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 Protecting the Oceans
Beyond National Jurisdiction
Strengthening the
International Law Framework
 Legal Aspects
of
Sustainable Development

General Editor

David Freestone
This series will publish work on all aspects of the international legal
dimensions of the concept of sustainable development. Its aim is to publish
important works of scholarship on a range of relevant issues including
conservation of natural resources, climate change, biodiversity loss and the role
of international agreements, international organizations and state practice.

VOLUME 3

The titles published in this series are listed at the back of this volume
 Protecting the Oceans
Beyond National Jurisdiction
Strengthening the
International Law Framework

Robin Warner

LEIDEN • BOSTON
2009
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Warner, Robin F.
Protecting the oceans beyond national jurisdiction : strengthening the international law
framework / Robin Warner.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-17262-3 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Marine resources conservation--Law and legislation. I. Title.
K3485.W37 2009
341.4’5--dc22

2008053617

Published by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Printed on acid-free paper.

ISBN 978 90 04 17262 3

Copyright 2009 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands

Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishers, IDC Publishers,
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.

http://www.brill.nl

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilm-
ing, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher.

Authorisation to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill Academic Pub-
lishers provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center,
222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change.

Printed and bound in The Netherlands

To Neil, Victoria and Alex.
 Table of Contents

Series Editor’s Preface xiii

Preface xv
List of Abbreviations xvii
Table of Treaties Instruments and Declarations xxi
Chapter 1
The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment Beyond
National Jurisdiction 1
A. Introduction 1
B. The Physical Characteristics of the Open Ocean and Deep Seabed
Environments 2
1. Marine Biological Divisions of the Ocean 3
2. Biogeographic Divisions of the Ocean 5
3. Seafloor Topography 6
C. Deep Sea Habitats 7
1. Seamounts 7
2. Hydrothermal Vents 8
3. Cold Seeps and Pockmarks 10
4. Deep Sea Trenches 11
5. Deep Sea Coral Reefs 13
D. Threats to the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction
from Human Activities 14
1. Threats Associated with Marine Living Resource Exploitation 15
2. Threats Associated with Marine Transport 17
3. Threats Associated with Deep Seabed Mining 18
4. Threats Associated with Bioprospecting and Marine Scientific
Research 20
5. Threats Associated with Climate Change Mitigation Activities 21
E. Conclusion 25
Chapter 2
The Law of the Sea Convention Framework for Regulating Marine
Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 27
A. Introduction 27
B. The High Seas Regime 28
1. Invalidity of Sovereign Claims over the High Seas 30
viii Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

2. Freedoms of the High Seas 31

3. Flag State Jurisdiction 35
4. Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas 39
C. The Seabed Beyond National Jurisdiction 40
D. Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment 47
1. General Provisions 47
2. Global and Regional Cooperation in Protection and
Preservation of the Marine Environment Beyond National
Jurisdiction 50
3. Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring 51
4. Prescriptive Jurisdiction over Pollution of the Marine
Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 52
5. Enforcement Jurisdiction over Pollution of the Marine
Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 55
E. Conclusion 64
Chapter 3
Developing Complementary Principles for Regulating the Marine
Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 67
A. Introduction 67
B. Establishing a Framework for Protection and Preservation of the
Marine Environment 68
1. Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 68
C. Integrated and Ecosystem Based Management of the Marine
Environment 74
1. World Conservation Strategy – IUCN/UNEP/WWF Report
1980 75
2. Our Common Future – Brundtland Report 1987 77
3. Caring for the Earth – A Strategy for Sustainable Living –
IUCN/UNEP/WWF Report, 1991 79
4. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), 1992 80
5. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992 91
6. World Summit on Sustainable Development – Johannesburg
2002 95
D. Conclusion 96
 Table of Contents ix

Chapter 4
Sectoral Implementation of Environmental Protection in Marine Areas
Beyond National Jurisdiction – Marine Living Resource Exploitation
and Maritime Transport 99
A. Introduction 99
B. The Exploitation of Marine Living Resources Beyond National
Jurisdiction – Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection 100
1. 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement 102
2. FAO Code for Responsible Fisheries, 1995 108
3. FAO High Seas Compliance Agreement, 1993 111
4. Regional Fisheries Management Organizations 112
5. Overall Assessment of RFMO Performance in relation to
Protection of the Marine Environment Beyond National
Jurisdiction 124
C. Maritime Transport Beyond National Jurisdiction – Environmental
Regulation 127
1. Vessel Source Pollution 128
2. Invasive Aquatic Species in Marine Areas Beyond National
Jurisdiction 145
3. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 148
4. The Effectiveness of the Maritime Transport Framework for
Environmental Protection in Marine Areas Beyond National
Jurisdiction 154
Chapter 5
Sectoral Implementation of Environmental Protection in Marine Areas
Beyond National Jurisdiction – Deep Seabed Mining 157
A. Introduction 157
B. ISA Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic
Nodules in the Area 158
1. Polymetallic Nodule Environmental Guidelines and State
Practice in Complying with Polymetallic Nodules Regulations 162
C. Draft ISA Regulations for Prospecting and Exploration for
Polymetallic Sulphides and Ferromanganese Cobalt Rich Crusts
(PSFCRC Regulations) 166
D. Conclusion 170
x Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

Chapter 6
Regional Implementation of Environmental Protection in Marine Areas
Beyond National Jurisdiction 173
A. Introduction 173
B. UNEP Regional Seas Conventions and their Application to Marine
Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 175
1. Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and
Environment of the South Pacific Region (Noumea Convention) 177
2. Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and
the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention) 181
3. Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine
Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention) 187
4. Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and
Coastal Areas of the South East Pacific (Lima Convention) 190
C. Non UNEP Regional Marine Environmental Protection Regimes
and their Application to Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 193
1. Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of
the Northeast Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) 193
2. Integrated Protection of the Antarctic Marine Environment 199
D. Conclusion 204
Chapter 7
International Initiatives to Strengthen the Environmental Protection
Framework for Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 207
A. Introduction 207
B. Current International Discussions on the Protection of the Marine
Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 208
1. United Nations Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and
the Law
of the Sea (UNICPOLOS) 209
2. BBNJ Working Group 211
3. Convention on Biological Diversity Conference of the Parties
(CBD COP) 214
4. FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) 215
5. IUCN High Seas Governance for the 21st Century Workshop 215
C. Options for Strengthening the Environmental Protection
Framework for Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 220
1. Soft Law Declaration of Oceans Governance Principles for
Marine Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 221
 Table of Contents xi

2. Global Binding Instruments to Strengthen Environmental

Protection Beyond National Jurisdiction 221
3. Regional Agreements 231
D. Conclusion 233

Bibliography 235
Index 257
 Series Editor’s Preface
This is the third volume in the Martinus Nijhoff monograph series on Legal As-
pects of Sustainable Development published under my general editorship. The
aim of this series is to publish works at the cutting edge of legal scholarship that
address both the practical and the theoretical aspects of this important concept.
The governance of areas beyond national jurisdiction is probably the most
pressing marine issue facing the world community. It is paradoxical that on the
one hand science is helping us to appreciate more fully the rich biodiversity of
marine areas beyond national zones and the important role this plays in the global
system, including helping to regulate its climate, while on the other hand, these
high seas areas face increasing adverse impacts – both from the intensification
of existing human activities and from major new risks. Illegal, unregulated and
unreported (IUU) fishing for deep ocean species, uncontrolled bottom trawling
over seamounts, exploration of hydrothermal vents as well as proposals for geo-
engineering activities such as iron fertilization, are just some of the activities
which reveal the lack of an holistic system of governance for these areas, based
on established and agreed basic principles. In 2006 on the recommendation of the
UN Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea
(UNICPOLOS), the UN General Assembly established an Ad Hoc Open-ended
Informal Working Group to study issues relating to the conservation and sustain-
able use of marine biological diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction. Two
meetings of this Group have helped to focus informed opinion on the major issues
facing the high seas; however the debates on improved governance have been
overshadowed by controversy over the future regime for exploitation of marine
genetic resources beyond national jurisdiction.
Dr Robin Warner’s monograph is therefore both pertinent and opportune. She
sets out in detail the existing legal and regulatory regimes for the protection of
marine areas beyond national jurisdiction: from the overarching framework of the
1982 Law of the Sea Convention, through to the 1992 Convention on Biological
Diversity, the regimes for regulation of fisheries and maritime transport and the
regional seas regimes. She then contrasts the gold standard set by the International
Seabed Authority for environmental protection during sea bed mineral exploita-
tion activities with the existing ad hoc and patchwork regulation of high seas
living resources, and uses this analysis to present the key issues and the range of
options for improved governance of marine areas beyond national jurisdiction that
are open to the international community. I trust that her timely work will further
stimulate informed discussion and forward progress on this important agenda.

David Freestone
Washington DC
 Preface

It is only in recent decades that marine scientific research has begun to reveal
the rich biodiversity and abundant resources of the open ocean and deep seabed
beyond national jurisdiction. These vast marine areas, covering approximately
50% of the globe, contain some of the most unique species and habitats as
well as being the transitory home for a wide array of migratory species such
as fish, birds, turtles and cetaceans.
With advances in technology and maritime transport, the spectrum and
intensity of human activities in these remote parts of the ocean and the deep
seabed are steadily increasing. A combination of factors such as the depletion
of fisheries within national jurisdiction, the expansion in global maritime trade
and scientific interest in the deep sea have led to greater human usage of the
vast marine areas beyond the territorial seas and exclusive economic zones
of coastal States. Human uses of marine areas beyond national jurisdiction
now extend beyond the traditional activities of navigation and fishing to bio-
prospecting for marine genetic resources, exploration for deep sea minerals,
marine scientific research probes of the deep sea and seismic testing. Emerg-
ing uses of marine areas beyond national jurisdiction include geo-engineering
experiments to mitigate the effects of climate change such as sub-seabed
sequestration of carbon dioxide and open ocean fertilisation using iron and
other nutrients.
This rise in human activities outside the limits of coastal State jurisdiction
poses actual and potential threats to the marine environment. Over fishing of
straddling, highly migratory and discrete high seas fish stocks can weaken
the genetic diversity and resilience of the target species and adversely affect
associated and dependent species within the same ecosystem. Destructive
fisheries practices such as bottom trawling and pelagic long line fishing have
catastrophic consequences for non target species and habitats destroyed and
damaged in the wake of heavy rollers and multiple hooks deployed across the
ocean. Vessel source pollution, although highly regulated through the mecha-
nism of flag State jurisdiction, is not subject to any independent monitoring
and compliance system in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. Oil and
other substances accidentally or intentionally discharged from vessels and
marine debris such as plastics continue to cause significant harm to marine
life.
Until the latter decades of the twentieth century, the deep sea with its unique
habitats and rare creatures was largely unexplored by humans. Arbitrary hu-
man intrusions into the deep sea have the potential to damage the intricate
xvi Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

links between complex marine ecosystems and to destroy components of

marine biodiversity. The consequent threats to the deep sea beyond national
jurisdiction include the introduction of light, noise and alien substances into
pristine deep sea environments and the long term effects of sinking and sub
sequestrated carbon dioxide on the species, habitats and ecosystems of the
lower levels of the water column and the deep seabed.
The current legal and institutional framework to protect the marine environ-
ment has concentrated principally on areas within national jurisdiction where
coastal States have authority to deploy a full suite of biodiversity conservation
measures including environmental impact assessment, bioregional planning
and marine protected areas to regulate the impact of human activities on the
marine environment. By contrast, environmental protection arrangements for
marine areas beyond national jurisdiction are largely underdeveloped and
sectorally based. The common property status of the high seas water column
and the inability to bind third States not party to arrangements such as the UN
Fish Stocks Agreement is rapidly leading to a tragedy of the commons for the
marine environment beyond national jurisdiction.
In recent times the international community has been focussing its atten-
tion on the threats to the marine environment beyond national jurisdiction
and questions have been raised about the ability of the current legal and
institutional framework to adequately protect this rich repository of marine
biodiversity. Discussions in the United Nations Informal Consultative Process
on the Oceans and the Law of the Sea led to a recommendation, approved by
the UN General Assembly in 2004, to form the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal
Working Group on Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdic-
tion (BBNJ Working Group) which met for the first time in 2006 and has met
again in 2008. This group is examining some core issues related to the marine
environment beyond national jurisdiction including the environmental impact
of human activities on marine biodiversity beyond areas of national jurisdic-
tion, enhancing coordination and cooperation among States as well as relevant
intergovernmental organizations and bodies, the role of area based manage-
ment tools, marine genetic resources beyond national jurisdiction, whether
there are governance or regulatory gaps and how they should be addressed.
The objective of this book is to analyse the current global, sectoral and
regional arrangements for protecting the marine environment beyond national
jurisdiction and to examine some options for strengthening the legal and in-
stitutional framework for protecting this part of the marine environment. It
is intended to provide a timely contribution to efforts within the United Na-
tions system to develop more integrated legal and institutional frameworks to
protect the marine environment beyond national jurisdiction and its inherent
biodiversity.
 List of Abbreviations

ASMA Antarctic Specially Managed Area

ASPA Antarctic Specially Protected Area
ATCM Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting
CAP Caribbean Action Plan
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CCAMLR Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
Living Resources
CCAS Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
CEP Committee for Environmental Protection
COP Conference of the Parties
CPPS South East Pacific Action Plan
CSD Commission for Sustainable Development
DOALOS UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea
EAP Eastern African Action Plan
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
GESAMP United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific
Aspects of Marine Pollution
GFCM General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean
GPA Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land-based Sources
IACS International Association of Classification Societies
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
ICJ International Court of Justice
ILC International Law Commission
IUU Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
IMCO Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization
(former title of IMO)
IMO International Maritime Organization
xviii Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

IOTC Indian Ocean Tuna Commission

ISA International Seabed Authority
ITLOS International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
ITOPF International Tanker Owners Oil Pollution Federation
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (World Conservation Union)
IWC International Whaling Commission
LOSC 1982 United Nations Law of the Sea Convention
MAP Mediterranean Action Plan
MEPC Marine Environment Protection Committee (IMO)
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MPA Marine Protected Area
NAFO Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
NEAFC North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
RFMO Regional Fisheries Management Organisation
RMP Revised Management Procedure (IWC)
RMS Revised Management Scheme (IWC)
RSP Regional Seas Program
PSSA Particularly Sensitive Sea Area
SAP Strategic Action Plan (UNEP Regional Seas Program)
SBSTTA Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and
Technological Advice (CBD)
SEAFO South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization
SPAMI Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Interest
SPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Program
UNCED United Nations Conference on the Environment and
Development
UNCLOS I First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
UNCLOS II Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the
Sea
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNFSA United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement
 List of Abbreviations xix

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

UNICPOLOS United Nations Informal Consultative Process on
Oceans and the Law of the Sea
VMS Vessel Monitoring System
WCPA World Commission for Protected Areas
WCPFC Western and Central Pacific Ocean Fisheries
Commission
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
WTO World Trade Organization
WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature
 Table of Treaties Instruments and Declarations

1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, Washington D.C., 2

December 1946 (entered into force 10 November 1948) 161 UNTS 72
1949 Agreement for the Establishment of a General Fisheries Council for the Mediter-
ranean, Rome, 24 September 1949 (entered into force 20 February 1952) 126 UNTS
239
1949 Convention between the United States of America and the Republic of Costa
Rica for the Establishment of an Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, Wash-
ington D.C., 31 May 1949 (entered into force 3 March 1950) 80 UNTS 3
1954 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, Lon-
don, 12 May 1954 (entered into force 26 July 1958) 327 UNTS 3
1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf, Geneva, 29 April 1958 (entered into force
10 June 1964) 499 UNTS 311
1958 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High
Seas, Geneva, 29 April 1958 (entered into force 20 March 1966) 559 UNTS 285
1958 Convention on the High Seas, Geneva, 29 April 1958 (entered into force 30
September 1962) 450 UNTS 11
1959 Antarctic Treaty, Washington D.C., 1 December 1959 (entered into force 23
June 1961) 402 UNTS 71
1966 International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, Rio de Janeiro,
14 May 1966 (entered into force 21 March 1969) 673 UNTS 63
1969 Convention on the Law of Treaties, Vienna, 23 May 1969 (entered into force 27
January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331
1969 International Convention relating to Intervention on the High seas in cases
of Oil Pollution Casualties, Brussels, 29 November 1969 (entered into force 6 May
1975) 970 UNTS 211
1972 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, London, 1 June 1972 (en-
tered into force 11 March 1978) (1972) 11 ILM 251
1972 Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and
Aircraft, Oslo, 15 February 1972 (entered into force 7 April 1974) (1972)11 ILM
262
1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter, London, 29 December 1972 (entered into force 30 August 1975) (1972)
11 ILM 1294
xxii Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

1972 Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment,

Stockholm, 16 June 1972, (1972) 11 ILM 1416
1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, London, 2
November 1973 (this convention was not intended to enter into force) (1973) 12 ILM
1319
1973 Protocol relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine Pollu-
tion by Substances Other than Oil, London, 2 November 1973 (entered into force 30
March 1983) 34 UST 3407
1974 Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area,
Helsinki, 22 March 1974 (entered into force 3 May 1980) (1974) 13 ILM 546
1976 Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, Bar-
celona, 16 February 1976 (entered into force 12 February 1978) (1976) 15 ILM 290
1978 Convention on Future Multilateral Cooperation in the Northwest Atlantic Fish-
eries, Ottawa, 24 October 1978 (entered into force 1 January 1979) 1135 UNTS 369
1978 Protocol to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships, London, 1 June 1978 (Annex I entered into force 2 October 1983; Annex II
entered into force 6 April 1987; Annex III entered into force 1 July 1992; Annex IV
entered into force 27 September 2003; Annex V entered into force 31 December 1988;
Annex VI entered into force 19 May 2005) (1978)17 ILM 546
1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Can-
berra, 20 May 1980 (entered into force 7 April 1981) (1980) 19 ILM 837
1980 Convention on Future Multilateral Co-operation in North East Atlantic Fisher-
ies, London, 18 November 1980 (entered into force 18 November 1980) 1285 UNTS
129
1981 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of
the South-East Pacific, Lima, 12 November 1981 (entered into force 19 May 1986) 33
International Digest of Health Legislation (1982) 96
1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, 10 December
1982 (entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3
1982 Protocol concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas, Geneva, 3 April
1982 (entered into force 3 March 1986) Official Journal of the European Community
(OJ) 1982, C 278/5
1982 Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control, Paris, 26 January 1982
(in effect 1 July 1982) text at <www.parismou.org>
1983 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of
the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 24 March 1983 (entered into force
11 October 1986) (1983) 22 ILM 221
 Table of Treaties Instruments and Declarations xxiii

1985 Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine
and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region, Nairobi, 21 June 1985 (en-
tered into force 29 May 1996) Official Journal of the European Community 1986,
C253/10
1985 Protocol concerning Protected Areas and Wild Flora and Fauna in the Eastern
African Region, Nairobi, 21 June 1985 (entered into force 29 May 1996) Official
Journal of the European Community 1986, C253/10
1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of
the South Pacific Region, Noumea, 24 November 1986 (entered into force 22 August
1990) (1987) 26 ILM 41
1989 Protocol for the Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coast-
al Areas of the South-East Pacific, Paipa, 21 September 1989 (entered into force 17
October 1994) text at Internet Guide to International Fisheries Law, <www.intfishnet/
treaties/sepac1989.htm>
1990 Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Carib-
bean, Kingston, 18 January 1990 (entered into force 18 June 2000) text at <www.cep.
unep.org/pubs/legislation/spaw.htm>
1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, Madrid, 4 Octo-
ber 1991 (entered into force 14 January 1998) (1991) 30 ILM 1455
1992 Agenda 21, Annex II to the Report of the United Nations Conference on Environ-
ment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3 to 14 June 1992, UN Doc A/CONF.151/26
1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, Nairobi, 22 May 1992 (entered into force
29 December 1993) (1992) 31 ILM 822
1992 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East
Atlantic, Paris, 22 September 1992 (entered into force 25 March 1998) (1993) 32
ILM 1069
1992 Rio de Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3
to 14 June 1992, UN Doc A/CONF.151/5/REV.1; (1992) 31 ILM 876
1993 Agreement for the Establishment of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, Rome,
25 November 1993 (entered into force 27 March 1996) ATS [1996] No. 20
1993 Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Man-
agement Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, Rome, 24 November 1993
(entered into force 24 April 2003) (1994) 33 ILM 968
1993 Asia Pacific Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control in the Asia-
Pacific Region, Tokyo, 1 December 1993 (in effect 1 April 1994) text at <www.jp/
tokyomou>
Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Conven-
tion on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, New York, 28 July 1994 (entered
into force 28 July 1996) (1994) 33 ILM 1309
xxiv Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Conven-
tion on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and
Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, New York,
4 August 1995 (entered into force 11 December 2001) 2167 UNTS 3
1995 Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, Rome, 31 October 1995, text at 11
International Organizations and the Law of the Sea Documentary Yearbook (1995)
700
1995 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Re-
gion of the Mediterranean, Barcelona, 10 June 1995 (entered into force 9 July 2004)
text at <www.unep.ch/regional seas/regions/med/t_barcel.htm>
1995 Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the
Mediterranean, Barcelona, 10 June 1995 (entered into force 12 December 1999) UN
Doc UNEP(OCA)MED IG.6/7, text at >www.unepmap.org/Archivio/All_ Languages/
WebDocs/BC & Protocols/SPA95_eng.pdf>
1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Matter, London, 7 November 1996 (entered into force 24 March
2006) (1997) 36 ILM 1
2000 Convention on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean, Honolulu, 5 September 2000 (en-
tered into force 19 June 2004) (2001) 40 ILM 277
2001 Convention on the Conservation and Management of the Fishery Resources in
the South East Atlantic Ocean, Windhoek, 20 April 2001 (entered into force 13 April
2003) (2002) 41 ILM 257
2004 International Convention on the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Wa-
ter Sediments, London, 13 February 2004 (not in force), IMO Doc BWMCONF/36,
text at <www.imo.org/home.asp?topic_id161>
 Chapter 1

The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment

Beyond National Jurisdiction

A. Introduction

From a human perspective, the open ocean and deep seabed have always been
a source of great mystique and volatility.1 Although some intrepid humans
navigated the surface of the open ocean in primitive vessels in earlier centuries
in search of other land territory or food sources, the majority of humankind
tended to regard the sea with awe and to retreat from its elemental fury until
recent times.2 Human exploration of the deep sea did not begin in earnest until
the mid nineteenth century3 and it is only in the last few decades that marine
scientific research has begun to reveal the true physical characteristics and
resource potential of the open ocean and deep seabed.4
Until the latter half of the twentieth century, human use of the oceans be-
yond a narrow strip of the sea adjacent to land masses was largely confined to
navigation, fishing, whaling5 and from the mid nineteenth century, the laying
of submarine cables and pipelines.6 With the advent of concepts such as the
continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone codified in the 1958 Geneva
Convention on the Continental Shelf and the 1982 United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea (LOSC), coastal States had the capacity to extend their
jurisdictional reach to a wider offshore domain for specific purposes such as

1
Jonathan Raban (ed.), The Oxford Book of the Sea (Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1992), p. 1.
2
Ibid., pp. 432–433.
3
Sylvia Earle, A Message of the Oceans (G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1995), p. 21.
4
Alastair Couper (ed.), The Times Atlas and Encyclopaedia of the Sea (Times Books Ltd.,
London, 1990), pp. 202–203.
5
Earle, supra note 3.
6
Couper, supra note 4, p. 200 notes that the first successful submarine cable was laid
between England and France in 1851.
2 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

resource exploitation, marine scientific research and the generation of energy

from wind and waves.7 Other developments such as the depletion of inshore
fish stocks, an increase in global maritime trade and transport and the search
for new resources are now leading to greater human activity in the vast ma-
rine areas beyond national jurisdiction.8 Human activities in these areas now
include more sophisticated marine scientific research expeditions to the very
bottom of the ocean, associated bioprospecting for marine genetic resources,
exploration for deep seabed minerals and deep sea tourism.9 Geo-engineering
experiments utilising the capacity of the ocean to absorb excess carbon di-
oxide from the earth’s atmosphere may soon be added to this catalogue of
activities.
This chapter will examine the physical characteristics of the open ocean
and deep seabed highlighting some of the unique species and habitats which
abound in these areas of the ocean and their vulnerability to human impacts.
Actual and potential threats posed to the marine environment from a variety of
established and emerging human activities in these parts of the ocean will also
be considered. This discussion illustrates the scientific backdrop and rationale
for the protection of the marine environment beyond national jurisdiction and
the need for a more integrated legal and institutional framework to provide
such protection.

B. The Physical Characteristics of the Open Ocean and Deep Seabed

Environments

The vast ocean expanse beyond waters under the national jurisdiction of coastal
States is classified by marine scientists and oceanographers as the open ocean
and the deep seabed. From the surface of the sea, the features of this environ-
ment appear quite uniform with only rare traces of the diverse species, habitats
and ecosystems which are located in this large domain. Notwithstanding its
relatively featureless exterior, the monotony of the ocean and its endless wave
patterns conceal some of the world’s most exceptional species and extraor-

7
1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1833 UNTS 3 (LOSC), Arts 56
and 77.
8
Kristina Gjerde and Charlotte Breide (eds), Towards a Strategy for High Seas Marine
Protected Areas: Proceedings of the IUCN, WCPA and WWF Experts Workshop on High
Seas Marine Protected Areas, 15–17 January, Malaga, Spain (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland,
2003), pp. 6–7.
9
Ibid., p. 7.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 3

dinary habitats.10 To enhance their understanding of marine life and oceanic

processes, marine scientists and oceanographers have divided the water col-
umn of the open ocean or pelagic realm into vertical layers and horizontal
regions. The seabed has also been divided into zones based on depth from the
surface and benthic fauna. The deep seafloor beneath the open ocean has a
topography which is comparable in complexity to the terrestrial environment
and hosts an abundant variety of living and non living resources.

1. Marine Biological Divisions of the Ocean

The taxonomy of marine biological layers in the open ocean is described in

terms of depth from the surface.11 Most marine living resources are endemic
to particular zones but there are some species which migrate between zones.12
The uppermost division of the ocean, to approximately 100 to 200 metres be-
low the surface, is known as the epipelagic or photic zone.13 The lower limit of
this zone is the maximum depth to which sufficient sunlight can penetrate to
enable photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the energy derived
form sunlight to chemical energy.14 In most oceans of the world, the water in
this surface zone is warm and floats above the colder denser water of deeper
zones. The majority of the world’s fisheries are concentrated in this zone.15
The uppermost metre of the surface zone, known as the neuston layer,16 is
enriched with nutrients derived from the waste chemicals excreted by plank-
ton which float up from the deeper water and the remains of other decaying
species. This layer abounds with algae, bacteria and unicellular protozoans
not found at greater depths and supports a multitude of plankton and larger
animals.17 A further layer, known as the mesopelagic or twilight zone extends
from approximately 200 to 2000 metres below the surface and is delimited by

10
Paul V. Snelgrove and J. Frederick Grassle, ‘The Deep Sea: Desert and Rainforest’ (1995)
38(2) Oceanus p. 25.
11
Jeffrey S. Levinton, Marine Biology. Function, Biodiversity, Ecology (Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 2001), p. 14; Couper, supra note 4, pp. 68–69.
12
Couper, supra note 4, p. 68.
13
Levinton, supra note 11, p. 14.
14
Couper, supra note 4, p. 68.
15
Ibid.
16
Levinton, supra note 11, p. 14: “Neuston are organisms associated with the sea surface
including microorganisms that are bound to the surface slick of the sea.”
17
Andrew Byatt et al., The Blue Planet: A Natural History of the Oceans (BBC Worldwide
Ltd., London, 2001), p. 278
4 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

the maximum depth to which light penetrates from the surface.18 Many of the
living creatures in this zone migrate upwards to the surface during the night
hours to feed and exhibit physical characteristics which help them to blend
into the marine environment and avoid predators during daylight hours.19
The number of species decreases in the bathypelagic or upper part of the
dark zone which is directly under the mesopelagic zone and extends to a depth
of approximately 4000 to 5000 metres from the surface.20 The water becomes
much colder and denser in this zone with temperatures decreasing to 5 degrees
centigrade or less.21 Migration of species is rare at this depth where survival
depends on conservation of energy.22 Black and dark red fish such as angler
fish, red shrimps and gelatinous squid are typical inhabitants of this zone.23
The next biological layer of the water column from about 4000 to 6000
metres from the surface down to the seafloor is known as the abyssopelagic
zone.24 The species and habitats of this zone tend to be closely associated with
the sea floor environment and its biological communities which are known as
the benthos.25 The variability and peculiar characteristics of benthic flora and
fauna have only been revealed in recent decades with more frequent deep sea
research probes.26 In an area of the oceans which was previously thought to be
moribund and devoid of living resources, marine scientific research is gradu-
ally exposing an abundant array of species and habitats. While the majority
of benthic organisms are microscopic and live buried in the sediment of the
deep seafloor, there are some striking oases of productive life even at this
depth.27 Specific habitats, such as seamounts and hydrothermal vents support
endemic communities of slow growing fish with special adaptations to their
environment and chemosynthetic organisms which derive their energy from
superheated gases such as hydrogen sulphide which extrude from fissures in

18
Ibid., p. 314; Couper, supra note 4, p. 68; Levinton, supra note 11, p. 14.
19
Couper, supra note 4, p. 68.
20
Levinton, supra note 11, p. 14, Byatt et al., supra note 17, pp. 322–323.
21
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 330.
22
Ibid., pp. 331 and 333; Couper, supra note 4, p. 68.
23
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 331.
24
Levinton, supra note 11, p. 14.
25
John D. Gage and Paul A. Tyler, Deep Sea Biology: A Natural History of Organisms at
the Deep Sea Floor (1991), p. 57: “The fauna of the benthic boundary is comprised of
those animals living either on the ocean floor, the benthos, or those associated with the
immediately overlying water, the benthopelagic fauna which comprises swimming or
drifting forms, some of which may spend varying amounts of time on, or even buried in,
the seabed.”
26
Snelgrove and Grassle, supra note 10, p. 25.
27
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 362.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 5

the earth’s crust.28 A further marine biological layer, known as the hadapelagic
zone, extending from approximately 6000 to 10000 metres from the surface, is
found in the waters of deep sea trenches, the deepest part of the ocean.29 This
zone is characterised by extreme pressure and the coldest water temperatures.
Nevertheless, some invertebrates such as starfish and tube worms thrive at
this depth.

2. Biogeographic Divisions of the Ocean

Oceanographers also divide the ocean into marine biogeographic areas relat-
ing to sea surface temperatures and corresponding roughly to areas between
certain latitudes.30 In all these biogeographic regions there are large areas of
ocean beyond national jurisdiction. The coldest waters are situated in the Arc-
tic, sub Arctic and Southern Oceans where surface temperatures are between 5
degrees and a little below 0 degrees centigrade.31 The marine living resources
within these regions include migratory predators such as seabirds and whales
supported in relatively short food chains by a wide variety of fish, crustaceans,
bivalves, krill and plankton which inhabit the pelagic and benthic realms.32
The isolated species and habitats of the Southern Ocean below the Antarctic
Convergence are generally considered to be more diverse and productive than
those of the Arctic.33
In the cool surface waters of the boreal regions adjacent to the Arctic and
Southern Oceans, surface temperatures range from 5 to 10 degrees centigrade.34
These waters merge into the temperate regions which have surface tempera-
tures between 10 and 20 degrees centigrade. The boreal and temperate regions
are the most consistently productive biogeographic regions of the oceans with
a high density of microscopic organisms present in the water column with the
highest levels occurring in spring and early summer.35 The warmest surface
temperatures of 20 degrees centigrade and above occur in the tropical oceans
around the Equator.36 These areas are characterised by high species diversity

28
Ibid., pp. 362–363.
29
Levinton, supra note 11, p. 14; Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 11.
30
Couper, supra note 4, p. 68; Byatt et al., supra note 17, pp. 12–13.
31
Ibid.
32
Byatt et al., supra note 17, pp. 224–227; Couper, supra note 4, p. 68.
33
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 227; Couper, supra note 4, p. 78.
34
Couper, supra note 4, p. 68.
35
Ibid.; Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 157.
36
Ibid.
6 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

but shorter life cycles for the higher quotas of living organisms.37 Surface
temperatures in the world’s oceans are also affected by cold and warm water
currents that circle the globe distributing nutrients and affording opportuni-
ties for highly migratory species such as tuna to forage for food in multiple
oceanic regions.38

3. Seafloor Topography

The deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction begins at the outer edge of the
continental margin which is composed of three topographical features known
as the continental shelf, slope and rise.39 The majority of the earth’s land-
masses are surrounded by relatively shallow flat bottomed seas. The seabed
in these areas is known as the continental shelf.40 This natural prolongation of
the landmasses varies in width but most commonly ends at a depth of around
200 metres at a point known as the shelf break.41 From this point the down-
ward gradient of the seabed increases into what is known as the continental
slope.42 The slope varies in character with some parts having a very gradual
and uniform gradient while others have a very uneven gradient with distinc-
tive irregularities such as submarine canyons and terraces.43 At the foot of the
continental slope there is a thick wedge of sediment which has fallen from the
slope, termed the continental rise.44
Beyond this point, at a depth of approximately 4 kilometres from the sur-
face, the seabed levels off to the flat abyssal plain which is the largest portion
of the marine environment.45 While the majority of this sediment covered
plain is flat and featureless, it is punctuated by unique habitats which harbour
concentrated communities of rare benthic fauna.46

37
Ibid.
38
Byatt et al., supra note 17, pp. 268–269; Couper, supra note 4, p. 51.
39
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 346; Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 11.
40
Ibid.; Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 9.
41
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 9.
42
Ibid.; Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 346.
43
Ibid.
44
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 10.
45
Ibid.; Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 346.
46
Byatt et al., supra note 17, pp. 348–353.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 7

C. Deep Sea Habitats

There are certain distinctive deep sea habitats whose rare and fragile ecosys-
tems demonstrate the need for careful conservation and management of the
marine environment beyond national jurisdiction.

1. Seamounts

Seamounts are undersea conical projections which rise steeply from the deep
sea floor to heights of 1000 metres or more.47 These undersea mountains often
occur in clusters or ranges along mid ocean ridges where lava rises from within
the Earth, continuously forming new oceanic crust.48 Seamounts are usually
volcanic in origin but may also form as a result of the vertical movement of
tectonic plates beneath the earth’s surface.49 They occur in all oceans but are
most common in the Pacific.50 Recent deep sea exploration has revealed their
value as rich repositories of mineral deposits and havens for dense colonies of
fish and other species.51
Seamounts are often the site of hydrothermal precipitates such as polyme-
tallic sulphides and cobalt rich crusts which form as a result of superheated
gases extruding from fissure sin the earth’s crust.52 While there is currently no
commercial exploitation of these deep seabed minerals occurring beyond na-
tional jurisdiction, seamounts are likely to be an attractive investment location
for this industry in the future.53 Seamounts also attract large aggregations of
fish which feed on plankton and other marine organisms ensnared as they rise
to the surface.54 The fish species which inhabit seamounts often have very low
fecundity and are extremely long lived rendering them especially vulnerable

47
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 10; Keith Probert, ‘Seamounts, Sanctuaries and
Sustainability: Moving Towards Deep Sea Conservation’ (1999) 9 Aquatic Conservation:
Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, p. 601.
48
Ibid.
49
Maria C. Baker et al., The Status of Natural Resources on the High Seas (WWF/IUCN/
WCPA, Gland, Switzerland, 2001), p. 22.
50
Ibid.
51
Baker et al., supra note, 49, pp. 23–24.
52
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 24.
53
Probert, supra note 47, p. 602.
54
Probert, supra note 47, p. 601; J. Anthony Koslow, ‘Fish Stocks and Benthos of Seamounts’
in Hjalmar Thiel and J. Anthony Koslow (eds), Managing Risks to Biodiversity and the
Environment on the High Seas, Including Tools such as Marine Protected Areas – Scientific
Requirements and Legal Aspects (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, 2001),
pp. 45–46.
8 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

to over fishing.55 Examples of commercially exploited fish species associated

with seamounts include orange roughy, some deep water oreos and the pelagic
armourhead.56 Other migratory species which gravitate towards seamounts in
search of food include tuna, dolphins, marlin, bonito and mackerel.57
The currents which swirl around seamounts increase the supply of food
available to suspension feeders such as deep sea corals which thrive in the
seamount environment.58 Corals which usually occur on protruding areas of
seamounts are particularly vulnerable to destructive fisheries practices such as
bottom trawling.59 Seamounts are also home to a wide variety of invertebrate
species including sponges, hydroids and ascidians.60 In addition, seabirds
are known to congregate in the vicinity of seamounts, attracted by the large
number of fish and other marine species.61 Relatively few seamounts have been
comprehensively explored but research undertaken on 25 seamounts south of
Tasmania has disclosed more than 850 macro and megafaunal species with a
high level of endemism for each seamount.62 This research and the prevalence
of migratory species visiting seamounts indicate that they are performing im-
portant biological functions as reproductive oases and food sources for living
creatures in the deep sea environment.63

2. Hydrothermal Vents

One of the most intriguing and biologically diverse habitats of the deep sea en-
vironment is the hydrothermal vent. The phenomenal biological communities
which thrive in the vicinity of hydrothermal vents were first discovered dur-
ing an expedition by a group of National Geographic researchers in February
1977 in the vessel, Knorr to the Galapagos Rift in the Eastern Pacific.64 Dense
clam colonies, normally only found in much shallower coastal waters, alerted

55
Probert, supra note 47, p. 601; Koslow, supra note 54, p. 48.
56
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 24.
57
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 292.
58
Probert, supra note 47, p. 602.
59
Koslow, supra note 54, p. 49; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 25.
60
Probert, supra note 47, p. 602; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 23.
61
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 24.
62
Koslow, supra note 54, p. 49; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 24.
63
Baker et al., supra note 49, pp. 24–25; Koslow, supra note 54, p. 50.
64
Robert D. Ballard, Adventures in Ocean Exploration. From the Discovery of the Titanic
to the Search for Noah’s Flood (National Geographic, Washington DC, 2001), p. 55;
Robert D. Ballard (with Will Hively), The Eternal Darkness (Princeton University Press,
Princeton, 2000), pp. 169–173.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 9

deep sea scientists to investigate these habitats more closely to discover more
about the energy and food sources supporting these unusual bivalve mollusc
communities.65 They discovered that hydrothermal activity occurs along mid
ocean ridges, where fissures in the earth’s crust allow sea water to penetrate
to depths of a few kilometres and mix with hot basalt to produce hot water
springs venting through the deep sea floor.66 The super heated liquid emerging
from these vents can be as hot as 350 to 400 degrees centigrade and is full of
minerals from the surrounding rock which form chimney like deposits around
the vents, known as black or white smokers.67 Closer research into these sites,
following the initial discovery at the Galapagos Rift, revealed that a chemosyn-
thetic reaction taking place in the water of the vents was the energy source for
the unique forms of life which occurred in their vicinity.68 Large numbers of
bacteria were formed in the hydrothermal fluid through a process synthesising
organic carbon from carbon dioxide and methane.69 These chemoautotrophic
bacteria are the food and energy source for the strange communities of bi-
valves and tubeworms which scientists have discovered at the vents.70
Although the precise number of hydrothermal vents occurring beyond na-
tional jurisdiction is not yet known, scientists have estimated that there would
be approximately 500 on mid ocean ridges averaging one per 100 kilometres
ridge length.71 Around the 30 vent sites which have been actively researched,
approximately 450 invertebrate species have been identified and 32 fish and
octopus species have also been observed near the vents.72 The majority of
vent species have only been found at a single site, highlighting the unique
and endemic nature of these fauna.73 Specialised vent species appear to be
confined to depths greater than 400 metres.74
Hydrothermal vents have multiple commercial exploitation possibilities
and scientific value. Species which survive at such extreme temperatures and
in highly toxic environments have potential value for a wide range of medical,
industrial and agricultural applications.75 The organisms derived from hydro-
thermal vents, known as hyperthermophiles and extremophiles are already

65
Ballard, supra note 64, pp. 237–240.
66
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 363; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 15.
67
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 366; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 15.
68
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 367; Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 363.
69
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 363; Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 367.
70
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 367.
71
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 15.
72
Ibid., p. 16.
73
Ibid.
74
Ibid., p. 17.
75
Ibid.
10 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

supporting a nascent biotechnology industry.76 The polymetallic sulphides de-

posited on hydrothermal vent chimneys are potential sources of gold and other
valuable minerals.77 The heat produced at hydrothermal vents could also form
the basis of an alternative energy source in the future through the production
of hydrogen fuel.78
Since the discovery of the first hydrothermal vent in the Galapagos Rift,
there has been escalating scientific interest in these sites and frequent sam-
pling of vent living resources is now common.79 The cumulative effect of such
research on particular hydrothermal vent sites is now a source of concern for
both environmental organisations and marine scientists. This versatile cornu-
copia of commercial exploitation possibilities and the intense scientific inter-
est in hydrothermal vents entails the corresponding risk that indiscriminate
human activities may have harmful effects on vent environments, reducing
the long term viability of their biological communities and exhausting mineral
deposits prematurely. These risks highlight the need to have clear legal and
institutional arrangements to minimise the adverse impacts of human activi-
ties in these areas.

3. Cold Seeps and Pockmarks

Seepage of fluids such as hydrocarbons and groundwater occurs at other sites

on the deep seafloor which are less spectacular than hydrothermal vents but
support similarly endowed biological communities.80 These habitats, known
as cold seeps, are caused by a variety of geological events including tectoni-
cally induced fluid pressure, petroleum or natural gas escape, groundwater
escape and sediment slide.81 Where these processes result in deep craters of
several hundred metres in diameter, the resulting feature is known as a pock-
mark.82 Cold seeps and pockmarks have been found in many parts of the ocean

76
Ibid.
77
Probert, supra note 47, p. 602; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 17.
78
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 17.
79
Ibid., p. 18.
80
S. Kim Juniper, ‘Background Paper on Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents’ in Hjalmar Thiel
and J. Anthony Koslow (eds), Managing Risks to Biodiversity and The Environment on
the High Seas, Including Tools such as Marine Protected Areas – Scientific Requirements
and Legal Aspects (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, 2001), p. 91.
81
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 385.
82
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 45.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 11

including the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction but their full global
distribution is not yet known.83
Chemosynthetic processes at the seeps produce benthic fauna which re-
semble those found at hydrothermal vents.84 Large bivalves such as clams and
mussels are common as well as colonies of tubeworms.85 The majority of these
species are endemic to their particular seeps.86 The more moderate conditions
of the cold seeps support a greater range of species than hydrothermal vents
but some species are slower to grow in the seep environment.87 The high bio-
diversity content of the cold seeps will act as a magnet for ongoing scientific
research into these communities. In common with hydrothermal vents, chem-
osynthetic bacteria from cold seeps may contain valuable genetic resources
which are attractive to the bioprospecting industry. Commercial exploitation
of minerals from seep fluids may also become viable in the future.88 At this
stage comprehensive identification of cold seeps beyond national jurisdiction
has not progressed far and will require a concerted biogeographic mapping
effort as they are less prominent features than hydrothermal vents.

4. Deep Sea Trenches

Deep sea trenches are formed by the downward collapse of oceanic crust
into the hot centre of the earth when an oceanic tectonic plate collides with
a continental plate.89 Deep trenches in the ocean floor ranging in depth from
6,000 to 10,000 metres are formed through this process which is known as
subduction.90 Subduction occurs most commonly along island arc systems
and active continental margins.91 Many of the 37 deep ocean trenches known
to scientists occur within the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zones of
coastal States, however, there are examples of deep ocean trenches beyond
national jurisdiction in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.92 Deep ocean
trenches are typically elongated and narrow, ranging in length from 100 to

83
Ibid., p. 46.
84
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 385; Juniper, supra note 80, p. 91.
85
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, pp. 385–386; Baker et al., supra note 49, pp. 46–47.
86
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 47.
87
Ibid.
88
Ibid.
89
Byatt et al., supra note 17, p. 29.
90
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 11.
91
Ibid.
92
Baker et al., supra note 49, pp. 28–29.
12 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

3000 kilometres and a few tens of kilometres wide.93 The base of the trench
is covered in fine sediment and may also contain terrestrial plant debris and
rocks.94
As with vent biological communities, trench fauna are highly adapted to
their fundamentally unstable environment where they are constantly subject
to physical disturbance, immense water pressure and fluctuating nutrients.95
Faunal biodiversity decreases with depth with the greatest range of species
inhabiting the shallower parts of the trench.96 Holothurians, also known as sea
cucumbers, which live on soft sediment and feed on detritus, predominate in
the lower zones of trenches.97 Bivalve molluscs and polychaete worms also
occur in the nether regions of the trench.98 Some of these species appear to
be supported by chemosynthetic processes similar to those at the hydrother-
mal vents.99 In the upper zones more complex organisms appear including
sipunculans crustaceans and sea stars.100 As with seamounts and hydrothermal
vents, trench fauna are usually endemic to their particular trench.101
Although difficult to access, deep sea trench species, known as hadal
fauna, have potential commercial applications. Their adaptations to the trench
environment provide further knowledge on sustaining life processes under
extreme hydrostatic pressure which has synergies with sustaining human life
under anaesthetics.102 The unique gene pool of trench fauna also has medical,
industrial and other biotechnological applications.103 The primary threats to
deep sea trench environments are proposals to dump waste in the trenches
including oil, chemicals, sewage, high level nuclear material and mining
tailings.104 More stringent environmental protection measures beyond those
already applicable to vessel source pollution, including environmental impact
assessment of human activities which affect the species, habitats and ecosys-
tems of deep sea trenches may be necessary to avert such threats.

93
Ibid., p. 28.
94
Ibid.
95
Ibid., p. 29.
96
Ibid.
97
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 67; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 29.
98
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 29.
99
Ibid., p. 30.
100
Ibid., p. 29.
101
Probert, supra note 47, p. 602.
102
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 30.
103
Ibid.
104
Ibid., p. 31.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 13

5. Deep Sea Coral Reefs

Although the deep sea does not have the extensive coral reefs typical of shal-
lower tropical waters, scientists have discovered some coral species which
form large reef structures in deep sea areas.105 Stony reef building corals have
been found in many areas of the deep sea forming large growths up to 30 metres
high in one case and extending for several thousand metres in others.106 The
most prevalent and studied species is lophelia pertusa which often occurs at
higher points on the deep seabed such as seamounts, ridges, carbonate mounds
and sand mounds where current flow is faster and the food supply of passing
plankton is greater.107 Other species of coral, such as madrepora oculata and
desmphyllum, with similar physical characteristics are also common in these
locations.108 Contrary to earlier perceptions of deep sea marine organisms, the
deep water corals are brightly coloured and, like their tropical counterparts,
display a branch like structure of hard calcium carbonate which harbours the
individual polyps.109 The densest known concentrations of lophelia pertusa
have been found on the continental shelf of the North East Atlantic Ocean area
but discoveries have also been made of lophelia pertusa and other species of
coral in deep sea areas beyond the continental margin.110
A huge array of other species thrive in deep sea coral habitats.111 Up to 800
species have been located in lophelia pertusa communities in the North East
Atlantic Ocean. While the number of fish and mollusc species is relatively low
compared to shallow water coral reefs, the deep water coral reefs host hun-
dreds of invertebrate species such as sponges, bryozoans and hydroids many
of them new to marine science.112 The reefs also attract large aggregations

105
Lauren S. Mullineaux and Susan W. Mills, ‘Coral Gardens in the Dark Depths: Scientists
Seek to Learn More about the Abundant, Fragile and Now Threatened Communities’ (2005)
43(2) Oceanus, p. 6; Murray Roberts, ‘Managing Impacts on the Marine Environment’
in Anthony J. Grehan et al., The Irish Coral Task Force and Atlantic Coral Ecosystem
Study Report on Two Deep-water Coral Conservation Stakeholder Workshops Held in
Galway in 2000 and 2002 (Marine Science Institute, National University of Ireland,
Galway, 2003), p. 59; Anthony J. Grehan, ‘Deep Water Coral Conservation’ in Hjalmar
Thiel and J. Anthony Koslow, Managing Risks to Biodiversity and The Environment on
the High Seas, Including Tools such as Marine Protected Areas – Scientific Requirements
and Legal Aspects (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, 2001), p. 67; Byatt et
al., supra note 17, pp. 355–356.
106
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 33.
107
Ibid.
108
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 102.
109
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 33; Mullineaux and Mills, supra note 105, p. 6.
110
Baker et al., supra note 49, pp. 33–34.
111
Grehan, supra note 105, p. 67.
112
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 35.
14 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

of commercially exploited fish such as redfish and ling.113 Some fish species
use the deep water reef habitats as nursery and spawning grounds.114 Smaller
fish species and invertebrate suspension feeders use the reefs as refuges.115
The fragile reef structure is extremely susceptible to damage from destructive
fisheries practices such as bottom trawling and scientific studies indicate that
re-growth rates for lophelia pertusa are very slow.116 Substantial destruction of
the reef structure and excessive exploitation of endemic fish species will also
affect the balance of the dependent ecosystems.117 Deep water coral habitats
are vulnerable to the heavy impact of oil and minerals exploration and produc-
tion activities and the more primitive methods of marine scientific research
such as trawling and dredging for samples.118

D. Threats to the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction

from Human Activities

As global shipping density increases and science and technology provide

more opportunities to access fisheries stocks in the open ocean and to visit
deep sea habitats, the spectrum of threats to the marine environment increases
exponentially. The deep sea fishing industry is now supported by a battery of
technological innovations including global positioning systems, multibeam
sonar and stronger and more powerful cables and winches. Fishing nets and
lines are composed of virtually indestructible synthetic material and may be
laid in huge swathes across the ocean. Heavy bottom trawling gear has already
caused substantial damage to fragile high seas ecosystems. Seaborne trade
and passenger traffic is rapidly expanding and is expected to double over the
next two decades. The risks to the marine environment from intentional and
accidental discharges of oil and other hazardous substances, noise and ship
strikes of marine mammals are likely to be compounded with more prevalent
high seas traffic.
Beyond these existing threats, new and emerging uses of marine areas be-
yond national jurisdiction such as marine scientific research, bioprospecting,
deep seabed mining and environmental modification activities to mitigate the
effects of climate change have the potential to harm the highly interconnected

113
Grehan, supra note 105, p. 67.
114
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 35.
115
Gage and Tyler, supra note 25, p. 102.
116
Mullineaux and Mills, supra note 105, p. 6; Baker et al., supra note 49, pp. 35–36.
117
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 36; Mullineaux and Mills, supra note 105, p. 6.
118
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 36.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 15

and fragile ecosystems of the open ocean and deep seabed if not carefully
managed now and in the future. Currently there is very limited provision in the
international legal framework for any prior or ongoing environmental impact
assessment of new human activities in the open ocean and deep seabed.

1. Threats Associated with Marine Living Resource Exploitation

Commercial exploitation of marine living resources beyond national jurisdic-

tion has grown in scale and intensity with the demise of some inshore fisheries
and the extension of coastal State resource jurisdiction to 200 nautical miles.119
An estimated 10 to 20% of the world’s commercial fish catch is now derived
from high seas areas.120 Highly migratory stocks such as tuna and marlin have
been vigorously exploited by distant water fishers in high seas areas where,
until recently, catch restrictions have been rare.121 With a large proportion of
the world’s fisheries under pressure from the commercial fishing industry,
interest has also grown in previously undisturbed deep sea fisheries such as
those which aggregate around seamounts.122
Fisheries experts estimate that most tuna stocks are close to or have reached
their full level of exploitation or maximum sustainable yield in recent years.
Large fleets of long liners and purse seiners have been targeting tuna since
the 1950s.123 While quotas and size limits have been imposed by global and
regional organisations managing tuna fisheries, there has been some resist-
ance to such restrictions and enforcement of quotas in high seas areas has
been difficult.124 The incidental catch of long line tuna fishers has been high
with a large number of non target species such as billfish, turtles, birds, dol-
phins and sharks being injured, killed and discarded through encounters with

119
Christopher J. Carr and Harry N. Scheiber, ‘Dealing with a Resource Crisis: Regulatory
Regimes for Managing the World’s Marine Fisheries’ (2002) 21 Stanford Environmental
Law Journal, p. 45; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 65.
120
Gjerde and Breide, supra note 8, p. vii.
121
Carr and Scheiber, supra note 119, p. 53.
122
Erik J. Molenaar, ‘Unregulated Deep Sea Fisheries: A Need for a Multi-Level Approach’
(2004) 19(3) International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, p. 223; Lee A. Kimball,
‘Deep Sea Fisheries of the High Seas: The Management Impasse’ (2004) 19(3) Interna-
tional Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, p. 260.
123
Earle, supra note 3, pp. 182–184; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 66.
124
Carr and Scheiber, supra note 119, p. 59; Rosemary Rayfuse, ‘The Challenge of
Sustainable High Seas Fisheries’ in Nico Schrijver and Friedl Weiss (eds), International
Law and Sustainable Development. Principles and Practice (Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden,
2004), p. 474.
16 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

lines and hooks.125 Some regional fisheries organisations managing tuna and
other highly migratory and straddling stocks are beginning to implement a
precautionary approach to these fisheries imposing measures such as lower
quotas, spatial, time and gear restrictions on the fishing vessels of their mem-
ber States.126 These organisations are also beginning to examine the need for
ecosystem based management of these fisheries which takes into account the
associated and dependent species and habitats affected by fishing for the target
species.127 Implementation of precautionary and ecosystem based measures in
the conservation and management of high seas fisheries, however, is far from
comprehensive and still in the embryonic stages of development.128
Marine scientists are also concerned about the threats to deep water demer-
sal fish which are concentrated on the continental slopes and around deep sea
habitats such as seamounts.129 These include species such as the grenadiers,
smoothheads, orange roughy and the pelagic armourhead. Unlike many in-
shore and coastal fish species they exhibit characteristics such as great longev-
ity, low fecundity and high age at first maturity.130 They can also be endemic
to a particular deep sea habitat.131 These features of deep water fish species
inhibit their ability to recover quickly from over exploitation. The methods
used to fish for these species, especially bottom trawling, have major impacts
on their surrounding habitat and on associated and dependent ecosystems.132
As well as crushing fragile deep sea coral structures, bottom trawlers sweep
up large numbers of non target species. All deep sea fish caught in a trawl
including non target species will be dead on reaching the surface as a result
of damage to their skins and pressure and temperature changes.133 In some
oceanic regions there are already examples of deep water species being com-
mercially exploited to levels close to extinction.134

125
Byatt et al., supra note 17, pp. 306–307; Gjerde and Breide, supra note 8, p. 6.
126
Rayfuse, supra note 124, pp. 473–474.
127
Ibid., pp. 474–476.
128
Ibid., pp. 474–475.
129
Probert, supra note 47, p. 602; Koslow, supra note 54, p. 43; John M. Gordon, ‘Deep
Water Fish and Fisheries’ in Hjalmar Thiel and J. Anthony Koslow (eds), Managing Risks
to Biodiversity and The Environment on the High Seas, Including Tools such as Marine
Protected Areas – Scientific Requirements and Legal Aspects (Federal Agency for Nature
Conservation, Bonn, 2001), p. 31.
130
Koslow, supra note 54, p. 43; Gordon, supra note 129, p. 32.
131
Ibid.
132
Gordon, supra note 129, p. 33.
133
Ibid.
134
Koslow, supra note 54, pp. 46–47.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 17

2. Threats Associated with Marine Transport

Threats to the marine environment from vessel source discharges and deliber-
ate disposal of waste did not come to prominence until the latter decades of the
twentieth century with the increase in world oil trade and major disasters such
as the Torrey Canyon and Amoco Cadiz groundings where the effects of oil on
marine life were clearly visible to the human eye.135 Prior to these disasters,
the oceans were used as an uncontrolled rubbish dump absorbing oil and toxic
chemicals, untreated sewage and garbage from land and vessel sources, mine
tailings, dredged material and nuclear waste.136 Indiscriminate disposal at sea
of waste arising from human activities has deleterious effects on the entire
marine environment including the open ocean and the deep seabed beyond
national jurisdiction. Although the proportion of contaminants introduced into
the sea from vessel sources is small when compared to land based sources
of marine pollution, the risks associated with such disposal are high.137 The
physical impacts of waste disposal include burial of marine organisms, in-
creased suspended solids and habitat destruction caused by sedimentation.138
Hazardous and noxious substances disposed at sea can also have toxic effects
on marine organisms and result in contamination of human food sources.
Some persistent wastes, such as plastics and synthetic materials left suspended
in the water column may harm marine life and interfere with navigation.139
Alien species introduced into the deep sea environment, through the practice
of ballast water exchange on the high seas, can adversely affect the delicate
balance of deep sea ecosystems and destroy fragile habitats.140
The effects of uncontrolled waste disposal at sea are not confined to coastal
or surface waters. Through the action of currents and gravity, most pollutants

135
P.M. McGrath and Michael Julian, ‘Protection of the Marine Environment from Shipping
Operations: Australian and International Responses’ in Donald R. Rothwell and Sam
Bateman (eds), Navigational Rights and Freedoms and the New Law of the Sea (Martinus
Nijhoff, The Hague, 2000), pp. 188–189.
136
United Nations Atlas of the Oceans, Dumping at Sea, <www.oceansatlas.com.unatlas/
uses/oceandumpingwastes/dumping/dumping.htm>, 30 November 2007.
137
Erik J. Molenaar, Coastal State Jurisdiction over Vessel-Source Pollution (Kluwer Law
International, The Hague, 1998), p. 18, n. 12: “Vessel-source pollution accounts for 12%
of all marine pollution, land based and atmospheric for 77%, ocean dumping for 10% and
offshore production for 1% (GESAMP Report No. 39, p. 88).”
138
Marcia Collie and Julie Russo, ‘Deep-Sea Biodiversity and the Impacts of Ocean
Dumping’ (2000) National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, <www.oar.
noaa.gov/spotlite/archive/spot_oceandumping.html>, 30 November 2007.
139
Gjerde and Breide, supra note 8, pp. 6–7.
140
Nicholas Bax et al., ‘Marine Invasive Species: A Threat to Global Biodiversity’ (2003)
27(4) Marine Policy p. 314.
18 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

and dumped materials will eventually find their way to the deep sea floor. Sci-
entists from the US have conducted studies into the effects of large amounts
of sewage sludge dumped annually at a deep water site 106 miles off the coast
on the continental rise adjacent to the New York Bight.141 Over a period of
years this research has demonstrated that the sludge material had significant
effects on the metabolism, diet and composition of the benthic inhabitants
of the dump site itself and the surrounding area. Some organisms such as
urchins, starfish and sea cucumbers increased in abundance from ingesting the
organic material found in sewage sludge while others diminished as a result of
the toxic effects of heavy metals.142
In regulating the discharge of vessel source pollutants into the ocean, the
international community has adopted a zonal approach with more stringent re-
strictions imposed on vessel discharges closer to land and special areas declared
in waters within national jurisdiction where all discharges are prohibited. This
incremental approach increases the potential for harmful effects from vessel
source pollutants in the open ocean and deep seabed environments beyond
national jurisdiction. Initially deliberate dumping of waste material at sea
was controlled in a permissive manner by specifying lists of those substances
which could be dumped under certain conditions. This approach has now been
reversed with the majority of dumping prohibited and the onus incumbent on
a State which proposes to dump material, to justify its actions.143

3. Threats Associated with Deep Seabed Mining

Assessment of the potential environmental impacts of deep seabed mining

has paralleled the development of this incipient industry which has not yet
reached the stage of commercial viability and large scale exploitation. Since
the mid 1970s, State research institutions such as the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration of the United States, the German Ministry of
Research and Technology and Japan’s Metal Mining Agency, have been con-
ducting research into the effects of deep seabed mining on the benthic envi-
ronment in conjunction with industrial groups.144 Following its establishment

141
Collie and Russo, supra note 138.
142
Ibid.
143
Olav S. Stokke, ‘Beyond Dumping? The Effectiveness of the London Convention’ in
Olav S. Stokke and O.B. Thommessen (eds), Yearbook of International Cooperation on
Environment and Development (Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, 1998), pp. 40–41.
144
Jan M. Markussen, ‘Deep Seabed Mining and the Environment: Consequences,
Perceptions and Regulations’ in H.O. Bergesen and G. Parmann (eds), Green Globe
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 19

in 1994, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has continued this research
with the seven licensed deep seabed mining exploration contractors and deep
sea research scientists.
There are three main groups of deep seabed minerals: polymetallic nodules,
polymetallic sulphides and cobalt rich crusts.145 Most research has concen-
trated on polymetallic nodules which are currently the subject of exploration
by the seven licensed contractors. Polymetallic nodules are found in the soft
sediment of the deep sea floor. They form a hard substrata for the benthic
organisms inhabiting the sediment.146 The deep seabed mining collection sys-
tem at the seafloor consists of a motorised metal collector and crusher which
will sweep up the majority of nodules in any particular area.147 This results
in severe disturbance of the surrounding soft sediment and the destruction of
much of the benthal fauna.148 Organisms in and around the tracks of the collec-
tor unit will be buried by the disturbed sediment.149 In addition, suspension of
a sedimentation plume behind the collector containing particulate matter will
result in chemical changes to the bottom water.150 Even for stalked organisms
which penetrate higher into the water column and free floating organisms,
mining operations will result in disturbance of food sources such as drift-
ing plankton.151 Scientists have estimated that benthic communities may take
decades to recover from these impacts.152 At the surface, disposal of waste
water containing particulate matter and trace metals may also interfere with
photosynthetic processes for marine life in the productive epipelagic layer.153
The environmental effects of polymetallic sulphide and cobalt rich crust
mining are not as well researched as those associated with polymetallic nod-
ule mining but some impacts are predictable. A high potential for adverse
environmental impacts exists where polymetallic suphides are co-located
with the unique and fragile ecosystems situated at active hydrothermal vents.
Destruction of the vent organisms and habitat is likely to occur with large dis-
turbances of sediment and chemical changes caused by particulate plumes.154

Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development (Earthscan

Publications Ltd., London, 1994), pp. 31–32.
145
Ibid., p. 31.
146
Baker et al., supra note 49, pp. 39 and 41.
147
Markussen, supra note 144, p. 33; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 41.
148
Markussen, supra note 144, p. 33.
149
Ibid.
150
Ibid., pp. 33–34.
151
Ibid., p. 34.
152
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 43.
153
Markussen, supra note 144, p. 34; Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 41.
154
Jochen Halfar and Rodney M. Fujita, ‘Precautionary Management of Deep Sea Mining’
(2002) 26(2) Marine Policy p. 104.
20 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

Some scientists have suggested that the destruction of a mother population

capable of re-colonising a disturbed hydrothermal vent location may result in
extinction of rare species.155 Mining of cobalt rich crusts, which are found on
seamount summits and the outer rim of ocean terraces, is technically more dif-
ficult as the crusts are attached to substrate rock. To prevent dilution of the ore
quality, the crusts must be removed without collecting too much substrate. A
variety of methods have been suggested including cutting and fragmenting the
crusts, water jet stripping of the crusts, chemical leaching of the crust material
and sonic separation of the crusts.156 All these methods are likely to result in
physical disturbance and damage to the surrounding seamount species and
their habitats.157

4. Threats Associated with Bioprospecting and Marine Scientific Research

Deep sea habitats in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction, such as hydro-
thermal vents, submarine trenches and cold seeps are the subject of intense
interest from bioprospectors interested in the commercial potential of their
endemic species and marine scientists who are conducting progressively more
invasive experiments at these sites.158 Only a small cross section of known
hydrothermal vents have so far been regularly visited by bioprospectors and
marine scientists who often work in conjunction.159 The emphasis of scientific
research expeditions to these sites has switched from simple discovery and
exploration to experiments which involve installation of scientific equipment
on the seafloor and the collection of biological and geological samples from
particular sites.160 In situ experiments may introduce the alien elements of
light and noise into these deep sea habitats and induce changes in water tem-
perature. Pollution may also occur from biological debris and other biological
material imported into the environment.161

155
International Seabed Authority, Polymetallic Sulphides Brochure, <www.isa.org.jm/en/
seabedarea/TechBrochures/ENG8.pdf> at 30 November 2007.
156
International Seabed Authority, Cobalt Rich Crusts Brochure, <www.isa.org.jm/en/
seabedarea/TechBrochures/ENG8.pdf> at 30 November 2007.
157
Ibid.
158
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 18.
159
Lyle Glowka, ‘Putting Marine Scientific Research on a Sustainable Footing at
Hydrothermal Vents’ (2003) 27(4) Marine Policy p. 303.
160
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 18; Glowka, supra note 159, p. 304; Juniper, supra note 80,
p. 93.
161
Baker et al., supra note 49, p. 18.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 21

The pressure imposed by cumulative expeditions, in some cases with

identical purposes, has led marine scientists to coordinate their visits to avoid
simultaneous expeditions with cognate purposes to the same sites. These self
regulatory schemes, however, are completely voluntary and far from compre-
hensive.162 As commercial interest grows in the financial and health benefits
associated with bioprospecting, research expeditions may be tempted to re-
move larger samples of genetic and biochemical material located at sites such
as hydrothermal vents. At present there is no limit on the amount of genetic
and biochemical material which can be removed from deep sea sites beyond
national jurisdiction and no coherent legal and institutional regime regulat-
ing the environmental impacts of marine scientific research or bioprospecting
activities in such locations.

5. Threats Associated with Climate Change Mitigation Activities

The damaging effects of anthropogenically induced climate change on both the

terrestrial and marine environments have been acknowledged by a succession
of expert reports commissioned by global and national bodies.163 This recogni-
tion has spawned heightened levels of activity by scientists, engineers and
entrepreneurs to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. The capacity
of the ocean to absorb rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has
been the focus of some of this activity. Although logistically difficult to reach,
marine areas beyond national jurisdiction represent an attractive location for
experiments in climate change mitigation because of the lack of regulatory
and governance restraints on use of these areas. Unlike deep seabed mining,
these new and emerging uses of marine areas beyond national jurisdiction are
not subject to control or management by an established supranational author-
ity such as the ISA and therefore run the risk of causing irreversible damage
to the marine environment and its biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction in
the absence of systems to measure and mitigate their effects.
Multiple schemes have been suggested to mitigate the effects of climate
change caused by the burning of fossil fuels, in particular to remove excess

162
Glowka, supra note 159, p. 308.
163
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report, 2007,
<www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm>, 2 December 2007; Nicholas Stern et al., Stern
Review: The Economics of Climate Change (HM Treasury, London, 2006); B.L. Preston
and R.N. Jones, Climate Change Impacts on Australia and the Benefits of Early Action
to Reduce Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions. A consultancy report for the Australian
Business Roundtable on Climate Change (CSIRO Canberra, Canberra, ACT, 2006).
22 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The ocean is already a major sink for carbon
dioxide because of its capacity to readily absorb excess atmospheric carbon
dioxide and convert it to soluble form. A prominent deep sea scientist, An-
thony Koslow, estimates that approximately 5.4 billion tonnes (or gigatonnes)
of carbon are now released into the atmosphere each year as carbon dioxide
from the burning of fossil fuels and that a third of that is taken up by the
ocean.164 Augmenting the rate at which the ocean absorbs carbon dioxide is
the fundamental objective of many of the climate change mitigation schemes
now being proposed and trialled.
One of the earliest climate change mitigation schemes proposed involves
permanent sequestration of carbon dioxide emissions from large point sources
such as power plants using fossil fuels, steel works and fuel processing plants
in sub seabed geological formations.165 The principal risk associated with this
method of carbon dioxide disposal in the sub-seabed is the potential for leak-
age of carbon dioxide and any other substances in or mobilized by the carbon
dioxide stream into the marine environment.166 Leakage of carbon dioxide
or associated substances within the carbon dioxide stream including heavy
metals into the deep sea environment can alter the marine chemistry of the
water column and lead to adverse effects on the interconnected web of spe-
cies, habitats and ecosystems.167
As the sub-seabed carbon dioxide sequestration process essentially involves
the deliberate disposal of waste material at sea, it falls within the regulatory
ambit of both the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution
by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter (London Convention) and the 1996
Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dump-
ing of Wastes and other Matter (London Protocol).168 The London Convention
applies to disposal of waste material in any area of the water column but not to
disposal in the seabed.169 Dumping of waste materials generated by industrial

164
Tony Koslow, The Silent Deep (UNSW Press, University of New South Wales, Sydney,
Australia, 2007) p. 156.
165
Ibid., p. 157; IMO Press Briefing 5, 9 February 2007, <www.imo.org/Safety/mainframe.
asp?topic_id=1472&4doc_id=7772>, 1 December 2007.
166
Juan C. Abanedes et al., IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005), p. 18; IMO, CO2 Sequestration
Frequently Asked Questions, <www.imo.org/environment/mainframe.asp?topic_
id=1548>, 1 December 2007
167
Ibid.; Koslow, supra note 164, p. 160.
168
1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
other Matter, 29 December 1972, 11 ILM 1294; 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 7 November
1996, 36 ILM 1 (1997). .
169
1972 London Convention, Article III(1) and (3).
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 23

or processing operations into the water column has been prohibited under the
London Convention since 1996 unless the particular materials appear on a
reverse list of industrial wastes that can be dumped.170 This list does not make
specific reference to carbon dioxide so unless it can be included in some of
the more general definitions of industrial wastes, its disposal into the water
column by States Parties to the London Convention is prohibited but its stor-
age in the sub-seabed is not prohibited by the Convention.
A fundamental premise of the London Protocol is that Contracting Parties
should avoid using the sea for the dumping of wastes and that any exceptional
dumping of waste at sea should be subject to rigorous risk assessment, control
and scientifically based procedures for disposal. Dumping of wastes or other
matter is prohibited under the London Protocol except for those materials
specifically listed in Annex I. The definition of “dumping” under Article 1.4.3
of the London Protocol includes “any storage of wastes or other matters in
the seabed or subsoil thereof” and therefore the sub-seabed sequestration of
carbon dioxide would have been prohibited under the provisions of the Proto-
col without special qualification. Amendments to Annex I permitting storage
of carbon dioxide under the seabed were adopted on 2 November 2006 at
the First Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the London Protocol.171 The
amendments provide a basis for regulating this method of disposal and have
been supplemented by Specific Guidelines for Assessment of Carbon Diox-
ide Streams for Disposal into Sub-seabed Geological Formations adopted by
the Contracting Parties at their Second Consultative Meeting in November
2007.172
The Specific Guidelines take a precautionary approach to the process re-
quiring Contracting Parties under whose jurisdiction or control such activities
are conducted to issue a permit for the disposal subject to stringent conditions
being fulfilled.173 The chemical and physical properties of carbon dioxide
streams proposed for sub-seabed sequestration must be rigorously analysed174
and alternative methods of land based disposal appropriately considered.175
In addition permit applicants must provide a geological assessment of the
proposed site which includes information on its long term storage integrity,
potential migration and leakage pathways over time and potential effects on
the marine environment of leakage of carbon dioxide and possibilities for

170
Ibid., Article IV, Annex I, paragraph 11.
171
IMO Press Briefing, supra note 165.
172
IMO Doc., I:\LC\29\4.doc.
173
Ibid., Section 9.
174
Ibid., Section 4.
175
Ibid., Section 3.
24 Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction

monitoring, mitigation and remediation if leakage occurs.176 Permit applicants

must also provide information on the biological features and uses of the pro-
posed site including the presence of vulnerable ecosystems, critical habitats,
spawning, nursery and recruitment areas for fish, shipping lanes, migration
routes, military exclusion zones and engineering uses of the sea such as under-
sea cables and energy conversion.177 Applications for permits are required to
evaluate the potential effects of a leakage of carbon dioxide stream on human
health, living resources, amenities and other legitimate uses of the sea.178 This
evaluation leads to an impact hypothesis forming the basis for a monitoring
programme allowing for effective management of the disposal site and trig-
gering mitigation or remediation plans if necessary.179 While these compre-
hensive Guidelines have been designed to avert the potential risks of this form
of waste disposal at sea, they will only apply to the limited number of States
Parties to the London Protocol.180 Initially, most proposed sequestration sites
will lie within marine areas under national jurisdiction as the main sub seabed
storage potential is in depleted oil and gas fields and in deep subterranean and
sub-sea saline aquifers.181
In contrast to sub-seabed sequestration of carbon dioxide, proposals for
open ocean fertilization using iron and other micro nutrients to increase phy-
toplankton primary productivity in iron deficient areas of the ocean thereby
promoting further draw down of carbon dioxide into the deep sea are at an
earlier stage of development and regulation. Results from several iron ferti-
lization experiments in open ocean areas with high dissolved concentrations
of nutrients and low photosynthetic biomass have concluded that there is no
evidence of increased carbon dioxide draw down to the deep sea within the
time frame of the experiments.182 There are also a number of uncertainties and
risks associated with open ocean fertilization which have prompted concern
among scientists. The effects of stimulating phytoplankton productivity on
other marine organisms and marine ecosystems generally are poorly under-
stood. Increased productivity of phytoplankton may boost the production of

176
Ibid., Section 6.2.
177
Ibid., Section 6.6.
178
Ibid., Section 7.6.
179
Ibid., Section 7.11.
180
The London Protocol currently has 31 States Parties, <www.imo.org/home.asp?topic_
id=1488>, 2 December 2007.
181
IMO, CO2 Frequently Asked Questions, supra note 166.
182
Koslow, supra note 164, p. 159; Tatjana Rosen, ‘Open Ocean Iron Fertilisation’ in Cutler
J. Cleveland (ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth (Environmental Information Coalition, National
Council for Science and the Environment, Washington D.C., 2007), <www.eoearth.org/
article/Open_ocean_iron_fertilization, 1 December 2007>.
 Chapter 1 – The Impact of Human Uses on the Marine Environment 25

other greenhouse gases and the sinking of phytoplankton blooms into the deep
ocean may reduce oxygen levels at these depths with adverse consequences
for fisheries.183 Notwithstanding these uncertainties a number of commercial
ventures interested in open ocean fertilization have sprung up and are attracting
investment for these processes.184 At their Twenty-ninth Consultative and Sec-
ond Consultative Meetings, the London Convention and Protocol Contracting
Parties considered a report from their Scientific Groups and other submissions
concerning open ocean fertilization and expressed the view that knowledge
about the effectiveness and potential environmental impacts of ocean iron fer-
tilization was currently insufficient to justify large scale projects and that these
could have negative impacts on the marine environment and human health.185
They also agreed that this process falls within their regulatory competence and
that they would further study this issue from scientific and legal perspectives.
While this expression of concern is reassuring, the relatively low level of Con-
tracting Parties to the London Protocol in particular is a potential limitation on
the effectiveness of any future regulatory provisions.186

E. Conclusion

The interdependence of the open ocean and deep sea environments underscores
the need for legal and institutional arrangements which allow for integrated
protection of the marine environment beyond national jurisdiction and the
establishment of connections between global and regional bodies with regula-
tory competence in these areas. The rise in human activities beyond the off-
shore zones of coastal States poses actual and potential threats to the physical
characteristics and biodiversity of the open ocean and deep sea environments.
Arbitrary human intrusions into this largely unexplored marine domain have
the potential to harm the intricate links between complex marine ecosystems
and to erode components of marine biodiversity. Protection of this vast area
from the range of established and emerging threats posed by intensifying hu-
man activity requires concentrated global, regional and sectoral investment in
coordinating and extending the applicable environmental protection regimes.
Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 examine the current legal principles and institutional
arrangements which apply to the protection and preservation of the marine

183
Ibid.
184
Rosen, supra note 182.
185
IMO Press Briefing 40. 16 November 2007, <www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/
data_id%3D20395/Pressbriefing16-11-07.doc>.
186
Ibid.
Other documents randomly have
different content
La langue internationale auxiliaire, congrés de Grenoble, 1904. Séances
générales, eldonata ĉe la grupo Esperantista Pariza, 28, Rue Serpente,
Paris. 28 pp., kosto 50 c.

La kolorigisto aer-veturanto, tradukita de la Grupo de Monaco. Ĉe

Hachette, 24 pp.

Ankaŭ en Parizo ni vidis la novan Rusan monatan gazeton, Esperanto,

kaj korege ĝojas pro ĝia beleco. Ĝi ja ŝajnas esti inter la manoj de tre
fortaj kaj energiaj kundukantoj.

Estas atentinde ke nuntempe preskaŭ ĉiuj Esperantaj gazetoj pliboniĝis

rilate ekstera vidaĵo. Antaŭe oni ricevis ilin legis ilin, kaj kaŝis ilin, por ke
amikoj ne vidu tiajn malbonajn revuojn. Kontraŭe, ni nun fiere kuŝigas la
Esperantajn ĵurnalojn sur niajn skrib-tablojn kaj aliloke, por ke ili, pro
siaj belaj eksteraĵoj, altiru la atenton de la ekrigardanto. Tiu ĉi estas
vera signo de progreso.

Inter la diversaj avizoj, kiujn enhavis la restaĵo de la korespondado,

estas nur eble citi malmultajn.

Nia agema Dovera Grupo perdis la servojn de ĝia antaŭa tre energia
Sekretario, Sro Geddes, sed ni devas gratuli la grupon trovinte novan
Sekretarion en Sro Chitty, kies fervoreco estas sufiĉe bone-konata. Sir
William Crundall, la eminenta Urbestro de la havena-urbo, konsentis
fariĝi la grupan Prezidanton—honoron pro kiu ni kore dankas lin.

La Dovera Komerca Ĉambro donacis £2 2s. al la Bulonja Kongreso.

Du filinoj de nia nelacigebla Maître Michaux edziniĝos ĉe la suprenomita

Kongreso. Ambaŭ la edzoj estos Oficiroj de la Franca armeo, kaj ankaŭ
Esperantistoj. La atestantoj estos Dro Zamenhof mem, kaj tri aliaj
Esperantistoj el Canada, Peru kaj Hispanujo. Oni diras ke la sub-urbestro
eĉ Esperantiĝas, por povi fari Esperantan paroladon ĉe la ceremonio!
Bonege!

Pri la Kongreso mem estas plezure ekvidi ke ĝi promesas esti eĉ pli

signifa ol ni atendis. Jam kelkaj aŭtoritatuloj certigas ke pli ol tri mil
Esperantistoj ĉeestos. Certe ni ĉiuj plezure atendas la 5an de Aŭgusto
por renkonti tiujn amikojn, kies nomoj jam estas ĉiu-tagaj vortoj ĉe ni,
kaj kies agoj kuraĝigas nin je la ĉiama propaganda laborado.

Sro René Deshays, la fama verkisto de la bela kanto La Vojo, verkis, por
la Kunveno, novan himnon al Dro Zamenhof.

La Grupo de Liège, Belgujo, deziras ke ni petu tiujn Esperantistojn, kiuj

vizitos la Lieĝan ekzpozicion, ke ili ankaŭ venu al la Grupaj kunvenoj,
kiuj okazas ĉiuj lundoj kaj vendredoj (je la oka horo vespere), en la
kafejo "Au petit Trianon," Bvd. de la Sauvenière, apud la Reĝa Teatro.

Sro Boirac, Rektoro de la Diĵona Universitato, deziras altiri la atenton de

la tutmonda Esperantistaro al la libertempa kurso ĉe tiu Universitato kiu
daŭros de 1 Julio ĝis 31 Oktobro. Sro Lambert jam tre sukcese faris
Esperantajn kursojn kaj intencas samon fari tiun ĉi jaron. Li plezure
sendos pluajn informojn, se oni petos ilin de la Universitato de Dijon.

Sro Michaux sendis al ni la sekvantan sciigon pri la Universala Kongreso:

—

Grava Alvoko.—La unua Kongreso estonte, laŭ la parolo de Dro

Zamenhof, la paĝo la plej serioza de la Esperanta historio, estas necese
ke ĉiu Esperantisto respondu jese al nia alvoko. Tiu ĉi elmontro devas
fari grandan impreson tra la tuta mondo, ĝi devos gajni la
indeferentulojn kaj plie venki la malamikojn. Estas pro tiu celo ke Dro
Zamenhof prezidos la unuan kongreson kaj volas ke ĉiu ĉeestanto
subskribu kun li la netuŝeblajn kaj fundamentajn regulojn de la lingvo.—
Do, ĉiu vera Esperantisto devas veni al la Kongreso, malgraŭ ĉiuj
malfacilaĵoj. Li tiel tre helpos la definitivan triumfon de nia kara afero.

Kunvenoj.—La Kongreso komencos la 5an de Aŭgusto kaj daŭros unu

semajnon. La Komitato speciale insistas por ke ĉiuj kongresanoj ĉeestu
almenaŭ je la 6a, 7a, kaj 8a de Aŭgusto. Tiuj ĉi tri tagoj estas rezervataj
por la plej gravaj kunvenoj.—La 10an, okazos ĝenerala mara promenado,
dum kiu oni vizitos Esperantistajn havenojn, Anglajn kaj Francajn.—La
sekvantajn tagojn, variaj distraĵoj.—Ĉiuj kiuj povos, aŭ kanti, aŭ
deklami, bonvolu tion sciigi al ni. Ni plie organizos vesperkunvenon kun
naciaj vestaĵoj.—Ni tre insistas por ke ĉiu kongresano kiu akceptas tion,
skribu tuj al ni.

Ekspozicio.—Granda Ekspozicio estos organizata. Ĉiuj grupoj

Esperantistaj estas petataj sendi kiel eble plej multajn dokumentojn al
Sro Deligny, sekretario de la grupo de Saint-Omer (France).

Aliĝoj.—Ĉiu Esperantisto kiu sendos almenaŭ 5 frankojn ricevos (krom la

karton kiu permesos ĉeesti ĉe ĉiuj kunvenoj aŭ festoj de la Kongreso kaj
ricevi rabaton da 50 po 100 sur la fervojoj) detalajn programojn kaj
ilustritan gvidlibron de Boulogne, kaj de la Kongreso.

Senutile estas diri ke la kartaj prezoj ne sufiĉos por egaligi la elspezojn.

Ni do danke akceptos la monoferojn kiujn oni bonvolos al ni sendi.

Por ĉiuj sciigoj, sin turni al: "Sro Michaux, advokato—Boulogne-sur-Mer

(France)."

P.S.—Ni petas ke niaj kunverkantoj bonvolos sendi kelkajn

artikolojn kiel eble plej baldaŭ. Dum nia vojaĝo la enhavo de la
tirkesto ne bone kreskis!

DONI AŬ NE DONI!

E.W.

Ĉirkaŭ la jaro 1847 multe da laboristoj ne plu dungiĝis en la regaj

fabrikejoj ĉe Deptford. Tiame oni ne kutimiĝis aŭdi pri du milionoj da
malsataj estaĵoj en sia lando, kaj terura estis la ideo ke 2,000 homoj
mizeriĝis senkulpe. Estis ankaŭ terure vidi arojn da viroj lacaj kaj
hontemaj, kiuj marŝis malrapide kaj silente, rigardante surtere.
Ili ne povis trovi laboron, kaj ne volis almozuliĝi; apenaŭ mano ŝanceliĝe
etendiĝis por ricevi modeste prezentitan donacon.

La unuan fojon ke mi renkontis aron da tiuj ĉi malfeliĉuloj mi ne havis

monon sur mi, sed preskaŭ senvole mi donis mian mufon kaj rapide
ekdemetis miajn felajn kolumon kaj manumojn, dirante: "Mi petas,
prenu tion ĉi kaj ĝin vendu."

Unu viro repuŝis mian manon, kaj dua diris: "Ke Dio benu vian korpon
kaj animon, vi bonkora idiotulino! Ĉu vi ne povas vidi ke tio ne donos al
ni unu duonon da plenbuŝo da pano, kaj vi estus malvarma la tutan
vintron?"

Estis vere, ĉar ili estis inter 400 kaj 500 viroj.

De tiu tempo mi ĉiam portis mian monujon kiam mi promenis, ĝis fine
mi ne havis plu moneron, krom ŝilingo, kiun mi gardis por aĉeti
poŝtmarkojn.

En tre malgranda strateto mi renkontis subite unu el la malriĉeguloj nun

ja almozulo. Li ŝajnis tiel sovaĝa, tiel malespera, ke mi preskaŭ timis lin
preterpasi, sed, kiam mi diris: "Mi bedaŭras, mi ne havas monon," li nur
ĝemis kaj mi lin lasis. Post kelkaj paŝoj mi memoris la ŝilingon, kaj mi
sciis ke mi trompis lin. Kompreneble mi kuris kaj, lin atinginte, diris
"Nesciante, mi mensogis al vi, mi forgesis tiun ĉi ŝilingon. Prenu ĝin."

Li unue min rigardegis, tiam li ekkriis "Ho vi bona kara estaĵino, diru al
mi vian nomon kaj adreson. Mi repagos ĝin al vi."

"Ne," mi diris. "Donu ŝilingon kiam vi havos monon, al iu via kunulo kiu
ĝin bezonas."

"Fraŭlino, neniam mi ne faris tion, diru al mi tamen vian nomon, por ke

mi ĵuru je ĝi!"

Mi petis lin neniam blasfemi, sed mi diris al li mian nomon kaj, kun
manpremo, ni disigis.
Unu el miaj amikoj, pastro kiu pli frue estis advokato, alvenis al mi kaj
sin turnis por akompani min. Mi kredas ke, vidante la manpremon, li
pensis ke mi monon donacis, ĉar li ekkomencis longan predikon pri la
malbonmoreco de nediskreta almozdono. Li min sciigis ke oni multege
oferdonis pro la 2,000 senlaboruloj, ke komitato el viroj saĝaj kaj
sindonemaj informiĝis pri ĉies karaktero, tial ke nur merituloj ricevu
helpon.

Mi lin demandis ĉu li konsilis al la malmerituloj ŝteli, sin mortigi, aŭ morti

pro malsato, sed li ne bonvolis respondi al rimarko tiel nerespektoplena.

Li anstataŭe sciigis min ke mi devos aĉeti biletojn por doni al la

almozuloj, tiel certigante, ke mia mono elspeziĝos en pano, kaj ne en
biero kaj alkoholo.

Enfine li min preskaŭ konvinkis ke mi grave pekis, kaj dum du tagoj mi

pentis pro mia memindulgo. Mi ne aĉetis biletojn, ĉar ĝis la venonta
monato mi ne havus monon.

La kvaran tagon mi vekiĝis feliĉa, ĉar mi pensis: "Ne estas certe ke mi

helpis al friponoj kaj ankaŭ la plej malvirtulojn iafoje plibonigis bonaĵo."

Post iom da tempo oni aŭdis malbonajn raportojn pri la mirinde

organizita help-komitato. Centoj da homoj devis ĉiutage stari multajn
horojn sur la stratoj por atendi sian vicon por enskribi siajn nomojn kaj
adresojn. Neniu el ili ricevis nutraĵon, sed, la morgaŭan tagon ili devis
denove atendi (ofte dum sep horoj) sur la stratoj por ricevi panbiletojn
kiujn ili devis porti al bakistoj por havi panon por du tagoj. De tagmezo
ĝis la tria aŭ kvara horo de mateno la stratoj, en kiuj loĝis tiuj bakistoj
amasiĝis de viroj kaj kelkaj virinoj kies edzoj ne plu povis marŝi. La plej
fortaj baraktis al la butikoj kaj frue ricevis panon, la plej malfortaj
nenion ricevis, kaj ofte tiujn ĉi svenis kaj estis forportataj hejmen de la
policanoj. Policanoj ankaŭ devis aresti pli ol 200 da ebriuloj kiuj,
ricevinte panon, ĝin forportis al la drinkejo por ĝin ŝanĝi kontraŭ
alkoholo.

Kiam mi eltrovis ke tiuj ĉi famoj ne estis neigeblaj, mi pensis: "Pli bone

estis agi memstare ol konfidi en komitato el viroj tiel saĝaj kaj
sindonemaj!"

Eble mi eraris, sed estas malnova proverbo: Kion vi atendas de porko, se

ne blekon, kio signifas: Kion vi atendas de tre maljuna virino se ne
sentimentalan malsaĝecon.

MEMOROJ PRI IRLANDO.

Originale verkita de Florence A. Meigh.

Kvankam oni ofte aŭdas malafablajn rimarkojn pri Irlando kaj la tieaj
malriĉaj loĝantoj, ĝi estas sendube tre interesa lando kie pasigi la
somerajn libertempojn. Aparte de la belegaj pejzaĝoj kaj interesaj
antikvaj konstruaĵoj, oni allogiĝas per la kuriozaj kutimoj, spirito kaj
boneco de la vilaĝanoj. Eble multe da la eraraj ideoj pri ili deveniĝis de
la pentraĵoj kiujn oni kelkafoje vidas, kiuj image ilustras "Irlandan
Vivon." Tiuj ĉi ofte estas tiel ridindaj, kiel ili estas malkorektaj; kaj se oni
demandus de malklera Angla laboristo "Kiel vivadas la Irlandano?" Eble li
dirus "Li estas viro kiu manĝas nur terpomojn kaj loĝas ĉe malgranda
malpura dometo, kune kun siaj porkoj, kortbirdoj kaj azeno." Certe mi
ofte estas vidinta la kortbirdojn en la kuirejo, sed nur unufoje mi estas
vidinta la porkon dormanta paceme sur la pordŝtupo kun la nudpiedaj
geknaboj ludantaj apude. La malaltaj dometoj kun blankigitaj muroj kaj
dikaj pajlaj tegmentoj estas tre pentrindaj; sed malfeliĉe la luantoj ne
ĉiam sin ĝenas pri la eksteraj riparoj ĉar mi rimarkis kelkafoje, ke kiam
la kamentubo rompiĝis, oni ĝin anstataŭis per ligna barelo sen aŭ supro
aŭ malsupro.

La kredemo pri la agoj de la protektanta sanktulo "Patrick" estas tre

kurioza. Estas bonekonata fakto ke estas nek serpentetoj nek bufoj en
Irlando; kaj kiam mi foje demandis Kial? Viro diris al mi ke "La benita
Sanktulo Patrick ilin forpelis maren antaŭ multe de centjaroj" kaj li
montris al mi pentraĵon kiu atestis almenaŭ al sia kontentigo la verecon
de sia raporto. Sed estas kurioza fakto ke, kvankam mi estas preninta tie
kelkajn bufojn, ili ĉiam mortas post mallonga tempo; tiel oni devas
konjekti ke la malbeno de la sanktulo ankoraŭ restas sur la bufa raso!
Kompreneble ĉe la kamparaj kvartaloj oni malofte renkontas
aŭtomobilojn kaj sekve la azeno (kiu estas la precipa ŝargbesto de la
malriĉuloj) prenas tiun ĉi okazon certigi sian obstinegan naturon. Mi
neniam forgesos rajdinte trans marĉego kune kun amiko sur memmova
bicikleto. Ni estis sur longa rekta vojo, kie azeno estis vaginta. Aŭdante
la bruon de la bicikleto li staris por ĉirkaŭrigardi, sed laŭta blovego de la
korno funkciis magie kaj li forkuris antaŭ ni blekante timeme. Je ĉia
posta blovego la ĉaso pli rapidiĝis, ĝis ni preskaŭ flugis. Estis neeble
preterpasi lin ĉar li kuris de flanko ĝis flanko de la vojo; kvankam post
unu mejlo la vojo bonŝance forkiĝis kaj nia amiko rapide diris adiaŭ.

La malgrandaj kamparaj kvartaloj ne ĉiuj posedas preĝejojn kaj la

adorantoj devas ofte veturi kelkajn mejlojn dimanĉe. Mi estas vidinta ok
aŭ naŭ azenojn (kun ŝargoveturiloj) alligitaj al muro apud la preĝejo,
atendante dum la okupintoj sin konfesas. Sed la veturilaj sidejoj estis tre
ridindaj. Oni vere diras ke "Neceseco estas la patrino de elpenso" kaj ĉar
la ŝargoveturiloj ne ĉiuj posedis sidejojn oni estis uzinta ordinarajn
kiurejajn seĝojn; sed historio ne rakontas kio okazus se la veturisto
erare veturis en la defluilon.

Estas malmulte da almozuloj en Irlando sed ilia metodo demandi

almozojn estas tre amuziga. Okazis foje ke mi sidiĝis ripozi voj-flanke,
kiam almozulino alproksimiĝis. Ŝi demandis monon per hipokrita,
malforta voĉo kaj diris ke se mi donus al ŝi: "La anĝeloj rekompence
faros mian liton ĉiele." Sed kiam mi rifuzis, ĉar ŝi estis sufiĉe forta por
labori, ŝi formarŝis kaj rapide esprimis la deziron ke: "La diablo venos
kaj enmetos aron de urtikoj en la liton." Ordinare la donaco de
sespencoj elvokas sufiĉajn benadojn por plenigi malgrandan libron.

Oni rakontas ŝercan rakonton pri la longeco de la Irlando mejlo kiu estas
1,440 futoj pli longe ol la Angla mejlo. Foje viro kiu vojaĝis ĉe County
Antrim (kie oni nune kalkulas Angle) demandis de policano "Kiom da
mejloj malproksime estas B—?" La policano respondis "Nu! estas nur 12
mejloj se vi marŝas sur la maldekstra flanko de la vojo, sed, se vi
marŝas sur la dekstra flanko estas 15½ mejloj." Li poste klarigis ke oni
ne estis forpreninta la malnovajn Irlandajn mejlstangojn kiam oni
enmetis la Anglajn sur la kontraŭa flanko de la vojo. Ankaŭ mi ofte estas
rimarkinta ke kiam vilaĝano diras ke estas "nur unu mejlo kaj peco al X
—," la peco estas multe pli longa ol la mejlo!!

Sed tio ĉi estas nur bagatelo kaj oni multe lernas per sperto.

FREMDULO EN FREMDALANDO.

De C. W. T. Reeve.

(Muziko jam verkita presiĝos kiam sufiĉe da mendoj riceviĝis de Sro

Reeve).

Vojaĝinte tra la mondo, Mi alvenis al Londono;

Aŭdis fremdan babilaĵon, Mi ne sciis eĉ la sencon.
Sed sufiĉe, pantomime, Mi divenis facilege.
Tie fraŭlo renkontante, Fianĉinon kaj vidante
Ke la bopatrin’ estonta, Estas eble ne venonta,
Li ĝojiĝas, ŝin salutas. Ĝoj’-esprimojn li elŝutas:

Aj se Gud De! Haŭ du ju du? Baj Ĵov ju du luk fajn!

Pre tek e sit, maj ledi fer, Jur lajk e roz divajn.
Naŭ tek e kek bisajd jur plet. Ajl por aŭt jur ti.
Ju ĉarm mi, dir, Ho du ste hir. Haŭ kud ju se Gud Baj?

Alveninte al Hindujo: Ŝajnis al mi Varmegujo!

Sed agrabla estas ŝanĝo, En la land’ kaj dum vojaĝo.
Ve, mi estis malkontenta, Ke la besto hommanĝanta
Ne troviĝas sur la strato: Nur en kaĝo je la ĉirko.
Iris mi Kortegon Raĵan, Kaj la festsaluton lernis,
Kiun aminduma Hindo, Diras al kort’ danculino:
 Ram ram o meri pijari, Tu bare naĉti haj;
Aŭr tere hi ĥub gane se, Muĝe kuŝ ata haj.
Asman se aji ho? Bolo! Aŭr devi pajdi ho
Ja dunja ki ho? Ganne do, To mera aram ho.

Traduko:

Saluto ho mia karulino, Vi bone dancadas

Via bonega al mi kantado, Plezuron tre donas
Ĉu vi estas de ĉielo? diru! Diino naskiĝis
Aŭ al mond’ apertenas? Sciigu! Tiam mi gojiĝos.
(Ĥoro de Sro Parsons).

Post alveno en Francujo, Mi rapidis al Parizo,

Granda bruo tie regis, Kaj pro tio mi tre miris
Parizanoj gajaj estas, Sinjorinoj min tre ĉarmas.
Veturiloj grandanombre, Forkuradas tre rapide,
Tuj mi vokas kondukiston, Mi veturas la bulvardon
Kondukisto al mi krias, Ĉar kvin frankojn nur mi donas:

Alor vun done pad purbuar. Ah, vre! vu net pa riŝ;

L’ koŝen travaj pa pur la gluar, Il nem pa lez hom ŝiŝ.
La proŝen fua, si vu vule, j’ve vu prete ma burs
E kom sa alor vu pure Akitel prid la kurs!
(Sro Legoffre, du Havre).

Pri belega Italujo Poste mia kor’ sopiris,

Fama land’ de muzikistoj, De poetoj, de pentristoj
Kaj Napoli min altiris, Kies anoj tre feliĉaj
Estas se makaronion Ili povas ĉiam manĝi.
Tie brunan boatiston Mi renkontis, kaj subite
Li ekkantis la kanteton, Karan al Napola koro

Amata Celestina, vjen! al mare a peskar;

La luna alta e in ĉjel; perke in tera star?
La barka mia vita e; la rete e amor,
Affida ti a me, e vjen, e da il tuo kor.
 (Clarence Bicknell, Bordighera).

Tiam havis mi plezuron Formigradi Hispanujon,

Kie polvo, bruo, suno, Hejto, ŝvito ŝajnas puno;
Kaj malbonaj registaroj Estas oftaj kiel gitaroj.
Sed mi tie gaj’ vivadis, Trinkis, dancis kaj kantadis
Kun ĝojegaj gejunuloj. Kaj ni ŝajnis frenezuloj
Kiam bovojn salutante, Ni foriris ekkantante:

Vívan tóros i toréros, Sol i alegría!

Ole por las morenítas D’ esta kompaníja!
Abanikos i mantíljas, Flóres en la peĉo,—
Mi pobre korasón está Róto i deséĉo!
(Norman Maclean, Aguilas).

LA ORA HORO (ELFED).

Tradukita el la Kimra Esperanten de Pastro T. Eli Evans.

Ar ganol dyddiau trymaidd Daw ambell awr, mor euraidd!

Nid hafddydd goreu’r ddaear All fagu awr mor hawddgar.
Daw’n wyn o dragwyddolfyd, Gan hedfan drwy ein hadfyd.
Bu’r gwlith sydd ar ei haden, Un waith ar winwydd Eden.
Dros Fryn y Cariad hedodd, Ar fraich y Groes disgyhodd
Cyffyrddodd gwaed a’i gwenfron A daeth yn nes at ddynion.
Ar ganol dyddiau trymaidd Mae’n d’od—yr awr nefolaidd.

Meze de malĝoja tago Jen venas la ora horo!

La plej bela somer-tago Ne povas doni tian horon!
Ĝi venas blank’ el l’ eterno Kaj flugas tra mizero nia
La roso sur ĝia flugilo Ja venis el Paradizo
Super la montet’ da Amo Kaj ripozis sur la Kruco.
Ĝian bruston sango tuŝis, Ĉe la homaro ĝi venis.
 Meze de malĝoja tago Venas—la ĉiela horo.

Dio ofte punas sekretajn pekojn per publika honto.

Ĉio en Dio estas mirinda, kaj Dio estas mirinda en ĉio.

La Sanktulo preferas havi Dion sen ĉielo, ol Ĉielon sen Dio.

Kelkaj trompas siajn korojn, kaj, ĉe aliaj, la koroj trompas ilin mem.

Meriti honoron sen ricevi ĝin estas pli bone ol ricevi honoron sen meriti
ĝin.

La vero ne estas en tiu, kiu ne estas en la vero.

Li, kiu ne prenos ekzemplon de aliaj, estos farata ekzemplon por aliaj.

Peko estas en ĉiu sankta homo, sed ĉiu sankta homo ne estas en peko.

KRESPO[1] PUNTA.

(Recepto eltirita el "Annales Politiques et Litteraires").

Tradukita A. Vuillaume (Stenay).

Materialo.

Tri ovoj.
Sama pezo da sukero.
Sama pezo da tritika faruno.
Sama pezo da freŝa butero.
Da lakto sufiĉa kvanto.

Metodo.
Miksu la sukeron kune kun la faruno, rompu la ovojn, agitu la tuton
aldonante la varmetigitan buteron. Varmetigu lakton, kaj ĝin verŝu iom
post iom, evitante sekajn amasetojn. Parfumu per vanilo aŭ rumo. Hejtu
paton, ŝmiru ĝin zorge kaj tenu ĝin iom klina, prenu unu kuleron da
pasto, lasu ĝin flui en la paton donante al la kulero alternan movon, por
ke la pasto sterniĝu unuforme kaj maldike. Tuj kiam la krespo estas
orkolorigita, elprenu ĝin per tranĉilo, volvu ĝin ĉirkaŭ la tranĉila ŝtala
plato kaj metu sur pladon.

Tiuj krespoj, nomataj ankaŭ volvitaj krespoj, estas tre bonaj kiam ili
estas varmaj, sed ne malpli bonaj kiam ili estas malvarmaj. Oni povas
ilin konservi almenaŭ dum ok tagoj, se oni zorgas enmeti ilin en ladan
keston.

PIEDNOTO:

[1] Krespo (France, crêpe; Angle, Pancake)

speco de kukaĵo, kiun oni manĝas ordinare
dum la Grasa Mardo, t.e., la tago kiu
finigas la karnavalon.

SAĜA HUNDO!

Viro, kiu zorgis grandan hundon por amiko kiu vojaĝis eksterlande,
malplaĉiĝis ĉar la besto ĉiam sidis en la plej bona seĝego.

Unu tagon ideo frapis lin. Li eniris la ĉambron kaj trovis la hundon en lia
kutima loko, tial li marŝis fenestron kaj kriis "Katoj! Katoj!"

La hundo supersaltis kaj kuris al la fenestro, dum la viro sidis seĝegon.

Post kelkaj tagoj la hundo eniris la ĉambron kaj trovis ke lia mastro sidis
seĝegon.

Irinte al la fenestro li bojis laŭte.

La viro leviĝis por vidi tion kio okazas kaj la hundo saltis en la seĝegon.

F. E. Bearne (8225).

LA SINAPSEMERO.

El "La Lumo de Azio" de Sir Edwin Arnold.

Versigita de A. Motteau.

... Kaj kiam ili trafis riverbordon,

Klinante sin, per manlevad’ salutis
Virino juna, dolĉokula; plore
Ŝi diris al la Majstro:—Ĉefsinjoro,
En figarbejo loĝas mi, kaj nutris
Fileton mian; lude, tra florejo
Kuranta li eltrovis serpenteton;
Ĉi-tiu ĉirkaŭ lia manradiko
Sin volvis, dum la knabo ride tuŝis
La buŝon kaj forklangon de l’ rampaĵo.
Sed baldaŭ li paliĝis kaj subite
Ne movis. Mi la kaŭzon nek komprenis,
Nek kial liaj lipoj lasis mamon.

—"Li veneniĝis!" al mi diris iu;

Alia eĉ aldonis: "Tuj li mortos."

La karan idon mi ne volas perdi;

Mi petis do el ili kuracilon
Por lumredoni al okuloj liaj;
Ĉar estas tre malgranda la kismarko,
Kaj serpenteto povus nek malami,
Nek suferigi mian etan filon!

Sed, iu diris: "Estas jen sanktulo;

Sur la monteton nun li ĵus alvenis.
Demandu al la flavrobvesta viro
Ĉu kuracil’ ekzistas por malsano
De via filo." Tial mi tremanta
Tuj venis al vi, diefrunta Majstro,
Kaj plore malteginta la vizaĝon
De l’ kara infaneto, mi vin petis
Sciigi al mi ĉu ekzistas herboj
Por resanigi lin. Vi, Ĉefsinjoro,
Ne min forpuŝis; dolĉe vi rigardis
Kaj ame palpis la idetajn vangojn;
Sed lin vi revualis kaj tuj diris:
"Jes, fratineto, estas io taŭga
Por resanigi vin kaj vian idon,
Se baldaŭ ĝin vi povos al mi doni.
Mi petas, trovu da sinapo nigra
Nur eron, sed ne ĝin akceptu
El domo kie patro aŭ patrino,
Infano aŭ servisto iam mortis.
Bonege estos se tielan grenon
Vi povos trovi."
Tiel vi parolis,
Ho, Ĉefsinjoro!
Diris nun la Majstro
Kompate: "Jes, precize miajn vortojn
Vi ĵus ripetis, ho, Kisagotami!
Sed, ĉu vi trovis la sinapsemeron?"

Mi iris, Majstro, kun l’ infan’ malvarma,

Al brusto lin premante, mi petegis
En ĉiun homloĝejon, tra la ĵunglo,
Kaj tra la urbo:—"Al mi ĉu bonvole
Vi donos eron da sinapo nigra?"
Kaj kiu tion havis al mi donis,
(Ĉar helpas malriĉulojn malriĉuloj).
Sed kiam mi demandis ĉu en domo
De tiaj geamikoj iu mortis,
Aŭ patro aŭ patrin’, infan’, servisto?
Tuj ili diris:—"Ho, fratino kara!
Demando via tute stranga ŝajnas:
Mortintoj tre superas la vivantoj!"

Dolore do mi tuj redonis eron,

Por aliloken iri. Sed mi aŭdis:
"Jen estas grajno, sed ni perdis sklavon;
Jen estas ero, sed la mastro mortis;
Jen estas semo, sed semisto mortis
Dum l’ intertemp’ de pluvoj al rikolto."

Nenian domon trovis mi grenhavan

En kiu, Majstro, jam neniu mortis.

La senridetan idon malvarmegan

Sub river-vinberlaŭbo mi kuŝigis,
Por veni ree al vi piedkisi,
Kaj peti por sinapa sem’ sen morto:
Sed mi tre timas ke l’ infano mia
Hieraŭ mortis, kiel iu diris.

Fratino mia, diris nun la Majstro,

Vi trovis, dum vi serĉis neeblaĵon,
Balzamon laŭan, kaj gravegan scion.
Mortinta jam sur via brust’ hieraŭ
Ripozis via ido. Karulino,
Vi scias nun ke la homar’ tutmonda
Kortuŝe vian perdon vere ploras:
Dolor’ de ĉiuj malgrandigu via!
Ho ve! volonte mi la sangon mian
Elverŝus por haltigi viajn larmojn,
Se povus tio de l’ malbeno homa
 La kaŭzon trovi. Kial amo sankta
Fariĝas agonio? Kial milionojn
Da homoj, tra la floroj, oni trenas
Al oferado sanga, kiel brutojn?

La knabon enterigu—dum mi serĉas.

LA FRATOJ DE BIRCHINGTON’.

(Legendo de la Insulo de Thanet, Anglolando).

Originale verkita de Sydney H. Emptage.

De la enŝipigejo de nia urbo, Margate, rigardante al la Okcidento, oni

povas vidi, malproksime de proksimume naŭ mejloj, du altajn turojn de
tute similaj vidiĝoj, kiuj elstaras kontraŭ la horizonto sur la ekstrema
rando de la krutaĵo. Tiuj turoj—kiujn oni nomas "Reculvers’"—estas la
restaĵo de antikva monaĥa preĝejo, konstruita antaŭ multe da centjaroj,
kaj jam utiligita dum la regado de nia Henriko IIa. (jarojn 1135-1154).
Nu, oni diras, ke la turoj ne estis parto de la originala preĝejo. Oni
rakontos al vi du diversajn legendojn, laŭ la gusto de la rakontanto—
unue, ke ili estis aldonitaj de abatino, kiel dankpago ĉar ŝi saviĝis el
terurega ŝippereo—due, ke konstruis ilin la "Fratoj de Birchington’,"
ankaŭ kiel dankpago. Jen sube la dua legendo, laŭ niaj lokaj saĝuloj.

Kiam regadis nia Henriko IIa., en Reculvers vilaĝo staris sentura

monaĥejo, en kiu loĝadis kiel ĉefabato certa Rikardo de Birchington’,
saĝa, bona, religia homo, kiu preĝis, fastis kaj pentofaris senĉese; li
estis mondfama pro sia sankteco. Vere feliĉa homo—laŭ sia idealo—oni
pensus, kvankam li ne dormadis sur lito de rozoj; sed neniu povas ĝui
perfektan feliĉecon, kaj li havis sian dornan kronon. Ĝi estis efektive lia
frato Roberto, ankaŭ "de Birchington’." Tiu ĉi kavaliro tute similis al
Rikardo—ekstere, tio estas, kaj nur ekstere, ĉar li ne estis sanktulo—kaj
el tiu simileco kreskis ĉiuj specoj da malplaĉaĵoj. Roberto mokis sian
fraton; drinkis, blasfemis, eĉ mortigis kaj ĉiam serĉadis okazon por
ĉagreni lin. Malbonaj viroj, kiuj malamis la ĉefabaton, aŭdinte pri certaj
pekoj de Roberto, ofte diris kun palpebrumo—"Ho jes! ni bone scias, sed
... ĉu li ne estis Rikĉjo?" Tiaj kalumnioj treege vundis la bonulon, sed li
pacience suferis kaj nenion diris.

Nu, la Princo de la Mallumo ekzamenis sian nigran libregon, en kiu li

konservas registron de la pekemaj homoj, kaj ekvidante sub la
flamskribita nomo de "R—— de Birchington’" grandegan nombron da
pekoj, li alvokis diableton kaj ordonis al li:—

"Supreniru teren kaj alportu tien ĉi la viron, kies nomo aperas sur tiu ĉi
surskribeto. Mi trovas, ke lia ŝuldo tro pligrandiĝas, kaj li devos elpagi
ĝin tiun tagon mem. Foriru!"

La morgaŭan tagon, la monaĥoj serĉadis ilian ĉefon, kiu estis

malaperinta.

Kie li estis? Nek en kelo, nek en preĝejo; li tute neniiĝis. Maltrankvile ili
atendis lian revenon ĝis la tagmezo, kiam palvizaĝa vilaĝano rapide
enkuris por sciigi ke li ĵus trovis la ĉefabaton en la kamparo mortinta.

Sekvis kriado, plorego, malĝojo; preĝas la monaĥaro, terurplena:

sonadas la mortsonoriloj, kaj la vilaĝo, kies anoj tre amis la mortinton,
alprenis funebran vidiĝon, silente bedaŭrante ĝian perdon.

Subite, en la mortĉambron, aperis la Sanktulo Thomas à Beckett. Kvazaŭ

per magio la bruego ĉesis, la sonorilado silentiĝis.

La Sanktulo benis la kunvenon, ĉirkaŭrigardis kaj diris:

"Kion vi havas, miaj filoj? Pro kio vi ploregas?"

Ili unuvoĉe respondis "La ĉefabato."

Sankt’ Thomas’ alproksimiĝis la mortulon, ekridetis, poste sulkigis, kaj

fine rimarkis:
"Ha! mi tiel pensis. La Diablo havas lin."

Je tiuj vortoj, teruro revenis al la aŭdintoj, kiuj tuj rekomencis murmuri

preĝojn, sed la Sanktulo trankviligis ilin, elstreĉante la brakon kaj
dirante:—

"Ne timu, miaj filoj. Satano estas vere multepova, sed li ne povas venki
min, kiu estas ankoraŭ pli multepova. Mi devigos lin revivigi mian fraton,
Rikardon."

Li forte frapigis kontraŭ la ŝtonoj sian episkopan bastonon. La tero

ekskuis kaj malfermis. Sur kolono da fajro elsaltis Satano, grincante la
dentojn kaj tremante pro kolero; sub brako li portis la nigran libregon.
La monaĥoj ankaŭ ektremis—ne pro kolero—ĉar la Diablo ŝajnis minaci
ilin; sed Sankt’ Thomas’ eĉ ne paliĝis.

"Bone, perfidulo!" li kriegis, "ĉu vi jam alvenas? Kion vi faras, serpento?

Vi kredis ke vi povos ŝteli la puran animon de estonta Sanktulo, ne vere?
Nu, vi multe eraris. Reportu ĝin sen ŝanceliĝo, kaj remetu ĝin en la
korpon de tiu mortulo. Ne rifuzu! ĉar mi avertas vin ... nu, la Infero
sendube havas ĝiajn turmentojn, sed je tia okazo mi elpensos por vi iajn
ĝis nun nesonĝeblajn."

Satano altigis la ŝultrojn, kaj malbenis sian malbonŝancon, sed li tamen

respondis kun respekto.

"Pardonu min, Sankta Moŝto, mi petegas, ĉar tio ne estis mia kulpo. Vi
baldaŭe vidos ke mi havis rajton. Rigardu en mian libregon jen aperas la
nomo—"R—— de Birchington’, kavaliro, loĝanto en Reculvers." Nu, li
estis Rikardo—aŭ R—— de Birchington’, li loĝadis ĉe Reculvers; ke li estis
pastro anstataŭ kavaliro ne estas mia eraro, sed de mia sekretario, kiu
malbone enskribis lian profesion. Pura animo?" kaj li ridegis. "Ekzamenu,
mi petas, la kolekton da pekoj."

Sankt’ Thomas’ sulkigis kiel fulmotondro. Per sia bastono, li batadis la

Diablon, samtempe kriante:—

"Tio ĉi eble farigos vin pli zorgema. Vi eraris, idioto. Ĉu vi ne sciis ke

Rikardo havis fraton, Roberton? Ŝtelu lin, se vi volos; li estas malbonulo
kiel vi—sed, vi tuj reportos la animon de tiu sankta homo. Nun, rapidu!
... rapidu!!"

Pro manko da spirado, li ĉesis, kaj Apoljono, kiu vane penis eviti la
fortajn batojn, murmuris kvazaŭ li ploris pro kolero kaj honto:—

"Bone, Via Sankteco ... sed mi jam nuligis la ŝuldon kaj...."

"Rapidu!" interrompis S. Thomas’. "Aŭ mi batos vin denove."

Apenaŭ li finigis la paroladon, kiam la mortulo ternis, oscedis kaj

malfermis la okulojn. La monaĥoj ĝoje alproksimiĝis al li, gratulis pro lia
mirinda reveno al la tera vivado, kaj poste fervore dankegis Sankt’
Thomas’on. Dum ili ĉiuj interparoladis tiamaniere, eniris la ĉambron
Roberto, kiu alvenis por demandi pri sia frato. Li ekdiris:—

"Ho! graseguloj! Ĉu vi ion aŭdis pri...." kaj tuj neniiĝis. La Infera Reĝo,
sidiĝanta en angulo, elpuŝis raŭkan, mokeman ridon, tordante sin de
ĝojo, ĉar li tre ŝatis la konsternemajn vizaĝojn, kiuj ĉiuparte ĉirkaŭturnis,
kvazaŭ por eltrovi la kaŭzon de tia dua malapero.

Sed lia plezuro daŭris nur mallongan tempon. Sankt’ Thomas’ hokis lin
per la kolo, kaj piedfrapis lin per fortaj batoj.

"Kiel? Ankoraŭ?" li demandis. "Ĉu vi jam forgesis tion, kion mi promesis

al vi? Kien vi alsendis Roberton? Al la Infero, sendube. Nu, revenigu lin,
kaj baldaŭe, aŭ...."

"Ne, Sankta Moŝto," plendis la Mallumreĝo. "Rigardu en mian libregon

pro kiom da pekoj li ŝuldas min...."

"Li ŝuldas al vi tute nenion ajn," respondis S. Thomas’. "Ĉar vi mem

certigis ke la ŝuldo estas jam nuligita. Ne penu trompi min, perfidulo!
Memorigu mian averton, kaj montru al ni Roberton."

Post tiu parolado, okazis tondra bruego, kun flama ekbrilo, kaj oni ne
vidis plu la Diablon. Apenaŭ li foriris, kiam la tero denove malfermis, kaj
la korpo de malfeliĉa Roberto, elĵetinta el la truo ĝis la plafono, falis
pezeme sur la ŝtonplatojn.
De tiu tago, la karaktero de Roberto ŝanĝis. Li forlasis sian pekeman
vivadon, konfesis sin kaj longe pentofaris, kiam post senpekigo li eniris
la monaĥejon, en kiu, la legendo ĵuras, neniam antaŭe nek poste,
loĝadis monaĥo tiel pia kaj tiel bonfarema. Siajn posedaĵojn li ĉiujn
vendis, disdonante la plimulton da mono al la malriĉuloj de tiu kvartalo.
La restaĵon li aldonis al simila sumo provizita de Rikardo, kaj iom pli
malfrue la monaĥa preĝejo posedis du altajn kvadratajn turojn, kiujn la
vilaĝanoj nomis "La Dunaskitojn."

Je tiuj ĉi tagoj nur restas fragmentoj de la muroj de la preĝejo mem,

sed dum kaj tra la pasintaj centjaroj fortike elstaradis la frataj turoj, kaj
—al ĉiuj kiuj kredas, aŭ konas la legendon—sendube memorigas tiun
mortigitan Sanktulon "Thomas à Beckett," kiu savis el la teruroj de la
Infero, la animojn de la "Fratoj de Birchington’."

LA PATRUJO DE LA ROZESENCO.

Ilarion Raytcheff (Burgas).

En la naturo ekzistas unu forta odoro al la homo kontentiga, ĝojiga. Mi

priparolas la roz-esencon, kies patrujo estas la Bulgaraj roz-valoj.

La parfumistoj scias ke du-trionoj da la rozesenco en la tuta mondo

eliras el Bulgarujo, ĝi estas pura, natura kaj forta.

Dum la jaro 1903 Bulgarujo sendis kilogramojn da rozesencon kiel

sekvas: Al Anglujo 1,054, Aŭstrujo 64, Belgujo 4, Germanujo 1,027,
Italujo 36, Rusujo 272, Unuigitaj Ŝtatoj 1,467, Turkujo 393, Francujo
1,870, kaj alien 22.

Do 6,210 kilogramoj entute estis forsenditaj.

Tiu ĉi cirkonstanco min devigas rekomendi tiun ĉi komercaĵon de nia
patrujo.

Eksterlandaj fabrikistoj aĉetas ĝin por fari diversajn parfumojn.

Rozesencon oni enmetas en ujojn da diversaj mezuroj, kaj vendas ĝin

proksimume je unu franko po gramo. Se oni volas aĉeti iom da la
esenco, oni skribu tien ĉi pri la dezirata kvanto, sendante poŝtan
mandaton aŭ poŝt markojn laŭ la dirita kosto. Oni plezure plenumos
mendojn de dek gramoj ĝis cent kilogramoj.

Avizo de la Redaktoro.—Mi ricevis de Sro Raytcheff, kiu estas la

Limpagej-estro ĉe Burgas, specimenon de tiu ĉi roz-esenco, kaj tute
senŝancele mi konsilas ke parfumamantoj mendu kelkajn gramojn da la
bonodora komercaĵo kaj tiel ne nur profitu pro Esperanto, ricevante la
veran parfumon, sed ankaŭ tiel montru al niaj Bulgaraj amikoj ke
Esperanto plifaciligas komercajn interrilatojn.

H.B.M.

MIA LIBERTEMPO.

La Redaktoro.

En voiture, s’il vous plaît!

En kupeon, se plaĉos!
And, after the innumerable
Kaj, post la multenombraj trumpet squeaks, whistles and
trompet-blovoj, fajfoj kaj ekkrioj cries which accompany the
kiuj akompanas la forveturon de departure of a French railway
Franca vagonaro, mi ektraveturis train, I commenced to traverse
tiun parton da Esperantujo kiu that section of Esperantoland
kuŝas inter Parizo kaj Marseille.
Jam frumatene mi renkontis which lies between Paris and
niajn bonajn amikojn Srojn Marseilles.
Ducros (patro kaj filo) kaj
Legoffre en Havro, kaj poste, en Already, early, I had met our
tiu malgranda oficejo kiu baldaŭ good friends Messrs. Ducros
plilarĝiĝos, mi havis la plezuron (father and son) and Legoffre in
paroladi por la unua fojo kun Havre, and later on, in that little
Hungaroj. Efektive la Akcia office about to be enlarged, had
Societo, kies estroj estas Dro had the pleasure of speaking for
the first time with Magyars. In
Fruictier kaj Sro Lengyel Pal estas
fact, the Limited Company, of
ja internacia oficejo. Sro Lengyel which Dr. Fruictier and Mr. Paul
kaj lia helpanto nur parolas Lengyel are the mainstays, is
Esperante kaj Hungare, Sro Mann indeed an international office. Mr.
estas Anglo, kaj Dro Fruictier Lengyel and his assistant speak
kompreneble estas Franco. Oni only Esperanto and Magyar, Mr.
do aŭdas nur Esperanton, dum Mann is an Englishman, and Dr.
oni aranĝas la tipliterojn por niaj Fruictier is, of course, a
progresemaj samtempaĵoj, la Frenchman. One therefore only
Lingvo Internacia kaj la hears the Esperanto tongue,
Internacia Scienca Revuo. while the type is set for our
progressive contemporaries, the
Nu, revenante al la skuiga Lingvo Internacia and Internacia
vagonaro, ni estas kvazaŭ en Scienca Revuo.
Anglujo, ĉar ĉiuj kupeanoj estas
Angloj. Well, returning to the joggley
railway train, we are as it were
Pri la mirinda vojaĝo sur la once again in England, for all the
Mediteranea maro ne estas mia travellers are English.
nuna intenco verki. Estas tute
neeble vorte pritrakti tiun temon. Of the wonderful voyage in the
Mi nur skribu ke, post trankvilega Mediterranean it is not my
vojaĝo, simila al la naĝado de present intention to write. It is
cigno sur spegula lageto, ni quite impossible to treat of such
trovas nin ĉe Palma, ĉefurbo de a subject verbally. Let me but
la Hispana insulo Majorca. Mi say that, after a most tranquil
kredas, ke tie ne ankoraŭ journey, resembling the passage
troviĝas Esperantistoj. Pro tio mi of a swan over a mirror-like lake,
devis akompani la aliajn ŝipanojn we find ourselves at Palma, the
kaj atendi ĝis la morgaŭ antaŭ capital of the Spanish island of
ekĝui la specialan privilegion de Majorca. I believe no
la Esperantisto. Esperantists are yet to be found
there. On this account I had to
Sed vere, kiam miaj estimataj accompany my fellow travellers
amikoj Sinjorino kaj Kapitano and wait till the morrow before
Cape-Montrosier kaj ankaŭ Sro commencing to enjoy the special
Bresson renkontis min en Alĝero, privilege of the Esperantist.
kaj kondukis min ĉiam kaj ĉie, la
kunvojaĝantoj ja volus ĝui la But, indeed, when my esteemed
saman afablan kondukadon! friends Mme. and Captain Cape-
Montrosier and M. Bresson met
Efektive, se mi ne estus havinta me in Algiers and conducted me
tiajn gegvidantojn, mi estus everywhere and always, my
timinta eniri la misteran antikvan fellow travellers would indeed
urbon, kie troviĝas la ĉarmego have liked to enjoy the same
de la loko. Sed, post interesega kind guidance!
promenado kun Sinjorino Cape,
kaj post neforgesinda In fact, had I not had such
matenmanĝo ĉe Araba cicerones I should have feared to
restoracio, mi sentis min tute enter that mysterious native
sentima en la novaj ĉirkaŭaĵoj. town, in which the charm of the
locality is to be found. But, after
Tiu transiro de Eŭropo en Afrikon a most interesting walk with
ja postulas tutan volumon da Mme. Cape, and after an
priskribo. unforgettable lunch in an Arab
restaurant, I felt quite fearless in
Mi povus doni la menuon de tiu my new surroundings.
impresiga festo, mi eĉ povus
desegni la grandan lignan This transit from Europe into
kuleron, kiu estis nia sola ilo por Africa demands a volume for
manĝo, sed esprimi la senton description.
esti en tia miksaĵo da nigruloj kaj
diversaj vestoj, mi tute ne povas. I could give the menu of this
impressive meal, I could even
Kaj kia kontrasto! Matene depict the large wooden spoon,
manĝante ĉe Araba domo, kaj which was our only aid, but as
vespere dinante kun la for expressing the feeling of
Esperantistoj ĉe bela salono being in such a medley of black
aŭskultante aron da kleraj folk and varied garments, I am
muzikistoj. quite incapable.

En tiu tago, pli ol iam antaŭe, mi And what a contrast! In the

komprenis kiom mi gajnis, morning eating in an Arab house,
lerninte Esperanton. Miaj and in the evening dining with
kunvojaĝintoj nepre ne povas Esperantists in a fine hall,
havi tiajn plezurajn memorojn de listening to a band of able
la bela "Diamanto de la maro," musicians!
kiel oni poete nomas la blankan
kaj verdan Alĝeron. That day, more than ever before,
did I understand how much I
Estis malĝoja momento kiam mi had gained through having
devis forlasi mian unuan Afrikan learned Esperanto. My fellow
urbon! voyagers can certainly not have
the same pleasing memories of
La sekvantan tagon ni naĝis the "Diamond of the sea," as the
laŭlonge la interesan marbordon, white and verdante Algiers is
kaj posttagmeze granda plimulto poetically called.
da la ŝipanoj tre interese
aŭskultis pro-Esperantan It was a sad moment when I had
paroladan en la salono. Vespere to depart from my first African
oni vidis multajn Unufoliegojn sur city!
la ferdeko.
Next day we glided along the
Estis signifa fakto ke almenaŭ du interesting coastline, and in the
jam aĉetis lernolibrojn, kaj la plej afternoon the majority of the
granda nombro jam konis iom pri passengers listened with interest
la lingvo. to a pro-Esperanto talk in the
saloon. In the evening many
Mia Alĝera sperto tute kuraĝigis Broadsheets were to be seen on
min kiam mi alvenis en tiun the deck.
ĉarmegan urbon, Tunis. Kvankam
mi ne renkontis la tie loĝantajn It is a significant fact that at
Esperantistojn, mi neniel least two had already got
ŝanceliĝis eniri la antikvan urbon,
restoraciojn kaj mond-famajn textbooks, and most knew
bazarojn tute tiel, kiel mi estis de something of the language.
longaj jaroj Tunisano.
My Algerian experience quite
Sed, por miaj nunaj legantoj, ne braced me up when I arrived in
estos konvene, ke mi detale that most charming city, Tunis.
priskribu tiun urbon, sed estos pli Although I did not meet the
bone ke mi tuj rapidu al bela Esperantists residing there, I did
Maltujo, la fruktodona insulo kies not hesitate to enter the Old
estinta historio estas tiel sanga Town, restaurants, and world-
kaj interesplena. famed bazaars just as if I had
resided in Tunis for long years.
Eĉ antaŭ la ŝipo haltis en la
haveno mi rekonis niajn But, for my present readers, it is
energiajn kunbatalantojn, Dron not well that I should describe
Busuttil & Srojn Agius kaj Dominic this city, but better that I should
Chiantar. hasten to beautiful Malta, the
fruitful island whose past history
Tiuj ĉi tri sindonemaj amikoj has been so bloody and full of
afable veturigis min tra la belaj interest.
ĉirkaŭaĵoj, kaj kondukis min en la
luksegan ĉambregon de la Even ere the ship had come to a
antikvaj Kavaliroj de S. Johano, standstill in the harbour I
kaj en diversajn preĝejojn. Ili recognised our energetic
volu denove akceptu miajn comrades, Dr. Busuttil and
dankojn! Messrs. Agius and Dominic
Chiantar.
Kaj ĉiam kaj ĉie la sama lingvo,
sen malfacileco komprenebla! These three devoted friends
kindly drove me over the
Sed ne al Maltujo mi finigis mian beautiful surroundings, and took
Esperantan vagadon, ĉar, post me into the luxurious hall of the
varmega vizito al la interesa Knights of St. John of olden time,
Syracuse, mi trovis ĉe Palermo la and into various churches. Will
afablan Doktoron Nalli, they kindly accept my renewed
Sekretario de la Sicilia Societo. Li thanks!
sindoneme dediĉis al mi tutan
tagon, kaj pruvis al mi ke tiu kiu
ne vizitis Palermon mankis tute And ever the same language,
ĉarman urbegon. intelligible without difficulty!

Tie ankaŭ mi havis bonegan But it was not in Malta that I

matenmanĝon laŭ Palerma terminated my Esperantic
maniero, dum miaj wanderings, for, after a broiling
kunvojaĝantoj perdis pli ol du visit to the interesting Syracuse,
horojn ĉe granda hotelo Franca. I found in Palermo the genial Dr.
Nalli, Secretary of the Sicilian
Kiam en Romo, faru kiel faras Romo! Society. He kindly devoted a
whole day to me, and proved
Ja saĝa proverbo, kaj tiu kiu ne that he who has not visited
sekvas ĝian konsilon neniel Palermo has missed a city of
povos plene ĝui alilandan many charms.
vojaĝon. Sed por ĝin plene
efektivigi estas kompreneble There also I enjoyed an excellent
necese paroli aŭ la nacian aŭ la lunch à la Palermo, while my
internacian lingvon, kaj mi fellow tourists lost more than
persone trovis tiun ĉi la pli facilan two hours waiting in vain at a
kaj plezurigan el la du! French hotel.
Tiun vesperon la menuo de la When in Rome, do as Rome does!
dinero sur la ŝipo presiĝis
Esperante. Truly a wise proverb, and he who
follows it not can in no way fully
Kaj nun, rilate la Esperantistoj, enjoy a foreign tour. But to carry
mia vojaĝo finiĝis. De komenco it out completely it is of course
ĝis fino unu longa senmakula necessary to speak either the
plezurplena transiro de unu national or the international
paradizo ĝis alia. language, and I personally found
the latter the more easy and
Ajaccio kaj Villefranche ne estas pleasurable of the two!
ĝis nun notindaj Esperantaj
luliloj. That evening the menu on board
was printed in Esperanto.
Efektive, miaj legantoj ne devas
malkontentiĝi kiam ili eklernas ke And now, as far as concerns the
mi ne plu vizitis Esperantistojn. Esperantists, my journey had
Krom apud Ajaccio, kie mi
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