, 2011) 298
Attitudinal and Behavioral Characteristics of Chinese Tourists Scale
(Agrusa, Kim, & Wang, 2011) 300
Attitude toward Other Cultures Scale (Kim & Littrell, 2001) 302
Chinese Cultural Values Scale (Tsang, 2011) 303
Other Tourist Behavior Scales 305
Consumption Vision Scale (Walters, Sparks, & Herington, 2007) 305
The Needs of Disabled Air Passengers Scale (Chang & Chen, 2012) 307
Value of Volunteering Scale (Gallarza, Arteaga, & Gil-Saura, 2013) 309
Gambling Behavior Scale (Oh & Hsu, 2001) 310
Geotraveler Tendency Scale (GTS) (Boley, Nickerson, & Bosak, 2011) 312
Gratitude and Obligation Scale (Kolyesnikova & Dodd, 2008) 315
Protection–Use Value Orientations toward Coral Reefs Scale (Needham, 2010) 316
SCUBA Divers’ Underwater Behavior Scale (Ong & Musa, 2012) 318
The Perceived Authenticity of Atayal Woven Handicrafts Scale
(Chang, Wall, & Chang, 2008) 320
Travel Lifestyles Scale (Lee & Sparks, 2007) 322

7 Human Resources Scales 325

Work Values Scale (Gursoy, Chi, & Karadag, 2013) 325
Hinkin and Schriesheim Power Scales (Borchgrevink & Susskind, 1996) 327
Barriers to Creativity in the Hotel Industry Scale (Wong & Pang, 2003) 330
Hospitality Emotional Labor Scale (Chu & Murrmann, 2006) 331
Job Attributes of Chinese Restaurants’ Employees Scale
(Lam, Baum, & Pine, 2001) 333
 Contents xi

Work Values of Chinese Food Service Managers Scale (Wong & Huang, 2003) 335
Barriers to Supervisors’/Managers’ Recruitment and Retention Scale
(Martin, Mactaggart, & Bowden, 2006) 336
Career Competence Scale (Wang, 2013) 338
Diversity Training Management Initiative Scale (Weaver, Wilborn,
McClearly, & Lekagul, 2003) 340
The Measurement of Basic Assumptions about Guests and Co-Workers
Scale (Gjerald & Øgaard, 2010) 342
Assimilation-Specific Adjustment Measures (ASAM) Scale (Song, Chathoth, &
Chon, 2012) 344
Job Satisfaction Scale (Khalilzadeh, Del Chiappa, Jafari, & Borujeni, 2013) 346
Attitudes toward Wine-Service Training Scale (Gultek, Dodd, & Guydosh, 2006) 348
Perceptions of Younger and Older Managers Scale (Chi, Maier, & Gursoy, 2013) 349
Antecedents of Employee Loyalty Scale (Chen & Wallace, 2011) 351
Organizational Career Management Scale (Kong, Cheung, & Song, 2011) 353
Employees’ Core Self-Evaluations Scale (Song & Chathoth, 2013) 354

8 Scales Related to Hospitality and Tourism Operations 357

Organizational Relationships Scales 358
Inter-Organizational Relationships Scale (Medina-Munoz & Garcia-Falcon, 2000) 358
Benefits and Risks of Outsourcing Scale (Espino-Rodrigez, Lai, & Baum, 2012) 360
Meeting Planners’ Decision Criteria for Initial Supplier Selection Scale
(Kim & Boo, 2010) 362
Performance Evaluation Scales 363
Performance Evaluation Scale for Small Tourism Ventures Scale
(Reichel & Haber, 2005) 363
IT Investment Evaluation Methods Scale (Karadag, Cobanoglu, &
Dickinson, 2009) 365
Event and Festival Organizers’ Perspectives Scales 366
Event Manager Required Knowledge Scale (Perry, Foley, & Rumpf, 1997) 366
Organizers’ Perceived Resource Investments Scale (Okayasu, Nogawa, &
Morais, 2010) 368
Festival and Event Motivations Scale (Kim, Uysal, & Chen, 2002) 369
Perceived Impacts of Festivals and Special Events by Organizers Scale
(Gursoy, Kim, & Uysal, 2004) 371
Sponsor Perceived Importance of Festival Attributes and Decision
Criteria Scales (Pyo, 1995) 373
Perceived Social-Economic Impacts of Festivals and Events among
Organizers Scale (Kim & Uysal, 2003) 375
Standard Outcome and Certification Process Scale
(Royal & Jago, 1998) 377
Assessment of Convention City Attributes Scale (Baloglu & Love, 2005) 378
Local Conference Choice Attributes Scale (Kim, Kim, & Weaver, 2010) 380
Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility Scales 382
Corporate Social Responsibility Scale (Martínez, Pérez, & Rodríguez
del Bosque, 2013) 382
Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility Scale (Huimin & Ryan, 2011) 384
Hospitality Ethics Scale (Yeung, 2004) 386
Low-Carbon Literacy Scale (Horng, Hu, Teng, Hsiao, & Liu, 2013) 388
Other Hospitality and Tourism Operations Scales 390
Customer Relationship Management Scale (Özgener & İraz, 2006) 390
Destination Competitiveness Scale (Kozak, Baloğlu, & Bahar, 2009) 392
xii Contents

Food Safety Scale (Ghezzi & Ayoun, 2013) 394

Meeting Planners’ Crisis Preparedness Scale (Hilliard, Scott-Halsell, &
Palakurthi, 2011) 395
Crisis-Management Practices Scale (Israeli, 2007) 397
Perceived Importance of Strategic Issues Scale (O’Neill, Beauvais, & Scholl, 2004) 399
Internal Strategic Factors for Success Scale (Gursoy & Swanger, 2007) 401
IT Applications Usage Scale (Ham, Gon Kim, & Jeong, 2005) 403
Marketing Culture Scale (Karatepe, Avci, & Tekinkus, 2005) 405
Private Club Management Issues Scale (Koenigsfeld, Kim, Cha,
Perdue, & Cichy, 2012) 407
Market Orientation Adoption Scale (Polo Peña, Jamilena, & Molina, 2012) 410
Organizational Culture Scale (Dawson, Abbott, & Shoemaker, 2011) 411


 About the Authors

Dr Dogan Gursoy (PhD) ([email protected]) is the Taco Bell Distinguished Professor in the School
of Hospitality Business Management at Washington State University and the editor of Journal of
Hospitality Marketing & Management. He currently serves as the PhD program coordinator for the
School of Hospitality Business Management. He is also the developer and designer of the ‘Hotel
Business Management Training Simulation’ (http://www.hotelsimulation.com/), a virtual management
training game where participants are divided into teams and assigned the task of running 500-room
hotels in a competitive virtual marketplace. He serves on the editorial board of several journals
including Annals of Tourism Research (resource editor), Journal of Social Inquiry (associate editor),
International Journal of Hospitality Management, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research,
Tourism Analysis, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, and International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management. He also receives frequent invitations to give keynote speeches at inter-
national hospitality and tourism conferences. He has received a number of awards from various
organizations. His current research interest focuses on services management, hospitality and tourism
marketing, tourist behavior, travelers’ information search behavior, community support for tourism
development, cross-cultural studies, consumer behavior, involvement, and generational leadership.
Dr Muzaffer (Muzzo) Uysal (PhD) ([email protected]) is a Professor of Tourism in the Department of
Hospitality and Tourism Management, Pamplin College of Business, Virginia Polytechnic Insti-
tute and State University (Virginia Tech). He has extensive experience in the travel and tourism
field, authoring or co-authoring a significant number of articles in tourism, hospitality, and re-
creation journals, proceedings and book chapters, and four monographs and seven books related
to tourism research methods, tourist service satisfaction, tourism and quality of life, creating
experience value in tourism, and consumer psychology in tourism and hospitality settings. He is a
member of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism, the Academy of Leisure Sciences,
and serves as co-editor of Tourism Analysis: An Interdisciplinary Journal. In addition, he sits on
the editorial boards of several journals including Journal of Travel Research, and Annals of Tourism
Research as resource editor. He has also received a number of awards for Research, Excellence in
International Education, and Teaching Excellence. His current research interests center on tourism
demand/supply interaction, tourism development, and quality-of-life research in tourism.
Dr Ercan Sirakaya-Turk (PhD) ([email protected]) is a Professor and Fulbright Scholar and cur-
rently works as the Associate Dean for Research, Grants, Graduate and International Programs
in the College of Hospitality, Retail and Sports Management at the University of South Carolina.
Ercan has work experience at three major Carnegie VH research universities. Before joining the
University of South Carolina, he worked as an Associate Professor at Texas A&M University

 xiii
xiv About the Authors

and as an Assistant Professor at the Pennsylvania State University. Ercan is the writer of one of
the most influential articles in tourism. As a prolific grant writer, he has completed many grant
projects in excess of US$1.3 million. He has also published a significant number of articles in the
area of tourism destination marketing and developmental policy in prestigious tourism and
business journals such as Annals of Tourism Research, Journal of Travel Research, and Journal
of Business Research. Dr Turk is the founding Editor for e-Review of Tourism Research, the on-
line tourism ­research bulletin. He teaches tourism, marketing, tourism economics, and research
methods classes. Currently, he oversees faculty grants, research, graduate, and international pro-
grams among the four departments in his college. He conducts grant and statistics workshops for
faculty and PhD students, provides individual consultation in research and grants, and approves
all grant activity going forward from his college.
Dr Yuksel Ekinci (PhD) ([email protected]) is a Professor of Marketing at the university of
Reading. He teaches Global Marketing Strategy and Research Methods at Master level. His
research interests include scale development, service quality, consumer satisfaction, consumer
­
loyalty, and brand equity. He has organized short courses and workshops on research methods
in the UK and Europe. Yuksel developed a customer satisfaction model for the hospitality
services and his two articles on service quality were rated excellent by Anbar Reference
Management. His articles are published in tourism, hospitality, and marketing journals such as
Annals of Tourism Research, Journal of Travel Research, Tourism Analysis, Journal of Hospitality
& Tourism Research, Journal of Business Research, European Journal of Marketing, and Journal of
Marketing Management. Yuksel is an editorial board member of several tourism and marketing
journals and frequently presents at academic and industry conferences.
Dr Seyhmus Baloglu ([email protected]) is a Professor and Harrah Distinguished Chair
in the William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration, University of Nevada at Las Vegas.
His teaching areas include marketing, international travel and tourism, research methods, and
multivariate statistics. His research interests and scholarly activities revolve around branding and
image development, data mining, customer loyalty, online marketing, self-service technology,
gaming analysis, and sustainable practices and opportunities in the hospitality industry.
Dr ­Baloglu has received grants, contracts, and consulting projects on these and other topics
from tourist destinations, hotels, gaming resorts, airports, nightclubs, and other organizations.
Dr Baloglu has published numerous research papers, conference proceedings, and book chapters.
His research has consistently appeared in top-quality journals in interrelated fields including
Journal of Business Research, Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
Research, Annals of Tourism Research, Journal of Travel Research, Tourism Management, Journal
of Travel & Tourism Marketing, and Tourism Analysis. He has presented his work at many national
and international conferences, seminars, and symposia, delivered several keynote speeches, and
participated in panels on international conferences. He is the co-author of the book, Managing
and Marketing Tourist Destinations: Strategies to Gain a Competitive Edge.
 1
Introduction

Over the past 40 years, the field of tourism and hospitality has witnessed tremendous growth in
the number of academic journals, the amount of information, and the knowledge generated in dif-
ferent aspects of these two closely related areas. While only a small number of hospitality and
tourism journals were available in the mid-1970s, there are now over 250 journals publishing thou-
sands of papers a year. Scholars in the 1970s could read every single article published in their field.
Today, even following the research stream in one’s specialty area has become a challenge because of
the sheer number of papers published in each issue of traditional journals as well as on the internet
in open access journals. All the indicators support the notion that as the field of hospitality and
tourism continues to expand in every corner of the world, we should expect the number of papers
to multiply in the next decade.
As the field of tourism and hospitality experiences maturity and scientific sophistication, it
is important that we as tourism and hospitality researchers fully understand the breadth and
depth of existing measurement scales that help us explain, understand, monitor, and predict con-
cepts and constructs related to tourists’ and residents’ attitudes and behaviors, hospitality and
tourism operations, and overall destination attractiveness and image. Currently, there is not a
single source in our field that can fill this gap. The aim of the Handbook of Scales in Tourism and
Hospitality Research is to close this gap by compiling and presenting measurement scales that
capture a variety of concepts and constructs used in hospitality and tourism studies. We know
that this Handbook will help researchers in our field to refer and locate measurement instruments
with minimal effort.
The Handbook of Scales in Tourism and Hospitality Research contains over 200 scales that are
used in some form and content by researchers in hospitality and tourism, but are not necessarily
exhaustive in coverage and scope. Thus, it is not intended to be an all-inclusive book that covers
all measurement scales that have appeared in the field. As the number of journals and published
­papers continue to increase every year, it is almost an impossible task to gather all existing scales
developed and utilized in the field; however, we have made a special effort to be as comprehensive
as possible by covering the scales published in almost all the selected reputable and top-tiered
journals. This may not still guarantee the inclusion of every possible measurement scale in the
selected publication outlets. This first edition of the Handbook of Scales in Tourism and Hospitality
Research includes only selected measurement scales that were developed and/or used in studies
published in a small number of selected top journals in the field. The journals that are covered are
(alphabetically):
• Annals of Tourism Research;
• Cornell Quarterly;
• Event Management;
• International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management;
• International Journal of Hospitality Management;
• Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research;

© CAB International 2014. Handbook of Scales in Tourism and Hospitality Research 

(D. Gursoy et al.) 1
2 Chapter 1

• Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management;

• Journal of Travel Research;
• Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing;
• Tourism Analysis;
• Tourism Economics; and
• Tourism Management.

Selection of the Scales

These journals are included based on their standing in the field and also to provide a comprehensive
coverage of diverse topics studied in hospitality and tourism. Over 200 scales were selected from
these journals utilizing the following criteria:
• having a reasonable theoretical base;
• utilizing multiple items or questions;
• using some scaling procedures;
• including estimates of reliability and/or validity; and
• the degree of originality.
The selected scales were categorized through a meta/content analysis in order to provide a clear and
concise presentation. We hope that the categories included in this Handbook will make it easier for
researchers to identify and utilize relevant scales for their own research and needs. This Handbook
could also serve as the first source of scales for researchers, thus making research attempts more
efficient and less time consuming. For the sake of ‘standardization’ and appearance, each scale pre-
sented in this Handbook includes the following information so that users can quickly learn and
easily gather further information about the scale:
• name of the scale;
• objective of the construct;
• description of the scale;
• development process;
• sample(s);
• measurement issues
° validity
° reliability;
• source of the scale; and
• related sources.

Format of the Scale Presentations – The General Template

In order to make scales useful and adaptable, we have devised a common template that contains
both procedural and declarative information on the scale. This template is intended to provide as
accurate and detailed information in a standardized way as we could extract from the published
work in which the scale was presented.

Name of the scale

The scale name is presented here. In this section, citation for the scale is also provided. The name
provided is a reflection of both the labeling of the scale by the author(s) and also the interpretation
of the measurement as a scale in the case of no scale labeling.
 Introduction 3

Objective of the construct

This section is used to explain the stated purpose of the scale. In some instances, the scale is a
by-product of the study; in other instances, it could be the focus of the study. The stated objective
of the scale usually helps us identify and place the scale in categories.

Description

In this section, a brief description of the scale is presented. In the description, the number of
underlying dimensions, number of items or indicators measured, and the measurement scale infor-
mation is provided. This is followed by the scale’s origin. If there is an identifiable source of the scale
origin, it is then stated; e.g. the scale is original to Gursoy and Swanger (2007).

Development

This section explains the scale development process utilized by the author(s). Naturally, the scope
and coverage of this section are a function of the amount and detail of information that are pro-
vided in the source from which scale development information is extracted. As one may expect
from the list of included scales, the information provided on scale development varies from one
study to another. While most of the authors of the studies that developed the scales included in
this Handbook followed a scale development process, some of them did not explain the process in
detail because of various reasons such as space limitations or maybe deemed it unimportant.
Or, in some instances, an adaption of an existing scale may have been generated for use in the
study. Therefore, a brief overview of the scale development process is presented in the following
paragraph.
Well-known scale development scholars such as Churchill (1979) and DeVellis (1991) suggest
that any instrument development should start with the generation of an item pool. An item pool is
usually generated from previous research and/or at interviews where people’s behavior is studied.
Some researchers conduct focus groups in order to come up with an initial list of items while others
ask simple open-ended questions to selected members of the population being studied. Based on
the literature and the responses, researchers develop an item pool to be used in an instrument.
However, this is only the beginning of the scale development process. Researchers such as Churchill
(1979) and DeVellis (1991) provide a detailed check list to be followed in the development and use
of a scale. Significant among these steps are:
• determination of the unit of analysis (e.g. the individual, group, or organization);
• creation and use of multi-item scales;
• pre-testing and use of pilot data;
• assessment of both construct and content validity;
• assessment of reliability;
• random sampling from a defined sample frame;
• determination of an appropriate response rate and evaluation of non-response bias;
• assessment of whether significant correlations imply real causal relations; and
• determination of statistical power of the final analysis.

Sample(s) and pilot test

In this section, characteristics of both the pre-test sample (if reported) and the actual sample
are provided. Information provided includes type of sampling methodology utilized, sample size,
4 Chapter 1

r­ esponse rate, and so on. Furthermore, the section also includes statements as to whether or not
pilot studies were conducted as part of the scale development.

Measurement issues

In this section, measurement issues related to validity and reliability of the scale are discussed. If
factor scores are reported, then they are also mentioned. The main point of this section is to make
sure that measurement issues are presented to reveal the level of credence of the scale in question.
Naturally, the extent to which this is done is a function of the related information provided on
measurement in general (Ekinci, 2011).

Validity

Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement, or how well the measurement taps what it is
­designed to measure (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1984). There are several different types of validity to be
considered: (i) face/content validity (i.e. the agreement among professionals that the scale is meas-
uring what it is supposed to measure); (ii) criterion validity (i.e. the degree of correspondence be-
tween a measure and a criterion variable, usually measured by their correlation); and (iii) construct
validity (i.e. the ability of a measure to confirm a network of related hypotheses generated from a
theory based on constructs) (Bollen, 1989; Zikmund, 1997).
The most common practice to assess the face validity of a measurement instrument is to ask experts
in the area to review the items used and provide feedback for revision. The purpose is to solicit feedback
as well as to check for readability of the questions, edit, and improve the items to enhance their clarity,
readability, and content validity. The experts are usually also asked to identify any of the scale items
that are redundant with other scale items and to offer suggestions for improving the proposed scale.

Reliability

Reliability deals with how consistently similar measures will produce similar results (Rosenthal &
Rosnow, 1984). Reliability is assessed by two methods: (i) stability (e.g. test–retest reliability); and
(ii) internal consistency (Zikmund, 1997). The method of internal consistency, which is the most
popular reliability method, refers to the ability of a scale item to correlate with other items of the
same scale that are intended to measure the same construct. The adequacy of the individual items
and the composites are assessed by measures of reliability and validity. The reliability of the
measurement instrument is usually assessed by Cronbach’s α reliability and composite reliability.
A Cronbach’s α reliability (and composite reliability) score of 0.70 or higher indicates that the
measurement scale that is used to measure a construct is reliable. The composite reliability estimate
is analogous to coefficient α and is calculated by the formula provided by Fornell and Larcker
(1981). In some exceptional cases (e.g. exploratory studies), one may also go with a reliability α
value of less than 0.70 (e.g. 0.60 or higher). However, an examination of some of the scale dimen-
sions reveals that some empirical studies have reported reliability α coefficients that were even less
than 0.60 on the basis that: (i) the scale dimensions are used for data reduction in subsequent data
analysis for either explaining or predicting a dependent variable; or (ii) the study itself was of an
exploratory research nature, thus it was deemed important to report the reliability coefficient.

Source of the scale

The source of the scale is provided by presenting a complete reference of the study where the scale
was originally presented. Almost all the scales reported here are published or presented in the journals
that we covered.
 Introduction 5

Related sources

This section presents the related sources that were consulted in the development process of the
scale. These sources are thought to have had direct bearing on the scale that is mentioned in the
published work.

Scale Categories

A quick scanning of the reported scales as reflected in the selected journal outlets in the field of
tourism and hospitality reveals that the scope and nature of those scales are diverse, almost cover-
ing every aspect of tourism and hospitality research areas. In order to provide a clear and concise
presentation of the measurement scales and to make it easy for researchers to identify scales that
may be applicable to their own research, the scales included in this Handbook were grouped utiliz-
ing a meta/content analysis approach. This grouping process resulted in seven main categories and
several subcategories within each main category. The measurement scales for each main category
are presented in a separate chapter. These main categories are:

• Motivation Scales;
• Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes Scales;
• Image Scales;
• Performance Evaluation, Quality Assessment, Loyalty and Satisfaction Scales;
• Tourist Behavior Scales;
• Human Resources Scales; and
• Scales Related to Hospitality and Tourism Operations.

Furthermore, the groupings of existing scales in the selected journals in seven areas may also be a
reflection of the scope and coverage of the research areas that are frequently examined, and thus
for which we as researchers have developed more measurement scales.

Motivation Scales

The number of subcategories and the large number of scales that were developed to examine trav-
elers’ motivation clearly indicate the examination of travelers’ motivation has been one of the most
frequently studied topics in the field of hospitality and tourism. This might be due to the fact that
tourist motivation is the result of both internal and external forces that drive a potential tourist
into action; these motivations are often the first step in travelers’ buying decision-making process.
Furthermore, understanding why people travel and why they choose a specific destination to visit
is important for destination managers and marketers in terms of new product development and
marketing strategies. As the field of tourism and hospitality has witnessed further specialization in
different aspects of tourist behavior, the notion of motivation is also further contextualized based
on targets, goals, and settings. In addition, a significant number of motivation studies have also
incorporated both the notion of push factors as psychological reasons for travel and the notion
of pull factors as cognition of destination attributes in their measurement scales (Uysal, Li, &
Sirakaya-Turk, 2011).
With this observation in mind, the compilation of the scales that are developed to measure
motivation in hospitality and tourism further resulted in seven subcategories. These subcat-
egories are:
6 Chapter 1

• Travel Motivation Scales;

• Festival Attendance Motivation Scales;
• Casino Gambling Motivation Scales;
• Sporting Events Participation Motivation Scales;
• Cruise Motivation Scales;
• Motivations for Attending Travel Exhibitions; and
• Other Motivation Scales. Chapter 2 presents these motivation scales.

Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes Scales

Over the past three decades, host communities’ attitudes toward various forms of tourism devel-
opment and tourism products have attracted the attention of several researchers, resulting in nu-
merous studies on the topic (e.g. Byrd, Bosley, & Dronberger, 2009; Gursoy, Chi, & Dyer, 2010;
Lee, Kang, Long, & Reisinger, 2010). This line of research still continues to be one of the most
frequently investigated tourism issues, with new additional variables in the form of moderating
variables and extension of links from perceived impacts of tourism to support for tourism and
from support for tourism to satisfaction with tourism activities and well-being of community and
stakeholders as a result of tourism activities (Uysal, Perdue, & Sirgy, 2012). The proliferation of
such studies has resulted in the development of a number of instruments to measure residents’
perceptions of and attitudes toward tourism development and satisfaction with tourism activities,
both at the individual and community level. Analysis reveals that the scales that were developed
to assess residents’ perceptions of and a­ ttitudes toward development may be further placed in five
subcategories.
The first subcategory, Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Tourism Scales, includes
measurement scales that were developed to assess residents’ perceptions of and attitudes toward
general tourism development. The following three subcategories (Residents’ Perceptions and Atti-
tudes toward Festivals Scales, Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Mega Events Scales,
and Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes toward Gaming Scales) include measurement instru-
ments that were developed to assess residents’ perceptions of and attitudes toward festivals, mega
events, and gaming developments. The last subcategory, Other Residents’ Perceptions and Atti-
tudes Scales, includes residents’ perceptions and attitudes scales that would not fit in any of the
previous categories. All these scales are presented in Chapter 3.

Image Scales

Destination image plays a significant role in tourists’ subjective evaluation of destinations, con-
sequent behavior, and destination choice (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Castro, Armario, &
Ruiz, 2007; Chi, 2011; Chi & Qu, 2008). Therefore, it is considered as one of the most import-
ant aspects of destination marketing because travelers’ image of a destination is likely to
have a rather strong effect on their decision making and destination selection behavior (Chi,
2012). As a result, a plethora of studies examined destination image, its antecedents and out-
comes (Sun, Chi, & Xu, 2013), which further resulted in the development of several multi-item,
multi-dimensional measurement scales to assess individuals’ image of travel destinations. Hos-
pitality and tourism researchers have developed multi-item, multi-dimensional image scales to
measure individuals’ cognitive image on a portfolio of tourism and destination products, in-
cluding the impacts of celebrity endorsers on the perceived image of a destination. Multi-item,
multi-dimensional image scales that were developed to measure different aspects of image are
presented in Chapter 4.
 Introduction 7

Performance Evaluation, Quality Assessment, Loyalty and Satisfaction Scales

Evaluation of service providers’ service delivery performance quality, has received significant atten-
tion from hospitality and tourism researchers during the past several decades because of its influ-
ence on consumer behavior including choice behavior, satisfaction, and loyalty (Baker & Crompton,
2000). It is generally believed that there is a positive relationship between service quality and satis-
faction (Chi, 2011). Furthermore, studies suggest that high service quality and satisfaction are
likely to result in loyal customers who are likely to provide positive word-of-mouth endorsements,
referrals, and repeat visits. Because of its importance for the success and survival of businesses,
hospitality and tourism researchers have developed multi-item, multi-dimensional scales to assess
the quality of a variety of hospitality and tourism products such as lodging establishments, online
services, food service, festivals, and many other services and products delivered by the industry.
Chapter 5 presents some measurement instruments that can be used to assess lodging quality, e-travel
service quality, restaurant quality, festival quality, other hospitality and tourism service quality,
and satisfaction and loyalty scales.

Tourist Behavior Scales

Hospitality and tourism researchers have been studying different aspects of tourists’ behavior since
the beginning because various aspects of tourist behavior play a significant role in the choice of a des-
tination, the consumption of products and services, the decision to return, and the decision to recom-
mend to others. Since the hospitality and tourism experience is a multi-faceted and hybrid experience,
researchers have developed multi-item scales that can be used to study different facets of this multi-­
faceted and hybrid experience. A large portion of the measurement scales that were developed focused
on assessing travelers’ decision making, buying behavior, and perceived value of experiences while
other scales were developed to assess travelers’ knowledge and information search behavior, and their
online behavior. Researchers also developed scales to measure travelers’ travel risk and travel con-
straints perceptions, and their perception of price and value of hospitality and tourism services. Multi-­
dimensional scales were also developed to measure travelers’ involvement, tourist experiences and their
characteristics, and other facets of tourists’ behavior. Chapter 6 presents such scales in detail.

Human Resources Scales

Since any service company’s intangible assets reside in employees’ know-how and skills, and the
company’s future depends heavily on employees and the perceived quality of interactions between
customers and employees, successful management of human resources has become one of the most
critical issues facing the hospitality and tourism industry. In recent years, service companies have
been allocating significant resources for employee retention because most hospitality professionals
and research suggest that lowering employee turnover is likely to have a significant impact on the
bottom-line. Literature further suggests that employee retention and customer retention are closely
correlated. Employees who are happy and satisfied with their work environment are more likely to
stay with the company. This is likely to result in lower turnover and, therefore, a better financial
performance due to decreasing cost of attracting and training new employees. However, studies
also suggest that satisfied employees are also likely to provide better services, which is likely to
­result in a satisfactory service experience for their customers. This satisfactory service experience,
in return, is likely to have a significant impact on repeat business and customer retention. Studies
also suggest that customer retention is likely to increase a company’s profitability because retaining
8 Chapter 1

an existing customer costs a lot less than attracting a new one. Because of the importance of
human resources, several researchers have developed multi-dimensional scales to measure issues
related to human resources management such as employee satisfaction, emotional labor, organiza-
tional climate, work values, etc. A number of measurement scales that were developed to assess
various human resources issues are presented in Chapter 7.

Scales Related to Hospitality and Tourism Operations

Like other businesses, companies that offer hospitality and tourism services and products exist in
a contingent relationship with their environments. For survival and continued success, they are ex-
pected to align their operations, both internally and externally, to identify and seize opportunities
before others to gain competitive advantage and avoid threats posed by the environment (Olsen,
2004). Therefore, identifying the factors that are likely to result in sustainable competitive advantages
is one of the most fundamental challenges companies are facing today (Gursoy & Swanger, 2007).
As the hospitality and tourism industry is rapidly becoming a true global industry, this business
globalization and free trade will continue to increase business competition (Guimaraes & Armstrong,
1998), and thus identifying and understanding factors that are likely to produce sustained competi-
tive advantage, growth, and enhanced company financial performance have become even more import-
ant to both managers and shareholders (Tonge, Larsen, & Ito, 1998). Like other organizations,
hospitality companies face the same challenge. Market saturation and competition from international
hospitality companies further emphasize the importance of sustained competitive advantage in
today’s marketplace.
Studies published in hospitality and tourism journals have developed and utilized several multi-­
item, multi-dimensional measurement scales to assess company performance and to examine the
contingent relationship between the environment and the company in order to align the company
both internally and externally. In this chapter, a number of scales that were developed to examine
the performance of hospitality and tourism businesses and organizational relationships within the
industry are presented. Measurement instruments that were used to examine event and festival or-
ganizers’ perspectives and other operational issues faced by hospitality and tourism businesses are
also presented in Chapter 8.

Concluding Comments and Limitations

We, as editors of the Handbook, acknowledge the fact that we may have left out some measurement
scales that exist in our journals and the field. For the sake of simplicity and functionality we have
included a limited list of academic journals from the field with past history and reputation. Thus,
the list we used is not complete and nor exhaustive in its coverage of measurement scales. For this,
we apologize. Our goal is to simply share a list of measurement scales in one place in order to create
the first source of scales and measures in hospitality and tourism fields that today’s and future re-
searchers could use as a point of departure for their research initiatives and endeavors.
One can also make the argument that not all the measurement scales included in the Handbook
constitute a true scale and also lack the reporting of complete scale properties and related steps in
their development. Thus, there is a degree of subjectivity that is involved in the compilation of the
included measurement scales. Yes, we in advance accept these criticisms in the spirit of providing a
first attempt to share a list of measurement scales for our field and researchers in one compendium.
Furthermore, if you as a researcher of the included measurement scale(s) see some degree of mis-
representation of the scale(s), we would hope to have an opportunity rectify it as we may also expand
the scope of inclusion of other left-out measurement scales in our future edition of the Handbook.
 Introduction 9

We would like to thank our colleagues and the researchers in the field of tourism and hospitality
who have created the knowledge and the scales included in this Handbook; you have given us reasons
to initiate a project like this one. You are a true inspiration and the source of this Handbook’s birth,
hoping that you will find the source useful.
We also would like to thank the publishers and editors of the journals from which those scales
were extracted. We as editors extend our sincere thanks to the publisher CABI and their highly
skilled staff members for making this project a reality.
Finally, we would like to extend our sincere thanks to everyone who helped us extract the
scales included in this Handbook. We would especially like to thank the following individuals for
their help with this project: Na Su, Tracy Neureuther, Eunju Woo, Lina Kim, Tarik Dogru, Arnold
Japutra, and Sertac Ciftci.

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10 Chapter 1

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 2
Motivation Scales

The number of subcategories and the large number of scales that were developed to examine trav-
elers’ motivation clearly indicate the examination of travelers’ motivation has been one of the most
frequently studied topics in the field of hospitality and tourism. This might be due to the fact that
tourist motivation is the result of both internal and external forces that drive a potential tourist
into action; these motivations are often the first step in travelers’ buying decision-making process.
Furthermore, understanding why people travel and why they choose a specific destination to visit
is important for destination managers and marketers in terms of new product development and
marketing strategies. As the field of tourism and hospitality has witnessed further specialization in
different aspects of tourist behavior, the notion of motivation is also further contextualized based
on targets, goals, and settings. In addition, a significant number of motivation studies have also
incorporated both the notion of push factors as psychological reasons for travel and the notion
of pull factors as cognition of destination attributes in their measurement scales (Uysal, Li, &
Sirakaya-Turk, 2011).
With this observation in mind, the compilation of the scales that are developed to measure
motivation in hospitality and tourism further resulted in seven subcategories. These subcategor-
ies are:
• Travel Motivation Scales;
• Festival Attendance Motivation Scales;
• Casino Gambling Motivation Scales;
• Sporting Events Participation Motivation Scales;
• Cruise Motivation Scales;
• Motivations for Attending Travel Exhibitions; and
• Other Motivation Scales.

Reference

Uysal, M., Li, X., & Sirakaya-Turk, E. (2008). Push–pull dynamics in travel decisions. In H. Oh, & A. Pizam
(Eds.), Handbook of hospitality marketing management (pp. 412–438). Oxford, UK: Butterworth-­
Heinemann.

© CAB International 2014. Handbook of Scales in Tourism and Hospitality Research 

(D. Gursoy et al.) 11
12 Chapter 2

Travel Motivation Scales

Tourist Motivations Scale 1 (Snepenger, King, Marshall, & Uysal, 2006)

Name of the scale: Tourist Motivations Scale 1 (Snepenger, King, Marshall, & Uysal, 2006)
Objective of the construct: The objective of this scale is to specifically operationalize Iso-Ahola’s
theory within the tourism and recreation contexts by assessing each of the
four motivational dimensions.
Description: The scale consists of four domains and 12 items, and the items are
measured using a Likert-type 10-point scale.
Scale origin: Scale is developed by Snepenger, King, Marshall, and Uysal (2006) by
drawing the items from existing literature.
Development: The motive items were developed using a multistep process. Initially, a series of
motivation items were extracted from the literature that operationalized one or
more dimensions from Iso-Ahola’s theory. Items were drawn from studies by
Fodness (1994), Uysal, Gahan, and Martin (1993), Dunn Ross and Iso-Ahola
(1991), Loker and Perdue (1992), Sirakaya, Uysal, and Yoshioka (2003), and
Pennington-Gray and Kerstetter (2001). In addition, the authors considered
Iso-Ahola’s theoretical papers and added other items. The items were pre-­tested
with an undergraduate student sample at a land-grant university. Items were
evaluated by the students for redundancy, clarity, and the response format.
Sample(s): A convenience sample of 353 undergraduate students at a land-grant
university in the US participated in the final data collection. The students
consisted of a cross-section of majors taking an introduction to tourism
class for non-majors. The web-based survey was administered in the
spring of 2004, and the data were collected during an 8-day period.
Students were given extra credit for their participation.
Measurement issues
Validity: No examination of validity is reported.
Reliability: The scale dimensions’ α ranges between 0.80 and 0.86.
Source of the scale: Snepenger, D., King, J., Marshall, E., & Uysal, M. (2006). Modeling Iso-Ahola’s
­motivation theory in the tourism context. Journal of Travel Research, 45,
140–149.
Related sources: Dunn Ross, E. L., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1991). Sightseeing tourists’ motivation
and satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2), 226–237.
Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism ­Research,
21(3), 555–581.
Loker, E. L., & Perdue, R. R. (1992). Benefit-based segmentation of a nonresi­
dent summer travel market. Journal of Travel Research, 31(1), 30–35.
Pennington-Gray, L. A., & Kerstetter, D. L. (2001). What do university-­
educated women want from their travel experiences? Journal of Travel
Research, 40(1), 49–56.
Sirakaya (Turk), E., Uysal, M., & Yoshioka, C. F. (2003). Segmenting the
­Japanese tour market to Turkey. Journal of Travel Research, 41(3), 293–304.
Uysal, M., Gahan, L., & Martin, B. (1993). An examination of event motiv-
ations: A case study. Festival Management & Event Tourism, 1(1), 5–10.

Tourist Motivations Scale 1 (Snepenger, King, Marshall, & Uysal, 2006)

Factor 1: Personal Escape

1. To get away from my normal environment
2. To have a change in pace from my everyday life
3. To overcome a bad mood
 Motivation Scales 13

Factor 2: Interpersonal Escape

4. To avoid people who annoy me
5. To get away from a stressful social environment
6. To avoid interactions with others
Factor 3: Personal Seeking
7. To tell others about my experiences
8. To feel good about myself
9. To experience new things by myself
Factor 4: Interpersonal Seeking
10. To be with people of similar interests
11. To bring friends/family closer
12. To meet new people
Note: Items are measured using a Likert-type 10-point scale.

Tourist Motivations Scale 2 (Fodness, 1994)

Name of the scale: Tourist Motivations Scale 2 (Fodness, 1994)

Objective of the construct: The objective of this study is to design, implement, and test an objective
approach to measuring the functions that the vacation experience serves
for the leisure traveler.
Description: The scale consists of five dimensions along with 20 items, and the items
are measured using a Likert-type 7-point scale.
Scale origin: Scale appears to be original to Fodness (1994).
Development: Sixty-five vacation themes items were generated by qualitative study.
The 65-item instrument was purified and reduced using a four-step iterative
procedure: (i) factor analysis to verify the dimensionality of the scale;
(ii) computation of coefficient α and item-to-total correlations for each
dimension; (iii) factor analysis to verify the dimensionality of the reduced
scale; and (iv) computation of coefficient α and item-to-total correlations for
each dimension.
Sample(s): Data for purification of the multiple-item functional measurement scale
were collected from a sample of individuals who had recently requested a
Florida Visitor’s Guide. One thousand self-administered surveys were
mailed to a random sample of individuals who requested the vacation
guide in the period of April through June 1990. Five hundred and
­t wenty-three surveys were returned, and of those 402 were usable for
the purpose of scale purification.
Measurement issues
Validity: Content validity of the scale was established. Construct validity was
examined by assessing the scale’s relationship with other constructs or
indicators.
Reliability: The scale dimensions’ α ranges between 0.91 and 0.94.
Source of the scale: Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism
­Research, 21(3), 555–581.
14 Chapter 2

Tourist Motivations Scale 2 (Fodness, 1994)

Factor 1: Value Expressive Ego-Enhancement

1. I like to talk about my vacation when I get back home, you know, relive it
2. When I go home, I tell everybody about my vacation
3. I like to be able to talk about the places I’ve visited and things I’ve seen on vacation

Factor 2: Knowledge Function

4. It is important for me to experience different cultures and ways of life

5. While on vacation, I attend cultural events that I don’t have access to at home
6. I like to visit foreign cultures
7. I like to see how other people live
8. On vacation, I like to do same things that people there do, you know, ‘When in Rome…’

Factor 3: Utilitarian Function: Punishment Minimization

9. Just to curl up with a good book in the shade sounds like a wonderful vacation to me
10. Just resting and relaxing is vacation enough for me
11. A vacation means being able to do nothing
12. The main thing for me on vacation is just to slow down
13. There should be no deadlines while on vacation

Factor 4: Value Expressive: Self-Esteem

14. While on vacation, I want luxury, nice food, and a comfortable place to stay
15. The availability of good restaurants and good food is important in choosing a vac-
ation spot
16. I think that the kind of accommodations that you get on vacation is real important
17. It is important for me to go someplace fashionable on vacation

Factor 5: Utilitarian Function: Reward Maximization

18. I want to see thing on vacation that I don’t normally see

19. There are some places I have always wanted to visit
20. I just like to travel, to go somewhere, and to do something

Note: Items are measured using a Likert-type 7-point scale.

Tourist Motivations Scale 3 (Alegre, Cladera, & Sard, 2011)

Name of the scale: Tourist Motivations Scale 3 (Alegre, Cladera, & Sard, 2011)
Objective of the construct: The aim of the study is to analyze whether tourist motivations help to
explain tourist expenditure patterns.
Description: The authors adopted the definition of tourist motivation introduced by Uysal
and Hagan (1993), which states that motivations are internal factors that
arouse, direct, and integrate a person’s behavior from a tourism perspective
in the form of a set of needs and attitudes that predispose a person to act
in a specific touristic goal-directed way. The study shows that tourist
motivation consists of five dimensions: Sun-and-Sand Basics, Local and
Cultural Environment, Fun and Social Life, Tourist Facilities, and Nature
and Sports.
 Motivation Scales 15

Development: Twenty-four suitable motivations were included in the survey following a

review of leading analyses of the attributes of sun-and-sand destinations
(Alegre & Cladera, 2006; Fodness, 1994; Iso-Ahola & Mannel, 1987;
Shoemaker, 1989; Sirakaya, McLelland, & Uysal, 1996; Yoon & Uysal,
2005). Then respondents were asked to rate them on a 5-point Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 (‘not at all ­important’) to 5 (‘very important’), and a
principal component analysis with quatrimax rotation was used for data
analysis. The five motivational dimensions identified coincided with those
revealed in other published studies in the tourism literature.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: Not applicable.
Actual sample: The data were obtained from a survey based on German and British
tourists that make up the major segments (55%) in Mallorca, Spain. The
survey was conducted at Palma Airport in July and August. A random
sample was selected, using flight departure information provided by the
airport authorities. A total of 2464 tourists were interviewed. Of these, 2027
surveys were retained for data analysis.
Measurement issues
Validity: The authors reported that the scale has convergent and discriminant
validity.
Scores: The mean scores were reported.
Reliability: Reliability of the measures is not reported.
Source of the scale: Alegre, J., Cladera, M., & Sard, M. (2011). Analyzing the influence of tourist
motivations on tourist expenditure at a sun-and-sand destination. Tourism
Economics, 17(4), 813–832.
Related sources: Alegre, J., & Cladera, M. (2006). Tourist expenditure and quality: Why re-
peat tourists can spend less than first-timers? Tourism Economics, 16(3),
517–533.
Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism Research,
21(3), 555–581.
Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Mannel, R. C. (1987). Psychological nature of leisure and
tourism experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 14(3), 314–331.
Shoemaker, S. (1989). Segmentation of senior pleasure travel market. Jour-
nal of Travel Research, 27(3), 14–21.
Sirakaya, E., McCellan, R., & Uysal, M. (1996). Modeling vacation destination
decisions: A behavioral approach. In D. R. Fesenmayer, J. T. O’Leary, &
M. Uysal (Eds.), Recent advances in tourism marketing research (pp. 57–75).
New York, NY: Haworth Press.
Uysal, M., & Hagen, L. R. (1993). Motivation of pleasure to travel and tourism.
In M. A. Khan, M. D. Olsen, & T. Var (Eds.), VNR’s encyclopedia of hospital-
ity and tourism (pp. 798–810). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Yoon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2005). An examination of the effects of motivation and
satisfaction on destination loyalty: A structural model. Tourism Manage-
ment, 26(1), 45–56.

Tourist Motivations Scale 3 (Alegre, Cladera, & Sard, 2011)

Factor 1: Sun-and-Sand Basics

1. Cleanliness and hygiene
2. Safety and security
3. Scenery
4. Beaches
5. Climate
16 Chapter 2

6. Quality of accommodation
7. A holiday in line with the budget
8. Tranquility
9. Easy access from the country of origin
Factor 2: Local and Cultural Environment
10. Visits to historic sites/attractions
11. Interesting towns and villages/cities
12. Cultural activities
13. Local lifestyle
14. Local cuisine
15. Prior knowledge of the destination
Factor 3: Fun and Social Life
16. Getting to know other holiday companions
17. Nightlife
18. The presence of friends and/or relatives
Factor 4: Tourist Facilities
19. Easy access to information and/or an easy holiday to arrange
20. Facilities for children and/or the elderly
21. Tourist attractions
Factor 5: Nature and Sports
22. Getting back to nature
23. Sports
Note: All items are measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = ‘not at all important’
to 5 = ‘very important’.

Rural Tourists’ Travel Motivations Scale (Xie, Costa, & Morais, 2008)

Name of the scale: Rural Tourists’ Travel Motivations Scale (Xie, Costa, & Morais, 2008)
Objective of the construct: The objective of the construct is to explore the underlying motivations of
rural tourists to Potter County.
Description: The scale developed by Xie, Costa, and Morais (2008) is comprised of five
factors: Personal Growth, Nature and Rural Exploration, Relaxation, Social
Bonding, and Family Bonding. They developed a 17-item scale to measure
the construct and dimensions. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert-type
scale where 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 = ‘strongly agree’. The scale has
been verified to be internally consistent.
Scale origin: The scale was original to Xie et al. (2008).
Development: An initial pool of items was developed based on literature review. A total
of 21 items were included in the scale to measure the construct. The
scale was tested on a sample of 343 respondents recruited by phone,
internet, and mail, who were obtained from an information packet from
the Potter County Visitors Association. Exploratory factor analysis was
conducted on the data to purify the scale and explore the dimensionality
of the scale. A five-factor solution emerged for the scale; namely,
Personal Growth, Nature and Rural Exploration, Relaxation, Social
Bonding, and Family Bonding. Among 21 items, 17 of them were retained
for the final scale.
 Motivation Scales 17

Sample(s)
Pilot test: No pilot study.
Actual sample: A total of 2500 individuals were randomly selected from 4000 people who
inquired by phone, internet, and mail, and who were obtained from an
information packet from the Potter County Visitors Association. Of these,
343 questionnaires were received and were usable, yielding a response
rate of 14 %.
Measurement issues
Validity: Researchers did not report any information on scale validity.
Scores: Both mean scores and factor loadings were reported. No information on
percentage scores was provided.
Reliability: Cronbach’s α scores are reported for each dimension: 0.89 for Personal
Growth, 0.75 for Nature and Rural Exploration, 0.83 for Relaxation, 0.80 for
Social Bonding, and 0.85 for Family Bonding.
Source of the scale: Xie, H., Costa, C. A., & Morais, D. B. (2008). Gender differences in rural tourists’
motivation and activity participation. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure
­Marketing, 16(4), 368–384.
Related sources: Kim, Y. H., Goh, B. K., & Yuan, J. (2010). Development of a multi-dimensional
scale for measuring food tourist motivations. Journal of Quality Assurance
in Hospitality & Tourism, 11(1), 56–71.
Morais, D. B., & Zillifro, T. (2003). An examination of the relationships es-
tablished between a whitewater rafting provider and its male and fe-
male customers. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 10(1–2),
137–150.
Woosnam, K. M., McElroy, K. E., & Van Winkle, C. M. (2009). The role of
­personal values in determining tourist motivations: An application to the
Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival, a cultural special event. Journal of
­Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18(5), 500–511.

Rural Tourists’ Travel Motivations Scale (Xie, Costa, & Morais, 2008)

Factor 1: Personal Growth

1. To gain a sense of self-confidence
2. To learn what I am capable of doing outdoors
3. To think about who I am
4. To feel independent
5. To experience excitement of challenging situations
Factor 2: Nature and Rural Exploration
6. To observe the scenic beauty of rural countryside
7. To enjoy smells, colors and sounds of rural areas
8. To experience the open countryside
9. To learn more about nature and wildlife
Factor 3: Relaxation
10. To avoid everyday responsibilities for a while
11. To get away from clatter and racket back home
12. To help release some built up tensions
Factor 4: Social Bonding
13. To meet local people
14. To meet new and varied people
15. To learn about the local culture and history
18 Chapter 2

Factor 5: Family Bonding

16. To do something with my family
17. To bring my family closer together
Note: Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale where 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 = ‘strongly
agree’.

Tourists’ Motivations for Travelling to Rural Areas Scale (Frochot, 2005)

Name of the scale: Tourists’ Motivations for Travelling to Rural Areas Scale (Frochot,
2005)
Objective of the construct: The objective was to measure tourists’ motivations for traveling to rural
areas in the context of Scotland.
Description: The scale was comprised of four dimensions; namely, Outdoors, Rurality,
Relaxation, and Sport. A total of 13 items were involved, and each of them
was measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale on which 1 represents
‘unimportant’ and 5 represents ‘very important’. Researcher did not report
any information on the scale’s reliability and validity.
Scale origin: The scale is original to Frochot (2005).
Development: In total, 13 motivations for traveling to a rural area were listed based on
literature review and discussion with experts. Each item was rated on a
scale of 1–5 anchor points (5 meaning ‘very important’ down to 1 suggesting
that a benefit was ‘unimportant’). The initial scale was tested on a sample
of 734 tourists in two areas of Scotland: Glencoe, and Dumfries and
Galloway. Exploratory factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted
on the data, and a four-factor solution was recommended by the results:
Outdoors, Rurality, Relaxation, and Sport. All of the 13 items were
retained. There was no information on the scale’s reliability and validity.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: No pilot test.
Actual sample: In total, 2800 questionnaires were distributed in two areas of Scotland:
Glencoe, and Dumfries and Galloway, by leaving them with accommoda-
tion providers. Finally, 734 questionnaires were collected which constituted
an overall response rate of 26.21%.
Measurement issues
Validity: Researcher did not report any information on validity.
Scores: Only factor loadings were reported. Neither mean nor percentage scores
were reported.
Reliability: Researcher did not report any information on reliability.
Source of the scale: Frochot, I. (2005). A benefit segmentation of tourists in rural areas: a Scottish
perspective. Tourism Management, 26(3), 335–346.
Related sources: Fleischer, A., & Felsenstein, D. (2000). Support for rural tourism: Does it
make a difference? Annals of Tourism Research, 27(4), 1007–1024.
Gannon, A. (1994). Rural tourism as a factor in rural community economic
development for economies in transition. Journal of Sustainable Tourism,
2(1–2), 51–60.
Kastenholz, E., Davis, D., & Paul, G. (1999). Segmenting tourism in rural
areas: The case of North and Central Portugal. Journal of Travel Research,
37(4), 353–363.
Molera, L., & Pilar Albaladejo, I. (2007). Profiling segments of tourists in rural
areas of South-Eastern Spain. Tourism Management, 28(3), 757–767.
Park, D. B., & Yoon, Y. S. (2009). Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism:
A Korean case study. Tourism Management, 30(1), 99–108.
 Motivation Scales 19

Tourists’ Motivations for Travelling to Rural Areas Scale (Frochot, 2005)

Factor 1: Outdoors
1. To experience something unspoiled
2. To learn about nature/wildlife
3. To experience open countryside
4. To be outdoors/in nature
5. To observe scenic beauty
Factor 2: Rurality
6. To experience a different culture
7. To meet local peoples
8. To experience rural life
Factor 3: Relaxation
9. To get away
10. To relax
11. For physical rest
Factor 4: Sport
12. For adventure
13. For fitness/sport activity
Notes: Items are measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale on which 1 represents ‘unimportant’,
5 represents ‘very important’.

Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Demilitarized Zone in Vietnam Scale

(Le & Pearce, 2011)

Name of the scale: Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Demilitarized Zone in Vietnam
Scale (Le & Pearce, 2011)
Objective of the construct: The construct aims to identify and explore the underlying motivations
that motivate tourists to visit the demilitarized zone (DMZ) in
Vietnam.
Description: The scale developed by Le and Pearce (2011) is comprised of five factors:
Education and Exploration, Interest in War-related Sites and Exhibitions,
Personal Involvement, Novelty Seeking, and Location and Convenience.
They developed a 20-item scale to measure the construct by using a
5-point Likert scale (‘unimportant’ to very ‘important’). The scale has been
verified to be internally consistent.
Scale origin: The scale is original to Le and Pearce (2011).
Development: The initial pool of items was drawn from literature. A total of 22 motivational
items were included in the questionnaires. The appropriateness of these
items was pre-tested with a small number of tourists. This showed that all
the statements were well understood and relevant. Then the scale was
further tested on a sample of 481 tourists. Principal component analysis
with varimax orthogonal rotation was conducted on the data to explore the
underlying factors of tourists’ motivations to visit the DMZ in Vietnam. As a
result, five factors emerged for the final scale; namely, Education and
Exploration, Interest in War-related Sites and Exhibitions, Personal
Involvement, Novelty Seeking, and Location and Convenience. And 20
items were retained.
20 Chapter 2

Sample(s)
Pilot test: No detail reported.
Actual sample: The survey was conducted at the VinhMoc tunnels from June 22 to July 22,
2008. A response rate of 66% was achieved, with 488 questionnaires
collected from the 744 questionnaires distributed. Of the collected
­questionnaires, 481 were usable and seven were rejected as either the
­questionnaire was not properly completed or most of the important
questions were skipped.
Measurement issues
Validity: No information on validity.
Scores: Only factor loadings were reported for each item.
Reliability: Reliability coefficient was reported for each factor: 0.78 for Education and
Exploration, 0.70 for Interest in War-related Sites and Exhibitions, 0.67 for
Personal Involvement, 0.57 for Novelty Seeking, and 0.53 for Location and
Convenience.
Source of the scale: Le, D. T .T., & Pearce, D. G. (2011). Segmenting visitors to battlefield sites:
International visitors to the former demilitarized zone in Vietnam. Journal of
Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28(4), 451–463.
Related sources: Adams, K. (2001). Danger-zone tourism: Prospects and problems for tourism in
tumultuous times. In P. Teo, T. C. Chang, & K. C. Ho (Eds.), Interconnected
worlds: Tourism in Southeast Asia (pp. 265–281). Oxford, UK: Elsevier
­Science Ltd.
Agrusa, J., Tanner, J., & Dupuis, J. (2006). Determining the potential of
American Vietnam veterans returning to Vietnam as tourists. International
Journal of Tourism Research, 8(3), 223–234.
Cooper, M. (2006). The Pacific War battlefields: Tourist attractions or
war memorials? International Journal of Tourism Research, 8(3),
213–222.
Lunn, K. (2007). War memorialization and public heritage in Southeast Asia:
Some case studies and comparative reflections. International Journal of
Heritage Studies, 13(1), 81–95.
West, B. (2010). Dialogical memorialization, international travel and the
public sphere: A cultural sociology of commemoration and tourism at
the First World War Gallipoli battlefields. Tourist Studies, 10(3),
209–225.

Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Demilitarized Zone in Vietnam Scale

(Le & Pearce, 2011)

Factor 1: Education and Exploration

1. To understand more about the Vietnam/American War
2. Because it represents an important part in the Vietnam/American War
3. Because I am curious
4. Because I am interested in history
Factor 2: Interest in War-related Sites and Exhibitions
5. Because I am interested in the military
6. Because I am interested in battlefield tourism
7. To see the war artifacts
8. Because the DMZ is a famous attraction
9. To see real places from the movies I watched
 Motivation Scales 21

Factor 3: Personal Involvement

10. To remember the days of my youth

11. Because I had personal connection with the DMZ
12. To confront a painful part of my past
13. To visit the places where someone I am closely related to had connection with
14. To learn about my heritage

Factor 4: Novelty Seeking

15. To try something new and different

16. To accompany someone else
17. To get away from my daily routine
18. Because I have no other activity to do

Factor 5: Location and Convenience

19. Because it is on my way

20. Because it is near other attractions
Note: Items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale (‘unimportant’ to ‘very important’).

Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Northern Territory of Australia Scale

(Mohsin, 2005)

Name of the scale: Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Northern Territory of Australia
Scale (Mohsin, 2005)
Objective of the construct: The objective of the scale is to evaluate attitudes of West Malaysians
towards choosing the Northern Territory of Australia as a holiday destination.
Description: The scale developed by Mohsin (2005) aims to evaluate tourism attitudes
of West Malaysians toward choosing the Northern Territory of Australia as
a holiday destination. The scale is comprised of 62 items that can be classified
into 12 dimensions: Active, Discovering Nature, Quest of Experience,
Ethnocentrism, Language Barrier, Relaxation, Physical Activity, Leisure,
Novelty, Luxury, Relationships, and Australophilia. Each item was evaluated
on a 7-point Likert-type scale where 7 represented the highest degree of
agreement with a statement and 1 represented the least agreement.
Scale origin: The scale is original to Mohsin (2005).
Development: An initial pool of items emerged based on discussions with industry
representatives and academic literature. Each item was measured on a
7-point Likert-type scale where 7 represented the highest degree of
agreement with a statement and 1 represented the least agreement. Initial
factor analysis was performed on all 62 attitude items using the principal
component method with varimax rotation and Kaiser normalization. A 12-factor
solution was found to explain 58.93% of total variance across all items.
Researcher did not report any information on the scale’s reliability and validity.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: No pilot test.
Actual sample: The participants were 675 West Malaysians. No information was given
about response rate and original sample size of participants.
Measurement issues
Validity Researcher did not report any information on validity.
Scores: Both item mean scores and factor loadings were reported. No percentage
score was reported.
22 Chapter 2

Reliability: No information on the scale’s reliability.

Source of the scale: Mohsin, A. (2005) Tourist attitudes and destination marketing – the case of
Australia’s Northern Territory and Malaysia. Tourism Management 26(5),
723–732.
Related sources: Coathup, D. C. (1999). Dominant actors in international tourism. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(2/3), 69–72.
Mohsin, A. (2008). Analysis of Chinese travelers’ attitudes toward holidaying
in New Zealand: The impact of socio-demographic variables. Journal of
Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 16(1–2), 21–40.
Vogt, C. A., & Andereck, K. L. (2003). Destination perceptions across a
­vacation. Journal of Travel Research, 41(4), 348–354.

Tourist Motivations for Visiting the Northern Territory of Australia

Scale (Mohsin, 2005)

Factor 1: Active
1. To bath in natural hot springs
2. To swim in clear freshwater pools
3. To watch films in the open air
4. To see kangaroos and wallabies
5. To see memorable sunsets
6. To see an Aboriginal Music and Dance performance
7. To see shows
8. To go on tours guided by Aboriginal people
9. To camp under the stars
10. To meet new friends and interesting people
11. To go bush walking
Factor 2: Discovering Nature
12. To visit Uluri-Kata Tjuta National Park (Ayers Rock)
13. To visit Kakadu National Park – a World Heritage site
14. To visit National Parks
15. To learn about animals, birds and plants
16. To view Aboriginal Rock Art
17. To visit Alice Springs in the center of Australia
18. To buy authentic Aboriginal souvenirs
Factor 3: Quest of Experience
19. To challenge my abilities
20. To gain a feeling of belonging with places
21. To increase my knowledge
22. To use my physical abilities/skills in sport
23. To be with others and make new friends
24. To use my imagination
25. To see new cultures
Factor 4: Ethnocentrism
26. I do not go to places which are not ‘Asian’ because many other countries are anti-Asian
27. I would only want to visit the Unites States of America or Europe if I travelled out
28. To be able to have halal food
 Motivation Scales 23

29. To visit a Mosque, Hindu, or Chinese temple

30. To conduct business in the Territory
31. I think the only way to get to know a country is to get away from tourist places
Factor 5: Language Barrier
32. Shop assistants should know some basic words in my language (e.g. numbers)
33. Couriers should be able to speak my language
34. Information brochures should be in my language
35. People must know a little about our culture

Factor 6: Relaxation
36. To mentally relax
37. To relax physically
38. To be in a calm atmosphere
39. To avoid the hustle and bustle of daily life
40. To discover new places and things

Factor 7: Physical Activity

41. A warm sunny climate of the Northern Territory
42. A chance to go canoeing/kayaking
43. To go on an outback tour
44. To satisfy a sense of adventure

Factor 8: Leisure
45. To gamble in a casino
46. To go hunting
47. To go fishing for big fish
48. To see crocodiles

Factor 9: Novelty
49. To visit open air markets with free entertainment
50. To be able to eat new foods like crocodile meat or Barramundi (a local fish)
51. To visit places that are different to elsewhere
52. To have a good time with existing friends
53. To experience a vastness of place

Factor 10: Luxury

54. To have good 5-star hotel accommodation
55. To go shopping for international brand name items
56. To have good 3-star hotel accommodation

Factor 11: Relationships

57. Australia is very attractive for me
58. Darwin and the Northern Territory are very attractive for me
59. Tourist visas should not cost more than RM

Factor 12: Australophilia

60. To build relationships with my family
61. To build relationships with close friends
62. To visit family and friends in the Territory
24 Chapter 2

Note: Each item is evaluated on a 7-point Likert-type scale, where 7 represents the highest degree
of agreement with a statement and 1 represents the least agreement.

Motivations for Participating in Ethnic and Recreational Travel Activities Scale

(Kim & Littrell, 2001)

Name of the scale: Motivations for Participating in Ethnic and Recreational Travel Activities
Scale (Kim & Littrell, 2001)
Objective of the The objective is to identify tourists’ preferences for ethnic or recreational
construct: ­activities in the context of tourism to conceptualize their role in ­souvenir-buying
intentions.
Description: The scale assessing tourists’ preferences for ethnic or recreational activities was
adapted from the tourism styles scale developed by Littrell, Baizerman, Kean,
Gahring, Niemeyer, Reilly, and Stout (1994) and was used to form groups of
tourists based on their preferences. Respondents were asked to rate the level of
importance of 12 travel activities when traveling in other countries (1 = ‘very
unimportant’ to 7 = ‘very important’).
Development: The initial pool of items was adapted from the study of Littrell et al. (1994).
Respondents were asked to rate the level of importance of 12 travel activities
when traveling in other countries (1 = ‘very unimportant’ to 7 = ‘very important’).
An exploratory factor analysis was performed. The exploratory factor analysis
produced two dimensions that explained 63% of the total variance. Factor 1,
Ethnic Tourism, included three items favoring engrossment in the authentic life of
communities (α = 0.75). Factor 2, Recreational Tourism, contained five items
related to recreational activities such as attending sports and participating in night
entertainment (α = 0.69). The mean scores for the two factors were 5.42 and
4.37, respectively.
Sample: From the mailing lists that were provided by six Mexico government tourism
offices and one marketing office in the US, 900 females who had requested
information concerning potential travel in Mexico were randomly selected as
the study sample. Data were collected using a self-administered question-
naire and color photographic stimuli of Mexican textile products that were
mailed to 900 females. Mailing followed the first three steps of the Dillman
Total Design Method (Dillman, 1978). Of the 900 questionnaires mailed, 51
were returned due to inaccurate address or the recipient was of minor age.
From the remaining 849 questionnaires, 336 were returned, giving a response
rate of 40%. Of these, only adult women who had traveled to or were planning
to travel to Mexico within one year were selected, giving a total of 277 eligible
respondents.
Measurement issues
Validity Not reported.
Scores: Mean scores and factor loadings were reported for both dimensions.
Reliability: Cronbach’s α score for each construct was reported for both dimensions. The
Cronbach’s α score for Ethnic Tourism was 0.75; and for Recreational Tourism
was 0.69.
Source of the scale: Kim, S., & Littrell, M. A. (2001). Souvenir buying intentions for self-versus others.
Annals of Tourism Research, 28(3), 638–657.
Related sources: Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys (Vol. 3). New York, NY:
Wiley.
Littrell, M. A., Baizerman, S., Kean, R., Gahring, S., Niemeyer, S., Reilly, R., &
Stout, J. (1994). Souvenirs and tourism styles. Journal of Travel Research,
33(1), 3–11.
 Motivation Scales 25

Motivations for Participating in Ethnic and Recreational Travel Activities Scale

(Kim & Littrell, 2001)

Factor 1: Ethnic Tourism

1. Visiting ethnic communities
2. Attending ethnic or community festivals or fairs
3. Meeting interesting people different than myself
Factor 2: Recreational Tourism
4. Shopping
5. Visiting recreational theme parks with rides and sports
6. Bringing home souvenirs from the trip
7. Participating in night entertainment such as dancing or nightclubs
8. Taking a complete package tour
Note: Items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = ‘very unimportant’; 7 = ‘very important’).

Motives for a Secular Pilgrimage Scale (Hyde & Harman, 2011)

Name of the scale: Motives for a Secular Pilgrimage Scale (Hyde & Harman, 2011)
Objective of the construct: The objective of the construct is to identify tourists’ motives for a secular
pilgrimage by investigating the journey of Australians and New Zealanders to
the Gallipoli battlefields in Turkey.
Description: The scale developed by Hyde and Harman (2011) was comprised of five
factors, termed as Nationalistic, Family, Friendship, Spiritual, and Travel.
A total of 29 items were rated on a Likert-type scale (1 = ‘does not apply’ to
4 = ‘applies a great deal’) to probe visitors’ motives for visiting the Gallipoli
battlefields. Researchers reported the scale was internally consistent, but
did not report any information on the scale validity.
Scale origin: The scale was original to Hyde and Harman (2011).
Development: The initial pool of items for measuring motives for pilgrimage was
­developed based an extensive literature review, and a total of 29 items were
obtained. The scale was tested on a sample of 400 respondents. Factor
analysis with varimax rotation was conducted on the rating scale items.
A five-factor solution emerged; namely, Nationalistic, Family, Friendship,
Spiritual, and Travel. The scale has been verified to be internally consistent
by the researchers.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: No pilot test.
Actual sample: Respondents for this research were recruited from two sources. A limited
number of questionnaires were distributed in the hotels and guest houses
of Çanakkale and Eceabat, and face-to-face interviews were conducted
with a number of guests at these locations. Four hundred and twenty-five
interviews were completed. Of these, 23 were incomplete and two were
from Turkish nationals. These responses were eliminated from further
analysis. The final sample for analysis comprised 400 respondents.
Measurement issues
Validity: Researchers did not report any information about the scale’s validity.
Scores: Factor loadings were reported for each item, and mean scores were
reported for factors. No percentage scores were reported by the
­researchers.
26 Chapter 2

Reliability: Cronbach’s α score was reported for each dimension: 0.84 for Nationalis-
tic, 0.84 for Family, 0.81 for Friendship, 0.81 for Spiritual, and 0.71 for
Travel.
Source of the scale: Hyde, K. F., & Harman, S. (2011). Motives for a secular pilgrimage to the
Gallipoli battlefields. Tourism Management, 32(6), 1343–1351.
Related sources: Andriotis, K. (2011). Genres of heritage authenticity: Denotations from a
­pilgrimage landscape. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1613–1633.
Griffin, K. (2012). Pilgrimage through the eyes of the Irish ‘Traveler’ community.
International Journal of Tourism Policy, 4(2), 157–173.
Hede, A. M., & Hall, J. (2012). Evoked emotions: textual analysis within the
context of pilgrimage tourism to Gallipoli. Culture,Tourism and Hospitality, 6,
45–60.
Mayes, R. (2009). Origins of the Anzac Dawn ceremony: Spontaneity and
nationhood. Journal of Australian Studies, 33(1), 51–65.
Olsen, D. H. (2010). Pilgrims, tourists and Max Weber’s ideal types. Annals of
Tourism Research, 37(3), 848–851.
Osbaldiston, N., & Petray, T. (2011). The role of horror and dread in the sacred
experience. Tourist Studies, 11(2), 175–190.
Winter, C. (2012). Commemoration of the Great War on the Somme: Exploring
personal connections. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 10(3),
248–263.

Motives for a Secular Pilgrimage Scale (Hyde and Harman, 2011)

Factor 1: Nationalistic
1. Because I am proud of my country
2. To pay respects to people who fought for our country
3. What happened at Gallipoli represents the best values of my country and my countrymen
4. To experience the real Anzac Day
Factor 2: Family
5. I am representing my family at Gallipoli
6. To pay respects to a family member who fought at Gallipoli
7. A sense of duty to my family
Factor 3: Friendship
8. To have a good time with friends
9. To meet new friends
10. To get together with other Aussies/Kiwis
Factor 4: Spiritual
11. This is a spiritual journey for me
12. My journey to Gallipoli is a personal pilgrimage
13. I think the visit to Gallipoli will change me, in some important way
Factor 5: Travel
14. It’s been on my list of things to do while in Europe
15. People have told me Gallipoli is a ‘must-do’
Note: Each item is rated on a Likert-type scale (1 = ‘does not apply’ to 4 = ‘applies a
great deal’).
 Motivation Scales 27

Alumni’s Motivations to Return back to their University as Tourists Scale

(Schofield & Fallon, 2012)

Name of the scale: Alumni’s Motivations to Return back to their University as Tourists
Scale (Schofield & Fallon, 2012)
Objective of the construct: The objective of the construct is to define and measure alumni’s motivations
to return back to their university as tourists.
Description: The scale developed by Schofield and Fallon (2012) is comprised of nine
dimensions: Attachment to Greater Manchester; Restaurants; Pubs and
Clubs; Sport; Value, Amenities and Environment; Reunions; Shopping;
Visits to Friends and Relatives (VFR); and Entertainment. They developed
a 31-item scale to measure the construct and its dimensions. Each item
was measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = ‘strongly
disagree’ to 5 = ‘strongly agree’. Researchers reported that the scale is
internally consistent.
Scale origin: The scale was original to Schofield and Fallon (2012).
Development: An initial pool of items was developed based on literature review and
interviews with alumni who revisited Greater Manchester, UK as tourists.
A total of 34 items were developed for alumni’s motivations to return to
Greater Manchester. The scale was pre-tested on a convenient sample of
25 subjects, resulting in minor changes to the wording of four response
sets. The reframed scale was tested on an actual sample of 798 alumni
living inside Europe but outside Greater Manchester. Principal component
analysis was conducted on the data to explore the dimensionality of the
scale, termed as Attachment to Greater Manchester, Restaurants, Pubs
and Clubs, Sport, Value, Amenities and Environment, Reunions, Shopping,
VFR, and Entertainment.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: A convenient sample of 25 subjects.
Actual sample: A total of 8000 alumni living inside Europe but outside Greater Manchester,
UK were invited by e-mail to complete the survey on the University’s website.
A total of 732 alumni responded to the first request. A reminder e-mail was
sent out after two weeks, resulting in 101 further completions – a total of
831 altogether, representing a 10.39% response rate. Thirty-three partially
incomplete questionnaires were excluded, leaving 798 in the sample.
Measurement issues
Validity: Researchers did not report validity of the scale.
Scores: Only factor loadings were reported by the researches. Neither mean scores
nor percentage scores were reported.
Reliability: Cronbach’s α score was reported for each dimension: 0.84 for Attachment
to Greater Manchester, 0.92 for Restaurants, 0.74 for Pubs and Clubs, 0.77
for Sport, 0.77 for Value, Amenities and Environment, 0.81 for Reunions,
0.67 for Shopping, 0.61 for VFR, and 0.81 for Entertainment.
Source of the scale: Schofield, P., & Fallon, P. (2012). Assessing the viability of university alumni
as a repeat visitor market. Tourism Management, 33(6), 1373–1384.
Related sources: Bischoff, E. E., & Koenig-Lewis, N. (2007). VFR tourism: the importance of
­university students as hosts. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(6),
465–484.
Campo-Martinez, S., Garau-Vadell, J. B., & Martinez-Ruiz, M. P. (2010). Factors
influencing repeat visits to a destination: The influence of group composition.
Tourism Management, 31(6), 862–870.
Huang, S., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2009). Effects of travel motivation, past experience,
perceived constraint and attitude on revisit intention. Journal of Travel Re-
search, 48(1), 29–44.
Shoham, A., Shrage, C., & van Eeden, S. (2004). Student travel behavior:
A cross-national study. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 17(4), 1–10.
28 Chapter 2

Alumni’s Motivations to Return back to their University as Tourists Scale

(Schofield and Fallon, 2012)

Factor 1: Attachment to Greater Manchester

1. Familiar features of the place
2. Different to other places
3. Exploring the place further
4. Showing the place to others
5. Nostalgia
Factor 2: Restaurants
6. Variety of restaurants
7. Quality of restaurants
Factor 3: Pubs and Clubs

8. Clubbing
9. Pubs and bars
Factor 4: Sport

10. Participating in sporting events

11. Going to live sporting events
Factor 5: Value, Amenities and Environment

12. Value for money

13. Public transport in Greater Manchester
14. Friendliness of the locals
15. Countryside
16. Quality accommodation
17. Plenty to do
18. Buildings and architecture

Factor 6: Reunions

19. A university reunion

20. Other reunions
21. Revisiting the university
22. Guided tours

Factor 7: Shopping

23. Designer shops

24. Shopping

Factor 8: VFR

25. Visiting relatives

26. Visiting friends

Factor 9: Entertainment

27. Music
28. Theatre
29. Special events, e.g. festivals/markets
 Motivation Scales 29

30. Comedy
31. Museums and galleries
Note: Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ to
5 = ‘strongly agree’.

International Tourist Role Scale (Mo, Howard, & Havitz, 1993)

Name of the scale: International Tourist Role Scale (Mo, Howard, & Havitz, 1993)
Objective of the The objective of this study is to develop a scale for testing Cohen’s tourist role
construct: typology.
Description: The scale consists of three dimensions with 20 items, and the items are
measured using a Likert-type 7-point scale.
Scale origin: Scale appears to be original to Mo, Howard, and Havitz (1993).
Development: A two-stage procedure was used in developing the scale. Stage 1, ‘scale
development’, was composed of five steps: (i) identification of underlying
dimensions comprising the construct of Cohen’s tourist role typology; (ii)
generation of items representing the underlying dimensions identified in step 1;
(iii) data collection constituting a purposive sample chosen to represent the
breadth of Cohen’s tourist role typology; (iv) scale purification using two
randomly split sub-samples; and (v) reassessment of the reliability and validity
remaining items using entire sample. Stage 2, ‘scale verification’, was composed
of four steps: (i) data collection; (ii) construct validity; (iii) test–retest reliability;
and (iii) reexamination of the dimensionality of the scale.
Sample(s): Three purposive samples were selected to capture and diversity of the roles
identified on Cohen’s continuum. The first sample was drawn from participants
in the 11th Annual National Conference of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers
held in July 1990. A total of 110 questionnaires were returned. The second
sample was drawn from students enrolled in ten undergraduate-level classes at
a large west coast university during the summer and fall terms. A total of 232
questionnaires were returned. The third sample was drawn from the university’s
alumni travel program, and 122 alumni returned the completed questionnaires.
A total of 461 usable questionnaires were returned.
Measurement issues
Validity: Content, construct, and convergent validity were examined and reported.
Scores: Only factor loadings were reported by the researchers. Neither mean scores nor
percentage scores were reported.
Reliability: The scale dimensions’ α ranges between 0.83 and 0.90.
Source of the scale: Mo, C., Howard, D. R., & Havitz, M. E. (1993). Testing international tourist role
typology. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 319–335.
Related sources: Cohen, E. (1972). Toward a sociology of international tourism. Social Research,
39, 164–182.
Cohen, E. (1979). A phenomenology of tourist experiences. Sociology, 13, 179–201.
Cohen, E. (1984). The sociology of tourism: Approaches, issues, and findings.
Annual Review of Sociology, 10, 373–392.
Gibson, H., & Yiannakis, A. (2002). Tourist roles: Needs and the life course.
­Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 358–383.
Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2003). Tourist roles, perceived risk and international
­tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 606–624.
Pearce, P. L. (1995). Pleasure travel motivation. In R. W. McIntosh, G. R. Goeldner,
& J. R. B. Ritchie (Eds.), Tourism: Principles, practices, philosophies (7th ed.,
pp. 167–178). New York, NY: Wiley.
Yiannakis, A., & Gibson, H. (1992). Roles tourist play. Annals of Tourism ­Research,
19(2), 287–303.
30 Chapter 2

International Tourist Role Scale (Mo, Howard, & Havitz, 1993)

Factor 1: Destination Oriented Dimension

1. I prefer to travel to countries where the people are of the same ethnic group as mine
2. I prefer to travel to countries where the culture is similar to mine
3. I prefer to travel to countries where there are international hotel chains
4. I prefer to travel to countries where they have same tourist infrastructure as in my country
5. I prefer to travel to countries where there are restaurants familiar to me
6. I prefer to travel to countries where they have the same transportation system as in my country
7. I prefer to travel to countries that are popular tourist destinations
8. I put high priority on familiarity when thinking of travel destinations.
9. I prefer to travel to countries with well-developed travel industries.
Factor 2: Tourist Services Dimension
10. I prefer to be on guided tour when travelling in a foreign country
11. I prefer to make all of my major arrangements through travel agencies when travelling in a
foreign country
12. I prefer to have travel agencies take complete care of me, from beginning to end, when travelling
in a foreign country
13. I prefer to start a trip with no preplanned or definite timetables when travelling in a foreign
country
14. I prefer to start a trip with no preplanned or definite routes when travelling in a foreign
country
Factor 3: Social Contact Dimension
15. I prefer to associate with the local people when travelling in a foreign country
16. I prefer to live the way the people I visit live by sharing their shelter, food, and custom during
my stay
17. I prefer to seek excitement of complete novelty by engaging in direct contact with a wide variety
of new and different people
18. If I find a place that particularly pleases me, I may stop there long enough for social involvement
in the life of the place to occur
19. I prefer to make friends with the local people when travelling in a foreign country
20. I prefer to have as much personal contact with the local people as possible when travelling in a
foreign country
Note: Items are measured using a Likert-type 7-point scale.

Novelty Seeking in Tourism Scale (Lee & Crompton, 1992)

Name of the scale: Novelty Seeking in Tourism Scale (Lee & Crompton, 1992)
Objective of the The objective is to define the construct of novelty in the context of tourism to
construct: conceptualize its role in the destination choice process.
Description: The Lee and Crompton (1992) novelty construct is comprised of four inter-
related but distinctive dimensions: Thrill, Change from Routine, Boredom
Alleviation, and Surprise. They developed a 21-item instrument to measure the
construct and its four dimensions. Each item was measured on a 5-point
Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 = ‘strongly agree’.
Researchers reported that the scale has content, convergent, theoretical,
discriminant, and criterion validity. They also reported that items measuring the
dimensions were internally consistent, and both test–retest and split-half
reliability were satisfactory.
 Motivation Scales 31

Development: From the literature, an initial pool of items was collected. The initial items were
refined and edited by a group of seven expert judges. Responses from a
convenience sample of 219 undergraduate students were used to pre-test the
dimensionality and internal reliability of the scale items. The refined instrument
was tested on three different university undergraduate student samples and one
Texas visitor sample. An exploratory factor analysis with oblique rotation was
conducted on each of the four samples. Each factor analysis produced a
four-dimensional solution.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: A convenience sample of 219 undergraduate students.
Actual sample: The three independent undergraduate student samples consisted of 204, 169,
and 255 respondents. The non-student sample was derived from 413 respond-
ents who had stopped at a state welcome center in the past 18 months, were
visiting Texas for a pleasure vacation, and who had stayed in the state for at
least two nights. Half of the sample was selected among travelers who visited
Texas during the winter and the second half was selected among travelers who
visited during the summer. Data were collected from the non-student sample
through a mail questionnaire and, after a follow-up, 303 were returned com-
pleted, giving a response rate of 73%.
Measurement issues
Validity: Researchers reported that the scale has content, convergent, theoretical,
discriminant, and criterion validity.
Scores: Neither mean nor percentage scores were reported. Only factor loadings were
reported.
Reliability: Cronbach’s α score for each construct was reported for each dimension and for
each sample. The Cronbach’s α score was: for Thrill dimension 0.90, 0.91, 0.90,
and 0.87; for Change from Routine dimension 0.82, 0.84, 0.86, and 0.83; for
Boredom Alleviation dimension 0.70, 0.70, 0.72, and 0.76; for Surprise
dimension 0.75, 0.76, 0.69, and 0.68 – for student sample 1, student sample 2,
student sample 3, and the non-student sample, respectively.
Source of the scale: Lee, T. H., & Crompton, J. (1992). Measuring novelty seeking in tourism. Annals
of Tourism Research, 19, 732–751.
Applications: Petrick, J. F. (2002). An examination of golf vacationers’ novelty. Annals of Tourism
Research, 29(2), 384–400.
Related sources: Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Weissinger, E. (1990). Perceptions of boredom in leisure:
Conceptualization, reliability and validity of the leisure boredom scale. Journal
of Leisure Research, 22(1), 1–17.
Maddi, S. R., Charlens, A. M., Maddi, D., & Smith, A. J. (1962). Effects of
monotony and novelty on imaginative products. Journal of Personality, 30,
513–527.
Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1973). A measure of arousal seeking tendency.
Environment and Behavior, 5(3), 315–333.
Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1974). An approach to environmental psychology.
Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Pearson, P. H. (1970). Relationship between global and specific measures of
novelty seeking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34(2),
199–204.
Wahlers, R. G., & Etzel, M. J. (1985). Vacation preferences as a manifestation of
optimal stimulation and life-style experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 17(4),
283–295.
Wentworth, N., & Witryol, S. (1986). What’s new? Three dimensions for defining
novelty. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 147(2), 209–218.
Zuckerman, M. (1971). Dimensions of sensation seeking. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 45–52.
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Zuckerman, M., Kolin, E. A., Price, L., & Zoob, I. (1964). Development of a sensa-
tion seeking scale. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 28(6), 477–482.
32 Chapter 2

Novelty Seeking in Tourism Scale (Lee & Crompton, 1992)

Factor 1: Thrill
1. I sometimes like to do things on a vacation that are a little frightening
2. I enjoy doing ‘daring’ activities while on a vacation
3. Sometimes it is fun to be a little scared on a vacation
4. I enjoy experiencing a sense of danger on a vacation
5. I would like to be on a raft in the middle of a wild river at the time of the spring floodwaters
6. I enjoy activities that offer thrills
7. I seek adventure on my vacation
Factor 2: Change from Routine
8. I like to find myself at destinations where I can explore new things
9. I want to experience new and different things on my vacation
10. I want to experience customs and cultures different from those in my own environment on
vacation
11. I enjoy the change of environment which allows me to experience something new on vacation
12. My ideal vacation involves looking at things I have not seen before
13. I want there to be a sense of discovery involved as part of my vacation
14. I like to travel to adventurous places
15. I feel a powerful urge to explore the unknown on vacation
Factor 3: Boredom Alleviation
16. I want to travel to relieve boredom
17. I have to go on vacation from time to time to avoid getting into a rut
18. I like to travel because the same routine work bores me
Factor 4: Surprise
19. I do not like to plan a vacation trip in detail because it takes away some of the unexpectedness
20. I like vacations that are unpredictable
21. I would like to take off on a trip with no preplanned routes in my mind
Note: All items are measured on a 5-point a Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = ‘strongly disagree’
and 5 = ‘strongly agree’.

Golf Travelers’ Motivations Scale (Kim & Ritchie, 2010)

Name of the scale: Golf Travelers’ Motivations Scale (Kim & Ritchie, 2010)
Objective of the The objective of the construct is to identify travel motivations of Korean golf tourists
construct: in undertaking overseas golf holidays.
Description: The scale developed by Kim and Ritchie (2010) is comprised of five factors:
Business Opportunity; Benefits; Learning and Challenging; Escape/Relax; and
Social Interaction/Kinship. They developed a 19-item scale to measure the
construct and its dimensions. Each item was measured by 5-point Likert-type scale
(1 = ‘strongly disagree’, 3 = ‘neutral’, 5 = ‘strongly agree’). The scale was verified to
be internally consistent.
Scale origin: The scale was original to Kim and Ritchie (2010).
 Motivation Scales 33

Development: An initial pool of items was developed based on literature review. A total of 20 items
were included in the scale to measure the construct. The scale was tested on a
sample of 392 respondents recruited from 17 golf facilities. Principal component
factor analysis was conducted on the data to explore the dimensionality of the
scale. A five-factor solution emerged for the scale; namely, Business Opportunity,
Benefits, Learning and Challenging, Escape/Relax, and Social Interaction/Kinship.
Among 20 items, 19 of them were retained for the final scale.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: A convenience sample of 12 golf members who practiced golf at selected indoor
golf facilities in Seoul.
Actual sample: A convenience sampling method was used to recruit a sample of Korean golfers
who practiced golf at the selected golf ranges. The survey process was conducted
by 17 golf instructors from 17 different golf facilities. A total of 500 questionnaires
were distributed ranging between 20 and 40 at each of the 17 golf practice ranges.
A total of 425 questionnaires were collected back from golf instructors, with 392
included in the data analysis.
Measurement
issues
Validity: Researchers did not report any information on the scale validity.
Scores: Both mean scores and factor loadings were reported. No information on
­percentage scores was provided.
Reliability: Cronbach’s α scores were reported for each dimension: 0.91 for Business
Opportunity, 0.69 for Benefits, 0.74 for Learning and Challenging, 0.69 for Escape/
Relax, and 0.74 for Social Interaction/Kinship.
Source of the Kim, J. H., & Ritchie, B. W. (2012). Motivation-based typology: an empirical study of
scale: golf tourists. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(2), 251–280.
Related sources: Kim, S. S., Kim, J. H., & Ritchie, B. W. (2008). Segmenting overseas golf tourists by
the concept of specialization. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 25(2),
199–217.

Golf Travelers’ Motivations Scale (Kim & Ritchie, 2010)

Factor 1: Business Opportunity

1. I like talking about business
2. I could achieve business goals
3. I like golf entertainment for business clients/associates
Factor 2: Benefits
4. I can play more rounds with inexpensive green fees
5. I can play easily without an expensive golf membership
6. I can travel with lower golfing expenses than domestic golfing trips
7. I can avoid undesirable golfing weather/climate
8. I can undertake multipurpose trips during golf holidays
Factor 3: Learning and Challenging
9. I want to play at highly rated/reputed golf courses
10. I want to play at previously opened golf championship courses
11. I could improve golfing skills and knowledge
12. I like participating in physical activities
34 Chapter 2

Factor 4: Escape/Relax
13. I want to escape from domestic golf-booking difficulties
14. I want to escape from crowded home-based golf courses
15. I want to escape from the negative public view of luxury sport
16. I want to escape from routine life to see international golf championship events
Factor 5: Social Interaction/Kinship
17. I could improve relationships with friends
18. I could build relationships with social club members
19. I like being together with family or relative
Note: Each item is measured by a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = ‘strongly disagree’, 3 = ‘neutral’,
5 = ‘strongly agree’).

Golf Vacationers’ Novelty Scale (Petrick, 2002)

Name of the scale: Golf Vacationers’ Novelty Scale (Petrick, 2002)

Objective of the In a study investigating the usefulness of novelty for assessing the market of golf
construct: vacationers, Petrick (2002) suggests that the concept of novelty implies newness
or uniqueness and the choice of a novel tourism destination can be viewed as
the consumption of a new or unique stimulation.
Description: Petrick’s novelty scale has four dimensions and is composed of 13 Likert-type
items scored on a 5-point scale anchored by 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ and
5 = ‘strongly agree’.
Development: Petrick used a modified version of the Lee and Crompton (1992) novelty
scale. Petrick retained only 13 of the 21 items of the original scale. A pilot test
of the instrument was conducted. Sample size of the pilot study was 41. After
the pilot test, reliability and validity of the constructs were assessed and the
survey instrument was finalized. The final version of the Golf Vacationers’
Novelty Scale was then examined again for reliability and validity over a
systematically randomly selected sample of golf vacationers. First, the
Cronbach’s α scores were c­ alculated. Afterwards, a confirmatory factor
analysis was conducted.
Sample(s)
Pilot test: The sample consisted of golf vacationers who were vacationing at a large
coastal resort in the southeastern US. The researcher systematically distributed
surveys to golf vacationers entering the dining room for breakfast on two
different days. Every fifth person entering the dining area was asked to
complete the survey. As an incentive, those who returned a completed survey
were given two golf balls. In all, 49 questionnaires were distributed and
41 returned.
Actual sample: The actual sample was systematically randomly selected from all who (n = 3122)
booked a golf package at the resort during the 11-week fall season of 1998, and
was stratified by zip code. Utilizing a modified Dillman (1978) technique, 448
usable surveys out of 877 were returned for a response rate of 51.1%.
Measurement issues
Validity: Only convergent validity of the indicators was reported.
Scores: Neither mean nor percentage scores were reported.
Reliability: Researcher did not report a separate Cronbach’s α score for each construct.
Researcher reported that the Cronbach’s α coefficients of all scales were greater
than 0.7 for the pilot test and all Cronbach’s α scores were greater than 0.6 for
the actual test, indicating moderate reliability.
 Motivation Scales 35

Source of the scale: Petrick, J. F. (2002). An examination of golf vacationers’ novelty. Annals of Tourism
Research, 29(2), 384–400.
Related sources: Bello, D. C., & Etzel, M. J. (1985). The role of novelty in the pleasure travel experi-
ence. Journal of Travel Research, 24(2), 20–26.
Dillman, D. (1978) Mail and telephone surveys. New York, NY: Wiley.
Lee, T. H., and Crompton, J. (1992). Measuring novelty seeking in tourism. Annals
of Tourism Research, 19, 732–751.
Lieux, E. M., Weaver, P. A., & McCleary, K. W. (1994). Lodging preferences of the
senior tourism market. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(4), 712–728.
Mo, C., Havitz, M. E., & Howard, D. R. (1994). Segmenting travel markets with
the international tourist role (ITR) scale. Journal of Travel Research, 33(1),
24–31.
Philipp, S. F. (1994). Race and tourism choice: A legacy of discrimination? Annals
of Tourism Research, 21(3), 479–488.
Roehl, W. S., & Fesenmaier, D. R. (1992). Risk perceptions and pleasure travel: An
exploratory analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 30(4), 17–26.
Snepencer, D. J. (1987). Segmenting the vacation market by novelty-seeking role.
Journal of Travel Research, 26(2), 8–14.
Wahlers, R. G., & Etzel, M. J. (1985). Vacation preferences as a manifestation of
­optimal stimulation and life-style experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 17(4),
283–295.

Golf Vacationers’ Novelty Scale (Petrick, 2002)

Factor 1: Thrill
1. I sometimes like to do things on a golf vacation that are a little frightening
2. I enjoy doing daring activities while on a golf vacation
3. Sometimes it is fun to be a little scared on a golf vacation
4. I enjoy experiencing a sense of danger on a golf vacation
Factor 2: Change from Routine
5. I enjoy the change of environment which allows me to experience something new on a golf
vacation
6. I want to experience new and different things on my golf vacation
7. I want to experience customs and cultures different from those in my own environment on a golf
vacation
Factor 3: Boredom Alleviation
8. I want to take a golf vacation to relieve boredom
9. I have to go on a golf vacation from time to time to avoid getting into a rut
10. I like to take golf vacations because the same routine at work bores me
Factor 4: Surprise
11. I do not like to plan a golf vacation in detail because it takes away some of the unexpectedness
12. I like to take golf vacations that are unpredictable
13. I would like to take off on a golf trip with no preplanned routes in my mind
Note: All items are measured on a 5-point a Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = ‘strongly disagree’
and 5 = ‘strongly agree’.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Chapter Ten.
There is Only One Way.

Armstrong’s teeth and hands were clenched for the

encounter with the angry husband who had tracked his wife
to the studio, and he was ready to accept his fate, for he
told himself that he could fight no more against his destiny.
The woman had told him that he would defend her, and he
must—he would.

There was no feeling of dread, then, in his breast as he

advanced to the encounter, but only to stop speechless with
amazement as Pacey entered in his abrupt, noisy manner,
to grasp his hand and clap him on the shoulder.

“Armstrong, old man,” he cried loudly, “I could not stand it

any longer. You and I must be friends. I believe you told me
the truth, lad, I do from my soul. La Bella Donna told me
Miss Montesquieu was here, but I thought that wouldn’t
matter, as she wouldn’t be sitting at this time.”

Dale could not speak: he was paralysed.

“Don’t hold off, old lad,” said Pacey, in a low tone. “We must
make it up. Any apology when she’s gone.”

He turned sharply to where the Contessa stood, closely

veiled, and nodded to her familiarly.

“Glad you and Mr Dale have come to terms. Many

engagements on the way?”

There was no reply, but the tall proud figure seemed to

stiffen, and there was a flash of the eyes through the veil at
Armstrong, who now recovered his voice, while his heart
sank low within him.

“Go now,” he said, “at once.”

“Oh, Montesquieu won’t mind my being here. But do you

really—”

Pacey stopped speaking, as he realised for the first time

that it was not the model he had heard was sitting to his
friend. He stared at her hard, as if puzzled, then at the
canvas, where the beautiful sketch gazed at him fiercely,
and he grasped in his own mind the situation.

The paint was wet and glistening: this was the model who
had been sitting for the face, and it could be none other
than the Contessa.

A change came over him on the instant. His brows knit, the
free, noisy manner was gone, and he took off his hat, to say
with quiet dignity, as he bent his head, but in a voice husky
with the pain he felt—

“I beg Lady Dellatoria’s pardon for my rudeness. I was

mistaken,” and he turned to go.

“Stay, sir,” she cried, in her low, deep, and musical tones;
“my visit to your friend is over. Mr Dale, will you see me to
my carriage? It is waiting.”

Valentina held out her hand, and, pale now with emotion,
Armstrong advanced to the door, which he opened, and
then offered his arm. This she took, and he led her down to
the hall in silence.

“Your imprudence has ruined you,” he said then, bitterly,

“and disgraced me in the eyes of my friend.”
“No,” she said softly. “You can trust that man. He would die
sooner than injure a woman because she loves. Now I am
at rest. You will come to me, for I have won. You see,” she
continued, as Armstrong mechanically opened the door, and
she stepped out proudly on to the steps, “I have no fear. Let
the world talk as it will.”

A handsomely appointed carriage drew up, and the footman

sprang down to open the door, while Dale, who moved as if
he were in a dream, handed her in, she touching his arm
lightly, and sinking back upon the cushions.

“I shall expect you to-morrow then, Mr Dale,” she said

aloud, “at the usual time.” Then to the servant, “Home.”

Armstrong stood at the edge of the pavement, bareheaded,

till the carriage turned the corner out of the square; and
then, still as if in a dream, he walked in, closed the door,
and ascended to the studio to face his friend.

Pacey was standing with his hands behind him, gazing at

the face upon the canvas. He did not stir when Dale took a
couple of steps forward into the great, gloomy, darkening
room, waiting for an angry outburst of reproaches.

A full minute must have elapsed before a single word was

uttered, and then Pacey said slowly, and in the voice of one
deeply moved—

“Is she as beautiful as this?”

Dale started, and looked wonderingly at his friend.

“I say, is she as beautiful as this?” repeated Pacey, still

without turning his head.

“Yes: I have hardly done her justice.”

“A woman to win empires—to bring the world to her feet,”
said Pacey slowly. ”‘Beautiful as an angel’ is a blunder, lad.
Such as she cannot be of Heaven’s mould, but sent to drag
men down to perdition. Armstrong, lad, I pity you. I
suppose there are men who would come scathless through
such a trial as this, but they must be few.”

There was another long pause, and Pacey still gazed at the
luminous face upon the canvas.

“Is that all you have to say?” said Dale at last.

“Yes, that is all, man. How can I attack you now? I knew
that you had been tempted, and, in spite of appearances, I
believed your word. I thought you had not fallen, and that I
had been too hasty in all I said. Now I can only say once
more, I pity you, and feel that I must forgive.”

Dale drew a deep breath, which came sighing through his

teeth as if he were in pain.

“Let’s talk Art now, boy,” said Pacey, taking out his pipe,
and, going to the tall mantelpiece, he took down the
tobacco-jar, filled the bowl, lit up, and began to smoke with
feverish haste, as he threw one leg over a chair, resting his
hands upon the back, and gazing frowningly at the face,
while Dale stood near him with folded arms.

“From the earliest days men gained their inspiration in

painting and sculpture from that which moved them to the
core,” said Pacey, slowly and didactically. “Yes, I believe in
inspiration, lad. We can go on working, and studying, and
painting, as you Yankees say, ‘our level best’, but something
more is needed to produce a face like that.”

He was silent again, and sat as if fascinated by the work

before him.
“What am I to say to you, lad?” he continued at last. “It is
like sacrificing everything—honour, manhood, all a man
should hold dear, to his art; but as a brother artist, what am
I to say? I am dumb as a man, for I have seen her here and
felt her presence. There was no need for me to look upon
her face. It is beautiful indeed. I say that as the man. As
the artist who has done so little for myself—”

“So much for others,” said Dale quickly.

“Well, you fellows all believe in me and the hints I give, and
some of you have made your mark pretty deep. Yes, as the
man who has studied art these five and twenty years, I say
this is wonderful. It did not take you long?”

“No.”

“Of course not. There is life and passion in every touch. You
must finish that, my lad, and we will keep it quiet. No one
must see that but us till you send it in. Armstrong, boy, you
are one of the great ones of earth. I knew that you had a
deal in you, but this is all a master’s touch.”

“You think it is so good, then?” said Dale sadly. “Think it

good? You know how good it is. Better, perhaps, than you
will ever paint again; but would to God, my lad, that you
had not sunk so low to rise so high.”

Dale sank into a chair, and let his face fall forward upon his
hands, while Pacey went on slowly, still gazing at the
canvas.

“Yes,” he said, “it wanted that. All the rest is excellent. That
bit of imitation of Turner comes out well. The man wants
more feeling in the face—a little more of the unmasked—but
this dwarfs all the rest, as it should. Armstrong, lad, it is the
picture of the year. There,” he continued, “my pipe’s out,
and I think I’ll go. But be careful, lad. Don’t touch that face
more than you can help, and only when she is here.”

Dale laughed bitterly.

“Why do you laugh? Is it such bad advice?”

“Yes.”

And he partly told his friend how the work was done—
leaving out all allusion to Cornel—Pacey hearing him quietly
to the end.

“I am not surprised,” he said at last. “What you say only

endorses my ideas. Good-bye, lad; I’ll go.”

He rose from the chair, tapped the ashes out of his pipe,
looking at them thoughtfully, and picked up his hat from
where he had cast it upon the dusty floor. He then turned to
face Dale, holding out his hand, but the artist did not see it,
and sat buried in thought.

“Good-bye, old lad,” said Pacey again.

Dale sprang to his feet, saw the outstretched hand, and

drew back, shaking his head.

“Shake hands,” said Pacey again, more loudly.

“No,” said Dale bitterly; “you cannot think of me as of old.”

“No; but more warmly perhaps, for there is pity mingled

with the old friendship that I felt. I came here this
afternoon, as schoolboys say, to make it up. I was in
ignorance then; now I have eaten of the bitter fruit and
know. Armstrong, lad, knowing all this, and as one who,
with all his reckless Bohemianism and worldliness, has kept
up one little habit taught by her long dead, how can I say
‘forgive me my trespasses’ to-night if, with such a
temptation as yours, I can’t forgive?”

Dale gazed at him wildly, and Pacey went on.

“The bond between us two is stronger now, lad, so strong

that I think it would take death to snap the cord. Good-bye.
If you do not see me soon, it is not that we are no longer
friends.”

Then their hands joined in a firm grip, and Pacey slowly left
the room, muttering to himself as he passed out into the
square—

“Fallen so low, to rise so high. Yes, I must save him, and

there is only one way in which it can be done.”
 Chapter Eleven.
Jaggs Makes a Discovery.

“Their scent sickens me,” Dale cried passionately, as he

committed them to the flames unread, for he frankly owned
to himself that he dare not read one, lest he should falter in
the resolution he had made.

For he had struggled hard to fight against his fate, and

though tied and tangled by the threads which still clung to
him, he had mockingly told himself that he was not mad
enough to venture into the spider’s web again.

Then, twice over, he had hastily drawn a curtain in front of

his great picture upon Keren-Happuch coming up to the
studio to bring in a card—the Conte’s—and bit his lip with
rage and mortification as that gentleman was shown up, in
company with Lady Grayson.

The visit on the first occasion was to complain about Dale’s

curt refusal to go on with the picture; while the young artist
haltingly gave as his reason that it was impossible for him
to complete Lady Dellatoria’s portrait on account of a large
work that he was compelled to finish. And all the while Lady
Grayson, with the reckless effrontery of her nature, looked
at him mockingly, her eyes laughingly telling him that he
was a poor weak coward, and that she could read him
through and through.

Then came the second visit with the wretched Italian,

blindly, or knowingly, to use him as a screen for his own
amours, almost imploring him to come.
“Lady Dellatoria is so disappointed,” he said volubly. “She
takes the matter quite to heart. No doubt, Mr Dale, there is
a little vanity in the matter—the desire to be seen in the
exhibition, painted by the famous young American artist.”

“There are plenty of men, sir, who would gladly undertake

the commission,” said Dale angrily. “I beg that you will not
ask me again.”

“Mr Dale, you are cruel,” cried Lady Grayson. “Our poor
Contessa will be desolate. Let me plead for you to come and
finish the work.”

“Aha! yes,” cried the Conte, wrinkling up his face, though it

was full enough before of premature lines. “A lady pleads.
You cannot refuse her.”

Dale gave the woman a look so full of contempt and disgust

that she coloured and then turned away, shrugging her
shoulders.

“He is immovable,” she said to the Conte.

“No, no! Body of Bacchus! I understand;” and he placed his

finger to his lips, and half closing his eyes, signed to Dale to
step aside with him. “Mr Dale,” he whispered, “Lady
Dellatoria has set her mind upon this, and I see now: a
much more highly paid commission that you wish to do for
some one. That shall not stand in the way. Come, I double
the amount for which we—what do you name it? Ah, yes—
bargained.”

Dale turned upon him fiercely.

“No, sir!” he cried; “it is not a question of money. No sum

would induce me to finish that portrait.”
“Ah, well: we shall see,” said the Conte. “Do not be angry,
my young friend. Lady Dellatoria will be eaten by chagrin.
But we will discuss the matter no more to-day. Good
morning.”

He held out his hand to Lady Grayson, but she did not take
it. She moved toward Dale, and held out her gloved fingers.

“Good morning, Mr Dale,” she said merrily. “You great men

in oil are less approachable than a Prime Minister.” Then in a
low tone: “It is not true, all this show of opposition. I am
not blind.”

She turned and gave her hand to the Conte, and they left
the studio, Armstrong making no effort to show them out,
but standing motionless till he heard the door close, when,
with a gesture of contempt and disgust, he threw open the
windows and lit his pipe.

A minute later he had thrown the pipe aside and taken out
Cornel’s letter to read; but the words swam before his eyes,
and he could only see the face hidden behind that curtain.

“Poor little talisman!” he said, sadly apostrophising the

letter, “you have lost your power. Evil is stronger than good,
after all.”

“Good-bye, little one,” he continued, “for ever. You would

forgive me if you knew all, for I am drifting—drifting, and
my strength has gone.”

Two days passed—a week, and hour by hour he had waited,

fully expecting that Valentina would come. He shrank from
the meeting, but felt that it must be, for her influence
seemed to be over him sleeping or waking, her eyes always
gazing into his.
But she did not come. Only another note, and this he read
in its brevity, for it contained but these words—

“You will drive me to my death.”

“Or me to mine,” he muttered, as he burned the letter; and

then, in a raging desire to crush down the thoughts which
troubled him, he turned to his work.

“Never!” he cried fiercely. “I will not go. If she comes here—

well, if she does. That mockery of a man will track her some
day, and then, in spite of English law, there will be a
meeting, and he will kill me. I hope so. Then there would be
rest.”

The picture which he had now stubbornly set himself to

finish, as if he were urged by some unseen power,
progressed but slowly. “The Emperor” came to sit, and tried
to mould his features into the desired aspect with more or
less success; but, in spite of inquiries, and interview after
interview with different models recommended by brother
artists as suitable to stand for the figure, Dale’s taste was
too fastidious to be satisfied, and Juno’s face alone looked
scornfully from the canvas.

Pacey had been again and again, but only in a friendly way,
to chat as of old, sometimes bringing with him Leronde to
gossip and fence with, at other times alone. No reference
was made to the picture or the past.

“I shall never finish it,” said Dale, as he sat alone one day
gazing at his canvas. “What shall I do—go abroad? Joe
would come with me, and all this horrible dream might
slowly die away.”

“No,” he muttered, after a pause; “it would not die. Better

seek the true forgetfulness. Do all men at some time in
their lives suffer from such a madness as mine?”

His musings were interrupted by a step upon the stairs, and

he hastily drew the curtain before hi? canvas.

A single rap, which sounded as if it had been given with the

knob of a walking-stick, came upon the door panel, and
directly afterwards, in answer to a loud “Come in,” Jaggs
entered with the knocker in his hand, to wit, a silk umbrella
—one of those ingenious affairs formed by sewing all the
folds where they have been slit up by wear and tear, and
declared by the kerb vendor as being better than new—a
fact as regards the price.

“Ah, Jaggs, good morning,” said Dale. “But I don’t want you.
I shall let your face go as it is.”

“Quite right, sir,” said the man, glancing at the curtain.

“Couldn’t be better; but I didn’t come about that.”

“Oh, I see,” said Dale sarcastically. “Your banker gone on

the Continent?”

“The Emperor” drew himself up, and looked majestic in the

face and pose of the head, shambling as to his legs, and
extremely deferential in the curve of his body and the
position of his hands and arms.

“Mr Dale,” he said, “I don’t deny, sir, as there ’ave been

times when a half-crown has been a little heaven, and a
double florin a delight, but I was not agoing to ask
assistance now, though I am still a strugglin’ man, and been
accustomed to better things. It was not to ask help, sir, as
I’d come, but to bestow it, if so be as you’d condescend to
accept it of your humble servant, as always feels a pride in
your success, not to hide the fack that it does me good, sir,
to be seen upon the line.”
“Well, what do you mean?” said Dale gruffly.

“I want to see that picture done, sir. It’ll make our fortune,
sir. I’m sure on it, and I say it with pride, there isn’t
anything as’ll touch it for a mile round.”

“Thank you, Jaggs; you are very complimentary,” said Dale

ironically, but the tone was not observed.

“It’s on’y justice, sir, and I ain’t set going on for twenty
years for artists without knowing a good picture when I see
one. But that ain’t business, sir. You want a model, sir, and
that Miss Montesquieu, as she calls herself, won’t be here
for a month or two, and you needn’t expect her. Did you try
her as Mr Pacey calls the Honourable Miss Brill?”

“Pish! I don’t want to paint a fishwife, man.”

“No, sir, you don’t; and of course Miss Varsey Vavasour

wouldn’t do?”

“No, no, no! there is not one of them I’d care to have,
Jaggs. If I go on with the figure, I shall work from some
cast at first, and finish afterward from a model.”

“No, sir, don’t, pr’y don’t,” cried Jaggs. “You’ll only myke it
stiff and hard. It wouldn’t be worthy on you, Mr Dale, sir;
and besides, there ain’t no need. You’re a lion, sir, a reg’lar
lion ’mong artisses, sir, and you was caught in a net, sir,
and couldn’t get free, and all the time, sir, there was a little
mouse a nibblin’ and a nibblin’ to get you out, sir, though
you didn’t know it, sir, and that mouse’s nyme was Jaggs.”

“What! You don’t mean to say you know of a suitable

model?”

“But I just do, sir. That’s what I do say, sir.”

“No, no,” cried Armstrong peevishly. “I don’t want to be
worried into seeing one of your friends, Jaggs. Your taste
and mine are too different for a lady of your choice to suit
my work.”

“Don’t s’y that, sir,” cried Jaggs, in an aggrieved tone of

voice. “I’m on’y a common sort o’ man, I own, sir, but I do
know a good model when I see one—I mean one as shows
breed. I don’t mean one o’ your pretty East End girls, with
the bad stock showing through, but one as has got good
furren breed in her.”

“Is this a foreign woman, then?”

“That’s it, sir. Comes from that place last where they ketch
the little fishes as they sends over here for breakfast—not
bloaters, sir, them furren ones.”

“Anchovies?”

“No, sir, t’other ones in tins.”

“Sardines?”

“That’s it, sir: comes from Sardineyer last, but her father
was a Human. Sort o’ patriot kind o’ chap as got into
trouble for trying to free his country. Them furren chaps is
always up to their games, sir, like that theer Mr Lerondy,
and then their country’s so grateful that they has to come
over here to save themselves from being shot.”

“But the woman?”

“Oh, she come along with her father, sir, and he’s been
trying to give Hightalian lessons, and don’t get on ’cause
they say he don’t talk pure, and he’s too proud to go out as
a waiter and earn a honest living, so the gal’s begun going
out to sit. But she don’t get on nayther, ’cause her figure’s
too high.”

“What! a great giraffe of a woman?”

“Lor’ bless you, no, sir! ’bout five feet two half. I should say.
I meant charges stiff; won’t go out for less nor arf crown a
hour, and them as tried her don’t like her ’cause she’s so
stuck-up.”

“Look here, Jaggs; is she a finely formed, handsome

woman?”

“Well, Mr Dale, sir, I won’t deceive you, for from what I hear
her face ain’t up to much; but she don’t make a pynte o’
faces, and I’m told as she’s real good for anything, from a
Greek statoo to a hangel.”

“Well, I’ll see her. Where does she live?”

“Leather Lane way, sir.”

“Address?”

“Ah, that I don’t know, sir. I b’leeve it’s her father as does
the business and takes the money.”

“He is her father?”

“Oh yes, sir, it’s all square. I’m told they’re very ’spectable
people. Old man’s quite the seedy furren gent, and the gal
orful stand-offish.”

“Tell him to come and bring his daughter. If I don’t like her,
I’ll pay for one sitting and she can go—”

“Eight, sir; and speaking ’onest, sir, I do hope as she will

turn out all right.”
“Thank you. There’s a crown for your trouble.”

“Raly, sir, that ain’t nessary,” said “The Emperor,” holding

out his hand.—“Oh, well, sir, if you will be so gen’rous, why,
’tain’t for me to stop you.—Good mornin’, sir, good mornin’.”
 Chapter Twelve.
The New Model.

Two days passed, and Dale was standing, brush in hand,

before his canvas, thinking. He had made up his mind to
trust to his imagination to a great extent for the finishing of
Juno’s figure: this, with the many classic sketches he had
made in Greece and Rome, would, he believed, enable him
to be pretty well independent. He was in better spirits, for
he had heard nothing from Portland Place, and flattered
himself that the impression which had troubled him was
growing fainter.

“Come in,” he cried, as there was a tap at the door, and

Keren-Happuch appeared, evidently fresh from a study in
black-lead, and holding a card between a finger and thumb,
guarded by her apron.

“Here’s a model, sir, and she give me this.”

Dale took a very dirty card, which looked as if it had been

for some time in an old waistcoat pocket. Printed thereon
were the words—“D. Jaggs. Head and face. Roman fathers,
etc,” and written on the back in pencil, in Jaggs’ cramped
hand—

“Signora Azatchy Figgers.”

“Where is she, Miranda?”

“On the front door mat, sir. And please, Mr Dale, sir, mayn’t
I bring you some beef-tea?”

“No, thank you, Miranda. Bring up the visitor instead.”

“Oh, dear! he do worry me,” muttered Keren-Happuch. “I do
hope he ain’t going into a decline.”

Dale smiled at the dirty card, and waited for the entrance of
the new model, who was shown in directly by the grimy
maid, and immediately, in a quick, jerky, excited way,
looked sharply round the room before turning her face to
the artist as the girl closed the door.

On his side he gazed with cold indifference at his visitor,

who, after taking a couple of steps forward, stopped short,
and he saw that she was rather tall, wore a closely fitting
bonnet, over which a thick dark Shetland wool veil was
drawn, and was draped from head to foot in a long black
cloak, which had evidently seen a good deal of service.

“Signora Azacci?” said Dale, glancing at the card again, and

making a good shot at her name.

It was evidently correct, for the woman said, in a husky

voice, as if suffering from intense nervousness—

“Si, si.”

“You are willing to stand for me—for this picture?” said

Dale, scanning her closely, but learning nothing respecting
her figure on account of the cloak; and he spoke very
coldly, for the woman’s actions on entering struck him as
being angular and awkward; now they were jerky, as she
raised her hands to her temples.

“No Inglese, signore,” she said then, excitedly; and again,

after an embarrassed pause, “Parlate Italiano?—No?”

“No,” said Dale, shaking his head.

Her hands again came from beneath her cloak in a
despairing gesture. Then, placing one to her forehead, she
looked round at the lumber of paintings and properties, as if
seeking for a way to express herself, till her eyes lit upon
the great uncovered canvas. Bending forward in a quick,
alert way, she uttered a low, peculiar cry, and almost ran to
it, leaned forward again, as if examining, and then, with
extreme rapidity, pointed to the blank place in the picture
where Lady Dellatoria’s face stood out weirdly. She then
took a few quick steps aside from where Dale stood,
frowning and annoyed at what seemed to be a hopeless
waste of time. Then, with a rapid movement, she unclasped
the cloak, swept it from her shoulders, and holding it only
with her left hand, let it fall in many folds to the floor, while
as she stood before him now in a plainly made, tightly
fitting black cloth princess dress, she instinctively fell into
almost the very attitude Dale had in his mind’s eye, and he
saw at once that her figure must be all that he wished.

“Bravo!” he cried involuntarily, and with an artist’s pleasure

in an intelligence that grasps his ideas.

At the word “Bravo!” the woman turned her head quickly.

“Excellent,” he continued; “that promises well.”

Her face was hidden, but as she shrugged up her shoulders

nearly to her ears, and raised her hands with the fingers
contracted and toward him, he felt that she must be
wrinkling up her forehead and making a grimace expressive
of her vexation.

“Yes, it is tiresome,” he said; “but we don’t want to talk. I

dare say I can make you understand. But I’ve forgotten
every word I picked up in Rome.”
“Ah!” cried the woman, with quick pantomimic action, as
she changed her attitude again, and leant toward him
—“Roma—Roma?”

“Si, si.”

“My lord has been in Rome?” she cried in Italian.

“I think I understand that,” muttered Dale, “and if your

form proves to be equal to your quick intelligence, my
picture will be painted. Now then, signora, this is a
language I dare say you can understand. Here are two half-
crowns. For two hours—‘due ore.’”

“Si, si,” she cried eagerly, and she almost snatched the
coins and held them to her veiled lips.

“Silver keys to your understanding, madam,” he muttered,

taking a mahlstick from where it stood against a chair.
“Humph! I begin to be hopeful. Yes, more than hopeful,” he
continued, as the model was rapidly drawing off her shabby,
carefully mended gloves, before taking a little common
portemonnaie from her pocket and dropping the coins in
one by one. Then aloud, as he pointed with the mahlstick,
“La bella mano.”

“Aha!” she cried quickly. But she gave her shoulders another
shrug, and shook the purse, saying sadly—“Pel povero
padre.”

”‘Padre.’ For her father,” muttered Dale. “Not so sordid as I

thought, poor thing. Will you remove your veil?”

She leaned toward him.

“I said, Will you remove your veil?—Hang it, what is veil in

Italian? ‘Velum’ in Latin.”
She was evidently trying hard to grasp his meaning, and at
the Latin “velum” she clapped her beautifully formed hands
to her veil.

“No, no!” she cried haughtily; and then volubly, in Italian

—“I am compelled to do this for bread. I do not know you,
neither need you know me. My face is not beautiful, and we
are strangers. You wish to paint my figure. I will retain my
veil.”

“I do not understand you, signora, and yet I have a

glimmering of what you wish to express,” said Dale, as
gravely as if his visitor could grasp every word. “There, you
seem to be a lady, and—hang it all, this is very absurd, my
preaching to you, and you to me. I wish Pacey were here.
He speaks Italian like a native. No, poor lass, I suppose
they must be starving nearly, or she would not stoop to
this. I don’t wish Joe Pacey were here.”

Then quietly bowing as if acceding to her wishes, he made a

sign to his visitor to take her attention, and as she watched
him from behind her thick veil, he walked to the entrance
and turned the key.

Crossing the studio to the farther door, he threw it open,

and then drew forward from the end of the great room a
large folding-screen, which he placed at the back of the dais
and opened wide.

“There, signora,” he said, “I am at your service;” and he

pointed to the inner room, turned from her, and walked to
the canvas.

The model stood motionless for a moment or two, and then

caught up the great cloak from where it lay upon the floor.
“Grazie, Signore,” she said then, with quiet dignity, and she
was hurrying across to the inner room, but he arrested her.

“One moment,” he said, with grave respect, and the

chivalrous manner of a true gentleman toward one whose
tones seemed to suggest that she trusted him. “Let us
arrange the pose first. Look at the picture: study it well. You
see the subject.”

Dale continued speaking, but kept on pointing to the scene

he had depicted, and, to his intense gratification, she threw
the cloak across a chair back, gazed intently at the picture
for a few moments, letting her eyes rest longest upon the
beautiful, scornful face, and then went quickly to the dais,
stepped up, turned, and with rare intelligence fell once
more into the very position he desired, bettering in fact that
which she had sketched at first.

“Eccellentissimo!” he cried; and then she stepped down

quickly, and glided into the inner room, while Dale gazed at
his painting with a feeling of triumph sweeping away the
morbid thoughts which had troubled him so long.

“Art is my mistress after all,” he said to himself, as he

glanced upward to see that the skylight was properly
blinded, and then, going to a box, rapidly prepared his
palette, armed himself with a sheaf of brushes, and altered
the position of his easel a little.

He was hardly ready when he heard the slight rattle of the

handle, a faint rustling sound, and the swinging of the door
again.

But he did not turn as a light step passed behind him, and a
faint creaking sound announced that the model had
mounted upon the dais.
He raised his eyes, and she was standing there apparently
as he had seen her first, closely veiled, and still draped in
the long, heavy, black cloak.

Then, with a quick movement, the long garment was thrown

aside, and the model stood before him in the very attitude,
and the perfection of her womanly beauty—a beauty made
hideous in the ghastly effect produced by the black face and
head swathed in the thick veil.

But this passed unnoticed by the artist, who, with a

triumphant ejaculation, began to sketch rapidly, as he
muttered to himself without vanity—

“Pacey is right: my canvas must be a success.”

 Chapter Thirteen.
A Strange Sitting.

“Yes,” said Dale to himself again, “Art is my mistress. I have

betrayed one, fought clear of the web of another, and now I
am free to keep true to the only one I love.”

And all through that visit of the Italian, he worked on with a

strange eagerness, till, at what seemed to be the end of an
hour at most, his model made a sudden movement.

“I beg your pardon,” he said, “I ought to have told you to

rest more often. Stanca?” For he recalled a word meaning
fatigued or wearied.

“Si—si,” she said quickly, and pointed to the clock on the

mantelpiece, when, to Dale’s astonishment, he saw that the
two hours had elapsed, and that his model had quickly
resumed her cloak. Then, without a word, she crossed to
the door of the inner room, and about a quarter of an hour
later emerged, to find him standing back studying his
morning’s work.

“Grazie,” he cried, and then pointed to the roughly sketched

in figure. “Bravo!” he added, smiling.

She bent her head in a quiet, dignified manner, and raking

up another Italian word or two, Armstrong said—

“A rivederia—au revoir.”

“Ah, monsieur speaks French!” she cried in that tongue, but

with a very peculiar accent.
“Yes, badly,” he replied, also in French. “That is good; now
we can get on better. Can you come to-morrow at the same
time?”

“I am at monsieur’s service.”

“Then I shall expect you. Thank you for your patient

attention. Another time, pray rest when you are fatigued.”

She bowed in a stately manner, and pointed to the door

which he had locked, and as soon as it was unfastened,
passed out without turning her head.

Dale stood working at his sketch for another hour, and then
turned it to the wall, to light his pipe and begin thinking
about his model now that he had ceased work.

It was quite mysterious her insisting upon keeping her face

covered. Why was it? Had she some terrible disfigurement,
or was it from modesty? Possibly. Her manner was perfect.
She was evidently miserably poor, and seemed eager to
gain money to support her father—he had quite grasped
that—and the poor creature being compelled to stoop to this
way of earning a livelihood, she naturally desired to remain
incognito. Well, it was creditable, he thought; but the first
idea came back. She was evidently a woman gifted by
nature with an exquisite form, and at the same time, by
accident or disease, her countenance was so marked that
she was afraid of her clients being repelled, and declining to
engage her.

“Ah, well, signora, the mysterious Italienne, I will respect

your desire to remain incog. It is nothing to me,” said Dale,
half aloud, as he sent a cloud of blue vapour upward. “I
may congratulate myself, though, on my good fortune in
finding such a model.”
He sat back in his chair, dwelling upon the figure, and then
went twice over to his canvas, to compare his work with the
figure in his imagination, and returned to his seat more
than satisfied.

Then he put work aside, and began thinking of home, and

the sweet sad face he could always picture, with its eyes
gazing reproachfully at him.

“Yes,” he said, with a sigh; “poor darling! It was fate. I was

not worthy of her. When the misery and disappointment
have died away—Heaven bless her!—she will love and be
the wife of a better man, unless—unless some day she
forgives me—some day when I have told her all.”

The next morning he was all in readiness and expectant.

The light was good for painting, and his mind was more at
rest, for there was no letter from the Contessa. But for a
few moments he was angry with himself on finding that he
felt a kind of pique at the readiness with which she had
given up writing her reproaches. But that passed off, and as
the time was near for the coming of the model, he drew the
easel forward to see whether, after the night’s rest, he felt
as satisfied with his work as he did the previous day. But he
hardly glanced at the figure, for the eyes were gazing at
him in a terribly life-like way, full of scorn and reproach;
and as he met them, literally fascinated by the work to
which his imagination lent so much reality, he shuddered
and asked himself whether he had after all been able to free
himself from the glamour—dragged himself loose from the
spell of the Circe who had so suddenly altered the even
course of his life.

He was still contemplating the face, and wondering whether

others would look upon it with the fascination it exercised
upon him, when Keren-Happuch came up to announce the
arrival of his model, who entered directly after, to look at
him sharply through her thick veil.

He uttered a low sigh full of satisfaction, for her coming was

most welcome. It would force his attention to his work.

“Good morning,” he said gravely and distinctly, in French.

“You are very punctual.”

She bowed distantly, and then her attention seemed to be

caught by the face upon the canvas, and she drew near to
stand gazing at it attentively.

She turned to him sharply. “The lady who sat for that: why
did she not stay for you to finish the portrait?”

Dale started, half wondering, half annoyed by his model’s

imperious manner.

“It is great!” she said. Then in a quick, eager tone: “The

lady you love?”

He was so startled by the suddenness of the question, that

he replied as quickly—

“No, no. It is not from a model. It is imagination.”

“Ah!” she said, and she looked at the picture more closely.
“You thought of her and painted. You are very able,
monsieur, but I like it not. It makes me to shiver, I know
not why. It makes me afraid to look.”

“Then don’t look,” said Dale, in an annoyed tone. “You will

cover it, please, monsieur. The face is so angry; it gives me
dread.”
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