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LLB 302 PAKISTAN STUDIES (COMPULSORY) CREDIT HRS. 02
Introduction/Objectives:
 Develop vision of historical perspective, government, politics, contemporary Pakistan, ideological background of Pakistan.
 Study the process of governance, national development, issues arising in the modern age and posing challenges to Pakistan.

Course Contents

Historical Perspective

01 Ideological rationale with special reference to (a) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, (b) Allama Muhammad Iqbal and (c)
Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
02 Factors leading to Muslim separatism

03 People and Land

(i) Indus Civilization. (ii) Muslim advent. (iii) Location and geo-physical features

Government and Politics in Pakistan

Political and constitutional phases:

(i)…1947-58…(ii)…1958-71…(iii)…1971-77…(iv)…1977-88…(v)…1988-99…(vi)…1999 onward

Contemporary Pakistan

01 Economic institutions and issues

02 Society and social structure

03 Ethnicity

04 Foreign policy of Pakistan and challenges

05 Futuristic outlook of Pakistan

06 Economic institutions and issues

 LLB 302 | Pakistan Studies

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Ideology of Pakistan | Factors Leading to Muslim Separatism

1 IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

The ideology of Pakistan is the name of a welfare state where the welfare of the people is considered. It is
the name of steps that were taken for the security of political, social, cultural and economic values as the
progressive Islam.
The Ideology of Pakistan is based on the following major values:
1. Beliefs and Prayers
2. Justice and Equality
3. Promotion of Democracy
4. Fraternity and Brotherhood
5. Rights and Duties of Citizens
6. Two Nation Theory
7. Establishment of Balanced Economic System

Ideology Rationale With Special Reference To (1) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (2)
Allama Muhammad Iqbal (3) Quaid-E-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah

1.1 SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN AND IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first person who used the term "Two-Nation Theory" due to Hindi-Urdu
Controversy in Banaras in 1867. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan declared the Muslims a separate nation. He convinced
the government that there are at least two nations settled in the sub-continent, one of them is Muslims and
the other is Hindus. This theory infused a political spirit among the Muslims and provided them with such a
leadership which gave a new spirit and push to the freedom movement. India was partitioned because of
Two-nation Theory. The independence war of 1857 was one of the turning points of Sir Syed Ahmed's life.
So, he devoted himself to the welfare of the Indians irrespective of their race and religion. But the communal
attitude of the Hindus towards the Muslims compelled him to change his view about them. Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan was a great lover of Islam. He felt very sorry for the pitiful condition of the Muslim nation. His earnest
desire was that the Muslims should regain their lost glory and live in the sub-continent with great dignity.
1.1.1 Pioneer of Two Nation Theory: Sir Syed Ahmed was the pioneer of Two Nation Theory in the sub-
continent. He used the word "Two Nation theory" due to Hindi Urdu Controversy in Banaras in 1867. So, he
declared the Muslims, a Separate Nation. He convinced the government that there were at least two nations
settled in the sub-continent, one of them was Muslims and the other was Hindus. According to him the
Muslims were a separate-nation in every respect because their civilization, culture, language. customs
literature, religion and way of life are different from those of the Hindus. This theory infused a political spirit
and pushed them to the freedom movement. So, India was partitioned because of Two-Nation Theory.
1.1.2 Concept of Muslims as a Nation: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first person who used the word
"Nation" for the Muslims of the sub-continent. In the sub-continent the concept of Muslims as a Nation
developed before the creation of Pakistan. Pakistan was the product of this concept of Nation hood.
1.1.3 Father of Pakistan Movement: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan never, struggled for a separate homeland for the
Muslims and never used the word "Pakistan" in any shape, because the word "Pakistan" was created after
his death and Pakistan became an independent state after his death. But his services for the Muslims of the
sub-continent are considered as first brick laid in the foundation of Pakistan. So he can be regarded as the
father of Pakistan Movement. Maulvi Abdul Haque appreciated the role played by Sir Syed and said that the
first stone of the foundation of Pakistan was laid down by this old man.

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1.1.4 Political Services: The political career of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan began after 1857 He wrote tarikh-i-
Sarkashi Binjnore in 1858 and the same year he wrote another book entitled Asbab-i-Baghawat Hind. He
advised the Muslims not to join All India Congress because it was a communal party of the Hindus and the
Muslims were not in position, to involve into the anti-government activities. But he himself took important
political steps in this regard. He proved the Muslims a separate nation. On the basis of Two Nation Theory,
he demanded for special seats for the Muslims in the local councils. He started a movement against the
open competitive examinations for superior services. In 1883 he also favoured "Separate electorate"
examinations for superior services. In 1883 he also favoured "Separate electorate" for the Muslims In 1864,
he founded the British Indian Association. In 1888, he set up the "Patriotic Association to meet the
propaganda of the Congress. Many Hindus and the Muslims joined that Association. In December 1893 he
founded Muhammadan Defense Association". All these Associations advocated the Muslim's emotions.
1.1.5 Educational Services: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was very anxious to help the Muslims become educated,
especially in modern sciences. He argued that modern education and non- political activities might be the
key towards Muslim advancement. So he launched the Aligarh Movement which produced educated
leadership. 24th May 1875 is an important date in our struggle for a separate Homeland. It was the day
when the first brick of the foundation of Pakistan was laid by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, in the shape of M.A.O
High School in Aligarh.
CONCLUSION: No doubt Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a great patron of the Muslims. His educational. literary,
religious and social services created political awakening among the Muslims. They were enabled to
participate fully in the country's politics. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's fear of Hindus domination sowed the seed
of the "Two Nation Theory". On this basis the All-India Muslim League demanded a separate state for the
Muslims of India. Its main purpose was to protect the political, religious and social rights of the Muslims. Sir
Syed was the great man. because he contributed greatly to the Muslims struggle for their identity. He died
on-27th March 1898 and was buried in Aligarh. He was the man who for nearly half a century led the
Muslims and took them out from the abyss of disintegration.

1.2 ALLAMA MUHAMMAD IQBAL AND IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

Allama Iqbal was one of the Muslim leaders who for the first time gave the concept of a separate state for
the Muslims keeping in view the two-nation theory. But he never used the word of Pakistan in his speeches.
His demand for separate homeland for the Muslims of the sub-continent is considered as the demand for
Pakistan and all his sayings and addresses are considered as the ideology of Pakistan.
1.2.1 Ideology of Islam: In 1930, Allama Iqbal explained the Ideology of Islam and rejected the idea of one
nation. He advocated that the Muslims had a separate nationhood. He said: "The lesson which I learnt from
history is that Islam always helped the Muslims at the time of difficulty but Muslims did not save Islam. Even
today, Ideology of Islam can save your being from destruction by uniting your divided powers."

1.2.2 Reality of Islamic Ideology: In 1937. Allama Iqbal clearly said: "To me capitalism, communism and
other isms of this world have no importance. Islam is the only reality which is the source of salvation. To
have a contract with any other ism is just like to be out of Islam."

1.2.3 Islam is a lively power: Allama Iqbal said in his Allahabad address: "Islam is a lively power which frees
human mind from thought of country and race. If we understand this thing. we can be the leaders of
prominent Indian civilization."

1.2.4 Islam is a complete code of life: Allama Iqbal declared in his presidential address: "Islam encompasses
not only the life of an individual but also the political state for the Muslims as it is complete code of life. The
idea of Islam transcends one beyond the limits of race. colour or country. He said that Islam guides the people
with respect to every aspect of life and I am fully convinced that the Muslims of India will ultimately have to
establish a separate state as they cannot live with Hindus in the United India."

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1.2.5 Muslims are one Nation: Allama Iqbal explained in his presidential address in 1930, "Islam is not the
name of some beliefs and customs but it is a complete code of life.) In Europe, religion is every one's personal
matter which divides the human oneness into two opposite parts i.e. body and soul. In contrast that in Islam,
God, Universe, soul. matter, state and religious places are bound to each other or in other words Muslims
are one nation".

1.2.6 Concept of Two Nation Theory: Allama Iqbal said in his address of Allahabad on 29th December 1930
that “the Hindus and the Muslims are two separate nations. They have no common values. The Muslims
have kept their separate status in India for the last one thousand years. There is a prominent difference
between the ideologies of two nations. Hindus want to have political and economic freedom while Muslims
are fighting for their religious freedom. So the only solution of the differences and problems of both the
nations is the creation of new Islamic State by joining of the north-western Muslims majority areas, Punjab,
N.W.F.P. Sindh and Baluchistan."

1.2.7 Concept of a Separate Muslim State: In 1930, Allama Iqbal gave the concept of an independent state
for the Muslims. He said that the Hindus and the Muslims of the sub-continent could not live together in
one state. Hence, sooner or later, the Muslims would succeed in winning their separate state. He turned
down the idea that only one nation exists in the sub-continent.

1.2.8 Demand of a Separate Muslim State: As a permanent solution to the Hindu Muslim problems, Allama
Iqbal said: "I would like to see the Punjab. NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state
self-government within or without the British Empire. Consolidated formation of north-west Indian Muslims
state appears to me the final destiny of Muslims, at least of north-west India."

1.2.9 Prime duty of all Civilized Nations: Allama Iqbal clearly said that “India is a continent of human groups
belonging to different races, speaking different languages and professing different religions. It was the prime
duty of all civilized nations to show utmost regard and reverence for the religions, principles, cultural and
social values of other nations."

1.2.10 Unity of the Muslim Nation: Allama Iqbal considered that all the Muslims living in any part of the
world from one Nation. Therefore, he gave the message to the Muslims living from shore of Nile to the land
of Kashghar to be for the protection of Haram. He further gave the message to the Nation of unity, equality
fraternity and discrimination on the base of colour caste and creed in Islam. The message of unity of the
Muslim world can be seen in his poetry.

1.3 QUAID-E-AZAM AND IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a great leader of the Muslims of the sub-continent. He started his
political career in 1906 by joining the Indian National Congress. He was elected to the Legislative Council in
1909 He also joined the All India Muslim League in 1913. Now he was member of both the political parties.
Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of self-rule. complete freedom from the British-and on using
extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920. He wanted to implement Islamic
Ideology in Pakistan because the Ideology of Pakistan is Islamic Ideology. So, he delivered his ideas on
different occasions which clearly reflect the Ideology of Pakistan. His some quotations are as follows.

1.3.1 Foundation of Muslim Nation in India: Quaid-e-Azam said that Pakistan came into being when the
first Hindu became a Muslim. He used the term "Nation" for the Muslims of India in February 1935 in
Legislative Assembly. He said that the Muslims are a nation by every definition of the nation. They can adopt
any means to promote and protect their spiritual, moral, economic, social, political and cultural interests.

1.3.2 Pakistan existed for centuries: In his address in Ahmadabad on 29th December 1930, Quid-e-Azam
said that Pakistan existed for centuries & north-west remained a homeland of Muslims. Independent states
of Muslims should be established in these areas, so that they might live according to the teachings of Islam.

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1.3.3 Base of democracy: On the February 1942 he declared, we should base our democracy on the
principles and concepts of Islam. He also said, "Islam teaches equality, justice and fairness to everyone." He
further said: "In reality we had learnt democracy 1300 years ago. So, when you talk about democracy, I
doubt that you have not studied Islam."
1.3.4 Relation of Pakistan and Islam: Quaid-e-Azam considered the Islamic system fully applicable. He
wanted to establish the system of the country on the basis of Quran. In the annual meeting of Muslim league
at Karachi in 1943, He said while clarifying the relation of Pakistan and Islam, "What is that relation which
has made Muslim a single body? What is that rock on which the structure of millat is restored? What is that
base which has secured the safety of the boat of this millat? That relation, rock and base is the Holy Quran"
1.3.5 Islam is a complete code of life: While addressing the students in March 1944, Quaid-e-Azam said:
"Islam is our guide and is a complete code of life." In his speech at Karachi in January 1948 he said: "Islam
guides us in both the spheres, politics and economics. Basic principles of Islam are founded on human dignity,
liberty and justice. Those who are propagating that there would be no constitution based on Islamic Shariat.
should know that Shariat Law are still practicable today as they had been thirteen hundred years ago."
1.3.6 Ideology of Pakistan: While explaining the Ideology of Pakistan in 1946 at Islamia College Peshawar,
Quaid-e-Azam said: "we do not demand Pakistan simply to have a piece of land but we want a laboratory
where we could make experiment on Islamic principles." While addressing at Aligarh he clarified the ideology
of Pakistan in these words: "What was the motive of demand for Pakistan and what was the reason of
separate state for the Muslims? Why was the need felt to divide India? Its reason is neither the narrow
mindedness of the Hindus nor tactics of the British. It is the fundamental demand of Islam?"
1.3.7 Minorities will be fully safeguarded: In a press conference in New Delhi on 14th July, 1947 the Quaid-
e-Azam said, "Minorities which ever community they may belong, will be fully safeguarded-their religion or
faith or belief will be secure. There will be no interference of any kind with their freedom of worship. They
will have full protection with regard to their religion, their faith, their life and culture. They will be in all
respects the citizens of Pakistan without any distinction of the caste and creed."
1.3.8 Aim to the creation of Pakistan: The Quaid-e-Azam said while addressing to the Pakistani Officers in
October, 1947. "Our objective was to create such a state where we could live as free people, where our
culture and civilization could flourish and where Islamic concept of social justice can be implemented."
1.3.9 National Identity of the Muslims: In the light of the history of the sub-continent Quaid-e-Azam argued
that The Muslims are a nation by every definition of the word-nation. They have every right to establish
their separate homeland. They can adopt any means to promote and protect their economic, social, political
and cultural interests.
1.3.10 Elimination of differences: On 21st March 1948 Quaid-e-Azam addressed the people in Dhaka and
said. "I want not to see you to talk as a Sindhi, Balochi, Punjabi and Bengali. What is the fun of saying that
we are Punjabi, Sindhi or Pathan? We are only Muslims."
1.3.11 Criticism of the Western Economic system: On 1st July, 1948 Quaid Azam inaugurated the State Bank
of Pakistan. On this occasion, he said: "If we adopt western economic system, we shall face hurdles in
bringing prosperity for the masses. We shall have to carve our own destiny in a different and unique manner.
We shall have to present such an ideal economic system before the world as is established on the true Islamic
Principles of human equality and social justice."
1.3.12 Muslim Unity: Quaid-e-Azam believed in the force of Islam as he said that Islam is a dynamic force
that can unite the Muslims. On 15 June, 1948 Quaid Azam said to the people of Pakistan "So long as we are
united, we will emerge victorious and strong. If we are not united, we shall become weak and disgraced. We
are all Pakistanis. None of us is Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi and Pathan or Bengali, every one of us should think
feel and act as a Pakistani and we' would feel proud of being Pakistani alone.”

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IMPORTANCE OF IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN: The Muslims of the sub-continent had become a minority due
to the western democracy. but ideology of Pakistan saved the Muslims of the sub-continent and became
the cause of independence. the Muslims of India got freedom and social betterment. owing to ideology of
Pakistan, the people of Pakistan are able, to establish the Islamic society in Pakistan. it created the courage,
honesty, tolerance, bravery equality, fraternity and character building among the people in Pakistan.

2 FACTORS LEADING TO MUSLIM SEPARATISM

There are a few factors which split the inhabitants of the sub-continent into two nations.
2.1 The Evolution of Two-Nation Theory: In the perspective of sub-continent, Two-Nation Theory means
that two major nations, the Muslims and the Hindus, were settled there. The two nations were different
from each other in their religious ideas, the way of living and collective thinking. Their basic principles and
the way of living are different that despite living together for centuries, they could not interact with each
other. The Indian Muslims struggled for their separate state on the basis of Two-Nation Theory and after
accepting this theory as a historical fact, two separate states, Pakistan and India, came into existence. This
theory is also the basis of ideology of Pakistan.
2.2 Religious Differences: Although, India was a highly diverse society, having variety of religions, but the
Hinduism and Islam were the two major religions in India. Muslims believe in one God, and the last prophet.
Whereas, Hindus follow the religion which is based on the concept of multiple Gods.
2.3 Cultural and Social Differences: The Hindus and Muslims belonged to different cultures based on their
divergent outlook towards life. The Hindus and Muslims followed different socio-cultural customs and
traditions. The Hindus burnt their died bodies while Muslims buried them. their language and
communication reflected peculiar and different ways and styles. Hindus and Muslim families which lived in
the same neighborhood for generations could be distinguished at a glance from each other. The clothes,
the foods, the household utensils, the layout of homes, the words of salutation, the gestures and everything
about them was different.
2.4 Economic Differences: After 1857, Muslims economy was crushed and all the trade policies were formed
in such a way so as to destroy the Muslims ambition. They were thrown out of Government services and
their estate and properties were confiscated. However, the Hindus were provided ample opportunities to
make program.
2.5 Educational Differences: The Hindus had advanced in educational field because they readily acquired
English education. The Muslims were not able to acquire modern knowledge so they lacked behind in
education.
2.6 Political Difference: There were many political differences which gave both to the partition of India. The
political differences between the Hindus and Muslims have played an important role in the development
and evolution of Two Nation Theory.
2.6.1 Hindi Urdu Controversy: Hindus and Muslims have different languages. The Muslims and Hindus
wrote and spoke two different languages. The language of the Muslim majority was Urdu and it was written
in Persian Script. On the other hand, the Hindi language was spoken by Hindu majority and it was written in
Devanagari Script. Urdu and Hindi language had the difference in writing, thoughts of poetry, arts, painting
and words of music. In 1867, Hindus demands that Urdu should be written in Hindi Script instead of Persian
script. This created another gap between Hindus and Muslims.
2.6.2 Congress Attitude: The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. It claimed to represent all
communities of India but oppressed all Muslim ideas and supported the Hindus.
2.6.3 Partition of Bengal: In 1905, the partition of Bengal province was divided on administrative grounds,
but Hindu community and Congress itself, launched an agitation against the partition and partition was
canceled in 1911.

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CONCLUSION: The Muslims apprehended that they would lose their identity if they remained a part of
Hindu society. They also came to realize the above-mentioned differences between them and the Hindus
and hence demanded separate electorate on the ground that they were different nation from Hindus.
Hence it is right to say that this theory i.e. two nation theory is the basis of the creation of Pakistan because
without this as a base, Pakistan would not come into being on 14th August ,1947, and we would not be
breathing freely in this open air of Pakistan.

PEOPLE AND LAND

Indus Civilization | Muslim Advent | Location & Geo-physical features

3 INDUS CIVILIZATION

Indus valley is one of the oldest civilizations of the world. A region where these civilizations was developed
had been irrigated mainly by River Indus and its tributary rivers. The signs of this civilization are found in
Sindh at Mohenjo Daro & in Punjab along the River Ravi at Harappa (Sahiwal). About 1500 additional
settlements and signs of this civilization have been discovered in Pakistan and Western India.

3.1 The Period of Indus Valley Civilizations:

The Indus Valley Civilization consisted of three periods:

Primary Period - 3800 BC to 2500 BC

Middle Period - 2500 BC to 1700 BC

Last Period - 1700 BC to 1300 BC

During the primary period, urban life made a great progress. The art of handicrafts flourished. In the middle
period, this civilization progressed well. Many new cities and villages were established. In the end of third
period, the Indus Valley Civilization was inclined towards downfall.

3.2 Important Cities of Indus Valley Civilization:

3.2.1 Mohenjo Daro: It is an ancient city, situated in District Larkana (Sindh). This city was the most
important center of Indus Valley. Indus River flows on its Eastern part. The signs of Indus Valley Civilization
were first discovered in 1922 in Mohenjo Daro during excavation of the land. The things which have been
found here are ornaments, clay, bronze, utensils, seals, carts, boats, toys, statues, spindles and skeletons of
different animals. Bangles and beads of red clay are discovered from here which had been worn by ladies
and children. Along with that precious gems, oyster shells made ornaments had also been used there.

3.2.2 Harappa: It is second most important city of Indus Valley Civilization. From here, a lot of assets have
been discovered of this civilization. Solid clay utensils, seals and system of measures and weights are
included in it. Seals were made of solid clay, silver and copper. The pictures of elephant and humped bull
are more prominent. Tools were made with bronze. Resemblance has been found in objects, which have
been found in both cities, because both cities were the part of the Indus Valley Civilization.

3.3 Relations with Other Contemporary Civilizations

Four most ancient civilizations of the world have been discovered in the world. Egypt, Mesopotamia (Iraq),
Sumeria and the Indus Valley are included in it. The Indus Valley Civilization is considered contemporary of
these ancient civilizations. The Indus Valley Civilization had trade relations with Southern Iran, Iraq, Egypt
and Persian Gulf. The Indus valley among the Tigris and Euphrates, and Nile valley, are also called "Cradle
of Civilizations". It had also commercial and religious relations with Sumerian and Babylon.

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3.4 Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 Religious Beliefs: There have been found the portraits of gods and mother goddesses on stamps,
which reflect that they used to worship the statutes and gods. Clay statues were also made for worshiping
purposes. People used to consider the trees of holy values. Here consider were also worshipped as a custom.
The portraits of the bull, rhinoceros, lion & elephant have been found. The Indus Valley people buried their
dead bodies as well as burnt them.
3.4.2 Social System: The social system was run under a regular administration. It was enforced to keep the
system of weight and measurement correct and according to the standards. Sweepers were bound to keep
streets and paths neat and clean. The society was divided into different sections. Town planning provides
us information about it. Landlords and influential persons resided in upper parts in large and spacious
houses. Separate quarters had also been reserved for servants. Majority of people had been poor. They
lived in lower areas in small houses. Farmers lived in villages, while nomads wandered with herds of cattle
in forests and plains. Artisans and merchants also lived in cities. Grand palaces, temples and tombs were
not seen in cities. Jobs had been allocated among men and women. Women used to grind wheat, weave
cloth and look after the cattle whereas cultivation, commerce and industrialization were specified for men.
Cotton was commerce and industrialization were specified for men. Cotton was cultivated in Indus Valley.
Spindles also have been found in homes which indicate that weaving cloth was also a profession of those
people. Statues of clay and printed cloth gave impression of textile industry. Women used to wear necklace,
strings of beads and bangles for decoration. They were also used to wear "Lahanga" (long skirt). Men used
to wear Shawl.
3.4.3 Script: The people of Indus Valley could read and write. Their mode of writing was very interesting
and complicated. A supreme system of writing was conducted in that period which had 400 symbols.
Merchants, soldiers and political personalities used it. The experts of archaeology department could not
find their meanings till now. Certainly, some experts have formed an idea, that these scripts Script (Writing
System) consisted of more than one language. Many corners of this civilization will be hidden until an expert
does not read the words and the mode of writing of this civilization.
3.4.4 Agriculture: The soil of Indus Valley was fertile. The dependence of its wealth was upon trade and
agriculture. The majority of Indus Valley Civilization consisted of farmers, who made the soil fit for
cultivation purposes after cutting forests. The crops were damaged due to seasonal rains. People retained
the water to make banks on rivers for cultivation. The signs of crops which have been found from
settlements, it is said on this basis that the wheat, millets, barley, vetches, peas, Indian millet, rice, linseed,
mustard-seed and cotton was produced. The signs of dates, melon & grapes have been found among fruits.
3.4.5 Peaceful Society: Few numbers of huge weapons have been found during excavation of cities. The
rulers had not kept large army or police. They maintained the relations with their neighbors and
contemporary civilizations on the basis of peace. The common weapons which have been found during
excavation, can be used only for hunting. This indicates that those people led peaceful life. No proof was
found about assassination & plundering in that society.
3.4.6 The Presence of Bull: Cattle were the part of their lives. A large number of the skeletons of bulls have
been found in Indus Valley. It shows that it was a common practice to rear the bulls. The bull was the most
important animal in their society. Countless seals with bull's picture and clay toys have been found. The
people also used the bull for transportation.
3.4.7 Commercial Activities: The trade of agricultural crops and minerals had been carried among cities and
villages of Indus Valley. Internal trade had been happened by bullock-carts. Weights and scales of
measurements have been found which are made of stones in quadrilateral shape.
3.4.8 Town Planning: The people had excellent knowledge of art of architecture. Cities & towns had been
constructed with great technique & planning. Artisans had known the art of making & baking the bricks.

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They made the foundations of houses profound & deep, strong & also paid attention to exterior beauty.
Houses had been built on the edges of roads of city. Baked bricks were used in their construction. Every
house had bathrooms which had been made towards outer street. Houses had more than one storey.
Ladders had been used to go to upper storey. There was a reasonable arrangement of light and air in houses.
Roads had been constructed with such a style in ancient Harappa that people could easily move among
different towns and streets. Narrow gates had also been made from which a bullock-cart could pass easily
at one time. It has been found by digging that a straight road was one kilometer long and nine meters wide.
3.5 Evacuation of Local Community: People of the Indus Valley were civilized, peaceful and developed, the
Aryan assailants destroyed their graceful civilization. Aryans were Worriers. They had war-horses and
excellent weapons. When Aryans attacked Indus Valley inhabitants, they could not face them. Aryans had
pushed local community towards South-East & became occupants.
3.6 Decline of Indus Valley Civilization: Indus Valley Civilization gained a magnificent place by making a
progress gradually. Its effects had been implemented upon a vast region. But suddenly it had disappeared
in 1500 B.C. It cites had been buried into earth. Its art, religion and culture were invisible from eyesight.
There is a great difference among archaeologists to find the reasons about decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization. It is estimated that both internal and external factors were involved in its decline. Some experts
think that this civilization had come to an end due to natural calamities like earthquakes and floods. Some
experts think that epidemics, diseases played a significant role to undo the Indus Valley Civilization. Drought
was also major cause according to one opinion, because when rivers changed their course then supply of
water had become impossible and this region had become barren. Well populated cities on the banks of
rivers had been utterly destroyed. Some experts think that people intensively cultivated land. They had
finished the fertility of land by cutting the forests. The pastures for animals had come to an end. Some
experts consider that the trade had been finished with Mesopotamia & other contemporary civilizations. A
major portion of income could not have retained due to this reason. When cities and colonies had been
ruined. then people migrated to other places.

4 MUSLIM ADVENTS
4.1 Arrival-of Arabs in the Sub-Continent and the Conquest of Sindh: The Arabs were traders by profession.
Basically, they visit different countries for their trade. They carried their luggage by boats and ships for Egypt
and Syria. The Arabs had established their friendly relations with the people of these regions, due to trade.
The Arabs had also delivered the message of Islam to the people of sub-continent. The Muslim traders had
also settled at the coast of Sri Lanka and western India.
4.2 Reasons of Invasion of Sindh: In 703 A.D, The Governor of Makran Saeed bin Aslam was murdered and
his murderer took refuge with Raja Dahir of Sindh. Hajjaj bin Yousuf demanded the hand over the murderer
but Raja Dahir rejected it. A ship of Arab Muslims who had settled in Sri Lanka carrying trade luggage and
gifts for Hajjaj bin Yusuf. When it reached near the coast of Debal, it was plundered by pirates. They
imprisoned the children as well as women. Hajjaj bin Yusuf wrote a letter to Raja Dahir to recover the
luggage from the pirates. In response to it, Raja Dahir wrote that pirates were out of his control. Hajjaj bin
Yousuf infuriated and his young son-in-law and nephew Muhammad bin Qasim was sent to Sindh with
troops to punish Raja Dahir.
4.3 Conquest of Debal: In 712 A.D. Muhammad bin Qasim reached Debal through Makran and besieged it.
Debal was a famous sea-port of Sindh. Hajjaj Bin Yusuf wrote a letter to Muhammad bin Qasim, "Let Raja
Dahir not cross the River Mehran (Sindh), face the enemy in an open area, keeping in view the organization
of the troops, and win the favor of chiefs of Sindh". Muhammad bin Qasim acted upon these instructions
and succeeded in winning the battle. Forces of Raja came out of the fort and started fighting. The Arabs
fought boldly entered over the fort captured the city. Raja Dahir fled away from the battle field and was
killed later on. The Muslims got. Freedom from the prison of the pirates who were punished heavily. In 712
A. D, Sindh was conquered completely.

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4.4 Conquest of Multan: The province of Multan was also included in the kingdom of Raja Dahir at that
time. It was the center of trade and counted among strong forts. The ruler of Multan was the son of Raja
Dahir’s uncle. Having conquered Sindh, when Muhammad bin Qasim reached Multan, the Raja faced the
Islamic troops b Lit saved his life by his escape. Muhammad bin Qasim found much wealth and treasure
there. The major portion of the booty was divided among the soldiers and the rest was sent to Hajjaj bin
Yusuf in Iraq. This conquest made Hajjaj bin Yusuf very happy.
4.5 Effects of invasion: People of Sindh welcomed Muhammad bin Qasim after the conquest of Sindh.
Muhammad bin Qasim established the rule of equality and justice, which effected the Indian society very
much. The Hindus of low caste embraced Islam by the moral influence and fraternity of Muhammad bin
Qasim and his companions. The Muslims opened schools and Maddarasas to give education. Sanskrit books
were translated into Arabic. After the conquest of Sindh, many scholars, and traders settled in Sindh. The
Arab trade increased along the coastal areas of Baluchistan and Sindh.
A number of religious scholars, writers and poets were emerged and they spread their knowledge. The
Muslims learned Indian sciences like medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Sanskrit books on various
subjects were translated into Arabic. During the reign of Haroon al Rasheed, a number of Hindu scholars
were even invited to Baghdad.
The establishment of Muslim rule also paved way for future propagation of Islam in Sindh and the adjoining
regions. Later Sindh also attracted Ismaili missionaries who were so successful that Sindh passed under
Ismaili rule. With the conquest of Lahore by Mahmud of Ghazni, missionary activity began again under the
aegis of Sufis who were the main agents in the Islamization of the entire region.

5 LOCATION AND GEO-PHYSICAL FEATURES OF PAKISTAN

The official name of Pakistan is Islamic Republic of Pakistan. It covers an area of 796,096 sq. km. Pakistan is
located in the south of the continent of Asia. It is a country having fertile land, lofty plains, rivers and
beautiful valleys.
5.1 LOCATION OF PAKISTAN:
Pakistan is located between latitudes 23° to 37° North, and longitudes 61° to 77° East. India lies in the East,
China in the North, Afghanistan in the North-west, and Iran in the West. The Arabian Sea lies in the South.
5.2 GEO-PHYSICAL FEATURES OF PAKISTAN:
The land of Pakistan can be divided into five major parts with respect to physical features.
1) Mountain Ranges

2) Plateaus

3) Indus Plains

4) Deserts

5) Coastal Areas

1) MOUNTAIN RANGES: High piece of land that has rocky, uneven & steep surface is called mountain.

Pakistan has following mountain ranges:

a) Northern Mountain Ranges
b) Central Mountain Ranges
c) Western Mountain Ranges

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A) Northern Mountain Ranges: These mountains are located in the north of Pakistan. These mountain
ranges make the Northern borders of Pakistan secured to a great extent. They stop the winds coming
from the Arabian Sea and Bengal Gulf causing snow-fall and rain. Their peaks are covered with snow
throughout the year. This snow is a source of supplying our rivers with water throughout the year. We
also get precious wood from these mountains. There are many healthy places in this region where
people go for tourism. Among these places, Murree, Ayubia, Nathiagali, Kaghan, Lipa, Skardu, Swat,
Kalam, Neelam, Bagh, Hunza, Chitral, Yasin, and Gilgit are famous.
The northern mountain ranges include following ranges:
a. Himalayas

i. Sub-Himalayas or Siwalik Hills

ii. Lesser Himalayas
iii. Greater Himalayas
b. Karakoram

c. Hindukush

d. Mountains of Swat and Chitral

a. Himalayas
• Sub-Himalayas or Siwalik: This mountain range is in the east of the River Indus. It is the
southern branch of Himalayas which stretches from east to west. It is also called Siwalik
Mountain Range. Pabbi Hills are its famous hills which are situated in the south of Hazara and
Murree.
• Lesser Himalayas: The Lesser Himalayas lie north of the Sub-Himalayas. This range stretches
from east to west. Pir Panjal is the highest mountain range here. Murree, Ayubia, & Nathiagali
are famous resort places.
• Greater Himalayas: It is one of the highest mountain ranges in the world. It is covered with
snow throughout the year. The beautiful valley of Kashmir is located between the Pir Panjal
and Great Himalayas. The glaciers are found in this region which melt to form rivers. Nanga
Parbat is the highest peak of this range.
b. Karakoram: Karakoram Range stretches from west to east in Kashmir & Gilgit along with the
borders of China. It is in north of Himalayas. The second highest peak in the world is located in this
range. It is called Mount Godwin Austin or K-2. It reaches to height of 8611 meters. Karakoram
Highway passes through this range & leads to China via Khunjerab Pass.
c. Hindukush: The Hindukush Mountain Range is located in the north-west of Pakistan. Most of the
mountains of this range are in Afghanistan. The highest peak of this range is Tirch Mir.
d. Mountains of Swat and Chitral: Small mountain ranges stretch to south of the Hindukush Range.
Between these mountains, there is the Lowari Pass which connects Chitral with Peshawar. It
remains closed in winter due to snow-fall. A tunnel named Lowari Tunnel is constructed here.
Through this tunnel, traffic between Chitral and Peshawar runs throughout the year. The Swat
River, the Panjkora River (Kunar River) and the Chitral River flow between these mountain ranges.

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B) Central Mountain Ranges

1. Salt Range: This mountain range is located in the south of Pothwar Plateau, between River
Jhelum and Indus River. Sakesar is the highest and beautiful place in this range. Deposits of salt,
gypsum and coal are found in this range. Salt Range is also known as Koh-e-Namak.

2. Suleiman Range: The Suleiman Mountain Range stretches from north to south, it starts from
south of River Gomal and reaches to the center of Pakistan. Takht-e-Suleiman is the highest peak.

3. Kirthar Range: This range is located in the south of Suleiman Range, and in the west of Indus
River and west of Lower Indus Plains. It consists of low and barren mountains. Hub river and lyari
River flow from Kirthar towards Arabian Sea.

C) Western Mountain Ranges

1. Koh-e-Sufaid Range: Koh-e-Sufaid stretches from east to west in the south of River Kabul. Khyber
Pass, which is a historic passage between Pakistan and Afghanistan, lies to the north of the Koh-e-
Sufaid. River Kurram flows in the south of Koh-e-Sufaid.

2. Waziristan Hills: This mountain range stretches in the south of River Kurram along the Pak-
Afghan border from north to south. Tochi Pass and Gomal Pass are situated in these hills.

3. Toba Kakar Range: Toba Kakar Mountains is situated along the Afghan border to the south of
Waziristan Hills. It extends from north-east towards south-west till it ends in the north of Quetta.

4. Chaghi Hills and Ras Koh Hills: To the west of Pakistan, along the Afghan border, there lie the
Chaghi Hills. Ras Koh Hills are situated in the south of Chaghi Hills along the border of Iran.

5. Saihan Hills: To the south of Rash Koh, there are Saihan Hills.

6. Central Makran Hills: These hills are situated in Baluchistan. In winter season here is extremely
cold whereas in summers, mild.

7. Hills of Makran Coast: These hills are situated in the west of Saihan Hills. These are low hills.

2) PLATEAUS:
Following are the plateaus situated in Pakistan.

1. Pothwar Plateau: Pothwar Plateau is situated in the north of Salt Range. It is in the middle of River
Jhelum and Indus. Huge reserves of Gypsum, Coal, and mineral oil are found here. River Sawan is an
important one of this area. River Sawan make its valley known as Sawan Valley. The surface of Pothwar
Plateau is badly cracked.

2. Baluchistan Plateau: Baluchistan Plateau is located in the west of Suleiman Range and Kirthar Range.
It is uneven and barren. It receives very low rainfall therefore this region has desert characteristics. To
the north of this Plateau, there are mountain ranges of Chaghi and Toba Kakar. There are lakes with
salty water in the western part of the province of Baluchistan. Among them, the most famous and the
larges one is the Hamoon-e-Mashkel lake.

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3) PLAINS:
A vast, less steepy and comparatively even surface of land is called a plain. These plains are also known
as the food baskets. We can divide the plains of Pakistan into two major parts.
1. Upper Indus Plains: This plain extends from the south of Pothwar Plateau to Mithankot in the Punjab
Province. If we assume Mithankot a base, where all the rivers of the Punjab join the River Indus, the
whole are above Mithankot towards the Panjab will be called the upper Indus Plain. Whereas, the whole
area below Mithankot towards Sindh to the point of Thatha will be the Lower Indus Plain. Towards
north, the Upper Indus Plain is high whereas it is steep towards south. That's why all the large rivers of
Pakistan flow from north towards south. To the west of this plain lies the sand desert. This plain is called
Punjab (land of five rivers). These plains are very fertile. Even before the establishment the United
Punjab was knows as the Home of Grain. These plains of Punjab are playing an important role in meeting
the food requirements of the country.

2. Lower Indus Plains: Below Mithankot, the River Indus forms the shape of a huge river and flows alone
till it reaches Thatta.

4) DESERTS
Desert is an area where annual rainfall rate is less than 250 mm. There are four major deserts in
Pakistan. The major feature of these deserts are the sand dunes.
1. Thar: The eastern part of lower Indus plain is sandy and known as "Thar Desert".

2. Cholistan: Cholistan desert is locally known as "Rohi" and covers the area of Bahawalpur.

3. Thal: The vast area of this desert is situated between River Indus and Jhelum. It covers the districts
of Bhakkar, Khushab, Mianwali, Layyah, Muzafargarh and Jhang.

4. Kharan: The Kharan Desert is a sandy and mountainous desert situated in Baluchistan in south-
western of Pakistan. The terrain is mainly dry, gray-brown sand.

5) COASTAL AREAS
Sindh and Baluchistan form the coastal line of the Arabian Sea. The coastal plain is located on the shore
of Arabian Sea. The coastal area of Pakistan is about 1000 km long and comprises of important sea ports
such as Karachi, Bin Qasim, and Gawadar.

Government and Politics in Pakistan

Political and constitutional phases
a) 1947-58 | b) 1958-71 | c) 1971-77 | d) 1977-88 | e) 1988-99 | f) 1999 onward

6 POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT PHASES

6.1 1947-1958:

6.1.1 Establishment of Pakistan:

Pakistan came into being on 14th August 1947. At that time, Pakistan was consisting of two parts West and
East Pakistan. Quid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan. A
provisional constitution was adopted with some modifications in Indian Act of 1935 until the new
constitution was introduced. According to this constitution Federal System was launched in the country.

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Pakistan had to face many problems after the independence. Liaquat Ali Khan became first Prime Minister
of Pakistan. He got Objectives Resolution passed from Assembly in 1949 and constituted a "Basic Principle
Committee" to draw the new constitution.
6.1.2 Pakistan Objectives Resolution, 1949:
On March 12, 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted a resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan. It was called
the "Objectives Resolution". This resolution occupied prime importance in the formulation of constitution.
The main points of this resolution are as under:
 Sovereignty
 Islamic Legislation
 Federal Government
 Fundamental Rights
 Development of Backward Areas
 Protection of Minorities
 Independence of Judiciary
6.1.3 Salient Features of Constitution of 1956
 Written Constitution
 Flexible Constitution
 Federal Constitution
 Parliamentary System
 Unicameral Legislature
 Independence of Judiciary
 Single Citizenship
 Fundamental Rights
 Official Language
 Islamic Provisions
 Constitutional Institution

6.2 1958-1969

General Muhammad Ayub Khan deposed Iskander Mirza in October 1958. He imposed Martial Law. During
the period of Ayub Khan, the war between Pakistan and India started in 1965. It was the period when Fatima
Jinnah took part in practical politics and contested election against General Ayub Khan. President General
Ayub Khan ruled almost ten years.
6.2.1 Basic Democratic System 1959:
In 1959, the then President introduced a new system of Basic Democracies.
 Union Council & Union Committee
 Tehsil (Sub-district) Council and Thana Council
 District Council
 Divisional Council
 Provincial Advisory Council (PAC)
6.2.2 Salient Features of Constitution of 1962
 Written Constitution  Unicameral Legislature  Islamic Advisory Council
 Federal Constitution  Single Citizenship  National Languages
 Presidential Constitution  Fundamental Rights  Indirect Democracy
 Rigid Constitution  Islamic Provisions

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6.2.3 Regime of General Yahya Khan:

General Muhammad Yahya Khan took over government from General Ayub Khan. First general elections of
Pakistan were held in 1970. In December 1971, East Pakistan was separated and became a new country
named Bangladesh.
6.2.4 Causes of Separation of East Pakistan
 Ayub Khan's Dictatorial Era
 Lack of National Leadership
 Poor Economic Condition
 Negative Role of Hindu Teachers
 Issue of Bengali Language
 Provincial Prejudices
 Territorial Politics of the Politicians
 Conspiracies of Big Powers
 Six Points Formula of Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman
 Bhutto - Mujeeb-ur-Rehman Differences
 Success of Regional Parties
 Military Action
 Hijacking of Ganga Aeroplane
 India's Military Interference

6.3 1971-1977
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the chairman of Pakistan People's Party became the President of Pakistan on 20th
December, 1971, after the separation of East Pakistan. He brought the constitution of 1973 unanimously
approved and started nuclear Programme.
6.3.1 Main Aspects of Economic Reforms
 Nationalization of Industries
 Nationalization of Banks & Insurance Companies
 Land Reforms
 Agricultural Reforms
6.3.2 Salient Features of Constitution of 1973
 Preamble
 Written Constitution
 Federal Constitution
 Semi-Rigid Constitution
 National Language
 Islamic Constitution
 Independent Judiciary
 Parliamentary Constitution
 Constitutional Institutions
 Bicameral Legislature
 Fundamental Rights

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6.4 1977-1988
On 5th July 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq overthrew the Bhutto's government and declared martial law. He ruled
over the country for about 11 years from July 1977 to August 1988.
6.4.1 Major Aspects of the Islamization Process During 1977 – 1988
 Shariah Courts
 Shariat Ordinance
 Zakat and Usher Ordinance
 Abolition of Interest
 Islamiat and Pak Studies as Compulsory Subjects
 Prayer arrangements
 Ehtram-e-Ramzan Ordinance
 Establishing Religious Schools (Madrassas)
 Compulsory study of Arabic

6.4.2 The Era of Government of Muhammad Khan Junejo

In 1985, General Zia-ul-Haq amended 1973 Constitution from parliamentary system to presidential system.
General Zia-ul-Haq become the president for the next five years, and Muhammad Khan Junejo became the
Prime Minister.
 Lifting up Martial Law
 Muhammad Khan Junejo as President of the Muslim League
 Foreign Tour
 Development Programme of Muhammad Khan Junejo's Government
 Ojrhi Camp Disaster
 The Dismissal of the Junejo Government
6.4.3 Afghan Jihad:
The invasion by Russian forces into Afghanistan in 1979 created a new challenge for Pakistan. General Zia-
ul-Haq stood against the intervention of the Russian forces in Afghanistan.
 The beginning of jihad
 Geneva Accord
 The Impact on Pakistani Society

6.5 1988-1999
6.5.1 First Government Era of Benazir Bhutto:
General Elections were held in 1988, and the leader of Pakistan People's Party, Benazir Bhutto was elected
Pakistan's and Islamic world's first woman Prime Minister. But this government remained for one and half
year, when the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan using the powers under Section 58-2-B of the constitution
dismissed the Benazir Bhutto's government and dissolved the assembly.
6.5.1.1 Important Events
 The dissolution of the Baluchistan Assembly
 Presidential Election
 Pakistan rejoins Commonwealth
 Foreign Policy
 Social Welfare
 The Dismissal of Benazir Bhutto's Government

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6.5.2 First Government Era of Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif:

Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1990's election. But his
government remained for two and half years when President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved the assembly
and dismissed government by using the section 58-2-B.

6.5.2.1 Important Events

 Announcement of Agricultural Policy

 Privatization Commission
 Agreement among provinces on water distribution
 Baitul Maal
 Foreign Policy
 National Plans
 The dismissal of Nawaz Sharif's Government

6.5.3 Second Government Era of Benazir Bhutto:

Benazir Bhutto was elected Prime Minister of Pakistan for the second time in October 1993 for the next five
years, but this government remained for three years, when President Farooq Ahmed dismissed the
government and dissolved the assembly by using the section 58-2-B.

6.5.3.1 Important Events

 Development programmes
 Plans for farmers and women
 Eighth 5-year plan
 Foreign visits and the Kashmir Issue
 NWFP Assembly was dissolved
 Dismissal of Benazir Bhutto's Government

6.5.4 Second Government Era of Nawaz Sharif:

New elections were conducted and Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif was again elected as Prime Minister in
February 1997. But on 12th October 1999, General Parvez Musharraf removed the democratic government
of Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif and took over the country.

6.5.4.1 Important Events

 The resignations of Justice Sajjad Ali Shah and President Farooq Ahmed Khan Laghari
 Justice (Retd) Rafiq Tarar elected as President
 Retire debt, adorn the country' scheme
 Rights of vote to Pakistanis abroad
 Restriction on floor crossing
 Census of 1998
 The announcement of an education policy
 Lahore Islamabad Motorway
 The repeal of clause 58-2-B from the 1973 Constitution
 Atomic blasts (Pakistan as Nuclear Power)
 Lahore Declaration
 The entry of army into WAPDA
 Kargil Invasion
 The removal of Nawaz Sharif Government

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6.6 1999 TO ONWARD

6.6.1 The Era of General Pervez Musharraf

On 12th October 1999, the Chief of Army Staff, General Pervez Musharraf suspended the constitution,
overthrew the government of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and dissolved the national and provincial
assemblies.
6.6.1.1 Important Events

 Devolution Plan, 2000

 War on Terrorism
 National Referendum, 2002
 Presidential Election, October 2007 National Re-Conciliation Order
 Benazir Returns to Pakistan
 Provisional Constitutional Order (PCO), 2007
 Imposition of Emergency
 Impacts of emergency on Economy
 Elections 2008
 Death of Benazir Bhutto

6.6.2 The Era of President Asif Ali Zardari & PPP Government

 Long March
 Terrorism and Military Operations (Rah-e-Rast, Rah-e-Nijat, Malakand)
 18th Constitutional Amendment
 Elections 2013

6.6.3 The Third Era of Prime Minister Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif & PML(N) Govt.

 Operation Zarb-e-Azab
 PTI's Azadi March, PAT's Inqilaab March
 Electoral Reforms
 China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
 Rising Economic Growth
 Imprisonment of Nawaz Sharif & Maryam Nawaz
 Shahid Khaqan Abbasi as New Prime Minister
 Elections 2018

6.6.4 The Naya Pakistan of Prime Minister Imran Khan

 NAB Role
 Corruption Scandals
 FATF
 Taxations Reforms

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Contemporary Pakistan
Economic Institutions and Issues | Society and Social Structure | Ethnicity |
Foreign policy of Pakistan and challenges | Futuristic outlook of Pakistan
7 ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND ISSUES
7.1 ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS:
The major economic institutions of Pakistan are as follow:
1. Mining
2. Agriculture
3. Industries
4. Trade & Commerce

7.1.1 MINING:
The Mineral Development Corporation was established for the purposes of development of mineral
resources in Pakistan in 1975. Minerals are divided into two groups, metallic and non-metallic. In Pakistan,
the metallic minerals include iron, copper, chromite, etc. The non-metallic minerals include petroleum,
natural gas, common salt, limestone, marble, gypsum, etc.
1. Petroleum: For human kind, the importance of petroleum and its products is more than all the minerals
used in industries. The important products of petroleum include gasoline, kerosene oil, diesel, mobile oil,
wax and coal tar. There are factories in Pakistan to refine oil. After the establishment of the Oil and Gas
Development Corporation was a lot of progress in oil exploration. The Potohar Plateau in Pakistan is an
ancient region of petroleum production. The oil wells of this area are located in Balkassar. Kho Dhallian,
Joyamir, Manwal, Kot Sarong, Miyal, Aadlhi and Kaaziyan. In Lower Sindh the important oil producing areas
are Khaskheli, Kinaat, Tando Allah Yar and Zamzama. These reserves have an important role in fulfilling the
country's requirements.
2. Natural Gas: Natural gas was discovered in Pakistan in 1952 at Sui. These natural gas reserves are included
in the world's biggest gas reserves. Natural gas is a cheap source of energy. This gas is used not only
domestically but also in industries. Using pipelines, natural gas is transported to nearly all the big cities of
Pakistan. In Punjab there are natural gas reserves in Dhodak, Pirkoh, Dhallian and Miyal. Its reserves are
found in Uch and Zun in Baluchistan and in Khairpur, Mizrani, Saari, Hindi, Kandhkot and Sarang in Sindh.
3. Copper: In ancient times, copper was used only to make coins, utensils, etc. Nowadays in Pakistan, it is
used to make electrical products, especially wires, etc. The copper reserves discovered in Baluchistan in
Districts Chaghi, Saindak, Kalat, Zob and other areas are very important. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa copper
reserves are found in Dir, Chitral and Hazara.
4. Iron Ore: Iron ore was discovered in Pakistan in 1957. Iron ore reserves were discovered in many places
in Pakistan. This includes Kalabagh (District Mianwali) Dol Nisaar (District Chitral), Langrial and Chilghazi
(District Chaghi). Due to difficulties in transportation, there is less profit.
5. Coal: Coal is an important and ancient source of energy. In Pakistan coal is used for products thermal
electricity, baking bricks and for domestic purposes. Presently Pakistan coal mined at Dandot, Padh and
Makarwal in areas of Salt Mountain in the Punjab. In there are coal mines in Thar, Jampir, Sarang and Lakhra.
In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa reserves are found only in Hangu. In Baluchistan mining is being carried out in Sharg,
Degari, Shirin Aab, Mach Bolan and Harnai.
6. Salt: Pakistan has more than 100 million tons of reserves of rock salt. This salt is being used in food as
well as in the chemical industry. In Pakistan huge reserves of rock salt are found in Salt Mountain in Khewra
(District Jhelum). Vast reserves are also found in Kalabagh (District Mianwali), Warcha (District Khushab)
and Bahadur Khel (District Karak). Sea Salt is also obtained from Lasbela and the area near Makran's coast
in Baluchistan, and also from Mauripur (Karachi).

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7. Chromite: Chromite is an important mineral which is mostly used for steel manufacturing. More than 25
large reserves of chromite have been discovered in Pakistan. Chromite is exported to many countries. It is
also used in Karachi Steel Mill. In Baluchistan reserves of chromite are found in Muslim Bagh, Chaghi and
Kharaan. Its reserves have also been discovered in Malakand and Mohmand Agency in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
8. Gypsum: In the preparation of phosphate fertilizer, gypsum is used as a raw material. It is also used in
cement industry, paper manufacturing, plaster of Paris, sulphuric acid, paint and polish industry and also in
rubber industry. In Pakistan gypsum is found in Khewra, Dandot, Daud Khel, Quaidabad, Rohri, Kohat, Dera
Ghazi Khan, Loralai, Sibbi, etc.
9. Limestone: Limestone is a very useful mineral. It is used in glass manufacturing, soap making, paper
manufacturing, cement manufacturing, steel manufacturing, making of bleaching powder, white washing
of building, paint manufacturing, paan, lime and soda ash industry. In Pakistan limestone is mostly found in
northern and western mountainous areas Reserves of limestone are found in Daud Khel, Wah, Rohri,
Hyderabad, Sibbi, Dera Ghazi Khan, Kohat, Nowshera and Khizdaar.
10. Marble: Marble is used for floors and walls of buildings. There are different types and colours of marble
in Pakistan. There are reserves of marble in Mardan, Swat, Nowshera, Hazara, Chaghi, Gilgit and Attock.
11. Sulphur: Sulphur is an important mineral. Sulphur is used in ordnance factories, sulphuric acid, chemical
industries, medicine manufacturing industry, safety match industry, preparation of ammonium sulphate
fertilizer, preparation of paints and colours. Sulphur is found in Sultan Mountains (District Chaghi)
Baluchistan, Sunny (District Kachhi) and Kalat. Sulphur reserves are found in Karachi, Hyderabad in Sindh
and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Peshawar and Chitral.

7.1.2 AGRICULTURE:
Pakistan is an agrarian country. Agriculture plays a very important role in the economy of the country. The
role of agriculture in Pakistan's economy is explained below:
1. Source of food:- Pakistan is in the list of those developing countries where the agriculture is
comprehended as the basic pillar of economy. Man's basic need is food which includes wheat, cotton, rice,
corn, sugar cane, millet, pulses, vegetables and fruit, etc. Agriculture also fulfils the nutritional needs of all
animals. This includes the feed crops of summer and winter.
2. Source of national income:- The agricultural sector has been the main source of national income of the
country since Pakistan was created. Due to this, a development in the agricultural sector leads crease in
national income. This leads to prosperity in the country.
3. Availability of raw material for industries:- The following industries in Pakistan are dependent on the
produce of the agricultural sector: flour mills, sugar mills, rice mills, cotton, textile industry, ghee mills, soap
industry, bread, juice factories and fruit products.
4. Employment opportunities:- A large proportion of Pakistani population is directly or indirectly related to
the agricultural sector. These millions of people are linked to buying and selling in grain markets, fruit and
vegetables markets. The labour force of the country which is approximately 44% is dependent on
agriculture. Many people involved in transportation in the agricultural sector also earn their livelihood in
this manner. In this way agriculture is the biggest profession of the most people in Pakistan.
5. Source of foreign exchange:- Agricultural sector produce leads to agricultural exports. Pakistan earns a
large amount of foreign exchange by exporting produce like rice, cotton and industrial products dependent
on them.
6. Source of economic development:- Nearly 21% of the collective national production of Pakistan is from
the agricultural sector. Not only Pakistan's economic development but also industrial and trade
development are dependent upon agriculture. Agriculture has a very important role in the economic
development of the national economy.

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7.1.2.1 LIVESTOCK:- Livestock rearing plays an important role in the agriculture of Pakistan.
Sheep farming is the popular profession of people living in areas where there are grazing lands. This
has a very important role in the economy of the country. This profession, in difficult times, is a source
of support for farmers, non-farmers and people who do not own land. Bulls are used for ploughing the
land and for transporting crops. Cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, etc. are domestic animals. They are
reared for milk, butter, ghee and meat. Their hides are used for manufacturing leather products. The
govern taken many steps and given facilities to promote livestock rearing. For this a University of
Veterinary and Animal Sciences was established in Lahore He health of animals is taken care of and
research carried out so that healthy animal good breed can be bred. Other steps taken by the
government include import of animals for reproduction purposes, training of related people, ending
customs duty on livestock and dairy imports, etc.
7.1.2.2 FISHING:- Fishing is one of the oldest professions in Pakistan. Fish farming is an artificial
method for reproduction purposes. Fish play an important role in increasing the national income and
overcoming the scarcity of food. This lessens the load placed on the requirement of mutton, beef and
poultry. More than 4 lakh fishermen and their families are related to this profession. Fish is very important
for human nutrition as it is an essential source of protein. The coastal areas of Pakistan are famous for their
shrimps and other kinds of fish. Pakistan's rivers, lakes and fish farms also provide fish.

7.1.3 INDUSTRIES

7.1.3.1 Cottage Industries: An industry or act of production which is carried out in homes or on a small scale
in the category of cottage industries. Cottage industries usually include those in in which Pakistani craftsmen
use old fashioned, simple tools and traditional mi Local raw material is used in these industries. Cottage
industries play an important in the industrial development of a country.
Our famous cottage industries include:
1. Craft of Spinning with a Spinning Wheel

2. Leather Goods Manufacturing

3. Craft of Making Clay Utensils

4. Wood and Iron Craft

5. Different Items of Daily Use from Leaves and Cane

6. Embroidery on Clothes

7. Weaving Cotton, Making Woolen and Jute Items with Hand Tools

8. Metal Goods, and Dagger and Knife Manufacturing

9. Sports Goods Manufacturing

10. Silver and Gold Craft

11. Stone Craft

12. Clay Toys Manufacturing

Handicrafts industry is being carried out in each province and villages of Pakistan since ancient times. It is
practiced according to individual cultures and is still popular today.

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7.1.3.2 Small industries:- In the industrial sector of Pakistan, a large number of people are associated with
small industries. Small industry means that industry which employs 2 to 9 workers and manufactures
different items. A few of our small industries are listed below:
1. Dairy Farm Industry

2. Bee-Keeping Industry

3. Utensil Making Industry

4. Fan, Electric Motor Making Industry

5. Poultry Farming

6. Carpet Weaving

7. Sports Good Manufacturing Industry

8. Manufacturing of Stainless Steel Cutlery, Etc.

7.1.3.3 Large scale industries:- The following large-scale industries in Pakistan are very important:
1. Sugar Industry

2. Iron And Steel Industry

3. Petroleum And Petroleum Products Industry

4. Automobile (Jeeps, Cars) Industry

5. Armaments Industry

6. Heavy Machinery Industry

7. Buses, Tractors Industry-

8. Motorcycle Industry

9. Machinery, T.V. Sets Industry

10. Refrigerator, Air-Conditioner Industry

11. Tobacco and Cigarette Industry

12. Textile and Textile Related Industries

13. Leather and Leather Goods Industry

14. Paper and Paper Products Industry

15. Cosmetics Industry

16. Tyres and Tubes Industry

7.1.4 TRADE & COMMERCE

Some countries have a large quantity of mineral reserves. Other countries are very advanced in the field of
agriculture. Some countries can produce themselves goods for their needs at cheaper rates. Other countries
are obliged to export their manpower to foreign countries. The vast imbalance of goods of needs makes the
basis of the beginning of international trade. Every country wants to limit its needs so that it has to import
very few goods. On the other hand, efforts are made to export larger quantities of goods manufactured in
their country to other countries. This earns foreign exchange.

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7.1.4.1 EXPORTS OF PAKISTAN:

The important exports of Pakistan are as follows:
1. Rice: Pakistan in produces excellent qualities of rice. Trading of rice with foreign countries is of the
supervision of a government organization called Rice Trading Corporation. This o organization buys rice from
private companies and factories and exports to countries: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Abu
Dhabi, Iraq, Iran, Brazil, Libya, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Indonesia, Britain, Canada, Germany and America.
2. Cotton and cotton Products: Different types of cotton is cultivated in our country. Pakistan exports the
following cotton and its products.
(i) Raw cotton: Pakistan's raw cotton is of excellent quality and very fine. It is in great demand in foreign
countries, Pakistan mostly exports raw cotton to Canada, America, Japan, Hong Kong, Britain, Italy, France,
Poland, Germany and Belgium etc.
(ii) Cotton cloth: Cotton cloth plays an important role in the exports of Pakistan. Pakistan mostly exports
cotton cloth to Britain, America, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Russia, Germany, Hong Kong and Poland.
(iii) Cotton yarn: Excellent quality and fine cotton yarn is produced in large quantities in Pakistan. There is
a great demand for it abroad. Countries which import our yarn include Russia, Sudan, America, Poland,
Germany, Iran, Britain, France and some African countries.
(iv) Hosiery goods: Like the other cotton products, the hosiery goods industry in Pakistan is also important.
It produces vests, socks, handkerchiefs, sweaters and towels. Hosiery goods are exported to Middle Eastern
countries, America and Europe.
(v) Readymade garments: Garments manufactured in Pakistan are gaining popularity abroad. Ready.
garments from our country arc exported to Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirate, Iraq, France, Germany,
Britain, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and America.
3. Sports goods: The Pakistani cities of Sialkot and Lahore are famous for the manufacturing of sports goods.
Worth mentioning are the equipment of volleyball, football, carom board. hockey, and cricket. Holland,
Belgium, France, Italy, Britain, Germany and America etc. are important buyers of our sports goods.
4. Leather and leather goods: Animals give us milk, butter and meat. Their hides also help us meet our
various needs. There are many tanneries in Pakistan to dye and prepare leather. Leather has helped in the
development of the shoe making industry and goods like suitcases, bags, jackets, sacks and other products.
Leather goods are mostly exported to Japan, Germany, France, Britain, America, Italy, Russia, Spain, China,
Bangladesh and Middle Eastern countries.
5. Carpets, rugs and mats: Pakistan holds a special position in carpet weaving. Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan,
Jhang, and Sangla Hill are famous for carpet weaving. We export our carpets, rugs and mats to Germany,
Switzerland, Belgium, Italy, France, America and Britain etc.
6. Cement: Pakistan has progressed greatly in the cement industry. After fulfilling national needs, it is
exported to Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrain, India, etc.
7. Surgical Instruments and Medical Equipment: Pakistani manufactured surgical over the world. These
instruments are exported to Latin America, Africa, Britain, France and Germany etc.
8. Fish and fish products: Cal has great importance in human nutrition. Fish from Pakistan is in great demand
all over the world. The following countries are important buyers of our fish and fish products - China, United
Arab Emirates, Thailand, Korca, Malaysia, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Middle East and Sri Lanka etc.
9. Dry fruits, fruits and vegetables: Pakistan exports dry fruits to Italy, Britain, America, Arab countries, Sri
Lanka, Singapore and Malaysia. Fruits and fresh vegetable are exported to Iran, Germany, Middle East and
some countries of Europe. Pickles, sherbets, chutneys, marmalade and jams etc. prepared in Pakistan are
exported to Arab countries.
10. Chemical and pharmaceutical products: In the past many years, chemicals pharmaceutical industry has
greatly progressed. Many countries of Middle East & Africa are buyers of our chemicals & pharmaceuticals.

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7.1.4.2 Imports of Pakistan:

The important imports of Pakistan are given below:

1. Petroleum and Petroleum Products: Pakistan has to spend a great amount of foreign exchange on import
of petroleum. To lessen the amount of foreign exchange spent, many products of petrol and a manufactured
in Pakistan. To fulfil its needs Pakistan imports oil, petrol, diesel petroleum products like plastic etc. from
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Abu Dhabi, Iran and Iraq.
2. Iron and steel: To fulfil the national requirement for iron and to run our factories, steel and its
manufactured products are imported from Germany, Belgium, Britain, France, America Japan, and Australia.
With the help of Russia, we have established a steel mill in Karachi.
3. Machinery: A very big factory for production of iron and heavy machinery has been established at Taxila.
Heavy machinery for different factories is manufactured in Pakistan Nevertheless, electric generators and
excellent quality machinery is imported.
4. Fertilizers: There are many factories in Pakistan which manufacture chemical fertilizers. In order to fulfil
national requirements some types of fertilizers are imported from Iraq, Tunisia, Italy and America.
5. Edible oil: Pakistan imports edible oil mostly from America, Sri Lanka and Malaysia.
6. Tea: Tea is consumed in large quantities in Pakistan. Pakistan imports tea mostly from Bangladesh, Kenya
and Sri Lanka. A lot of foreign exchange is spent on this.
7. Miscellaneous: A large amount of foreign exchange is spent on the import of pharmaceuticals, paper,
armaments, milk products, dry fruits, pulses, electrical goods, computers, pesticides, mobiles and cars.

7.2 THE SOCIOECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

The major socioeconomic institutions of Pakistan are:

1. Education
2. Health
3. Information Technology

7.3 ECONOMIC ISSUES

Pakistan has been facing different challenges regarding to its economy. The economic situation of Pakistan
is very critical and people are looking towards the solution of these challenges faced by the economy of
Pakistan. Pakistan has different opportunities which can help it to solve its economic problem. But without
tackling long term challenges and problems decisively, country will no longer be able to take advantages of
opportunities. Increase in debt, increase in import and decrease in export, low saving, lower investment,
low tax collection, lack of policy implementation, excessive taxation are some of the challenges faced by the
Pakistan's economy. Some of the solutions of these problems are offering low interest rate, collection of
the taxes, proper use of young labor force, use of technology, governance and decentralization.
Decentralization is one of the factors which can help increase the economy of the country. An individual
sitting in capital can't identify the needs of the different areas of country but the local people those are
living there know exactly what they needed, what are their requirements. One has to transfer power to
other, decentralize and delegate authority, provide resources to the local/district governments so that they
can take decisions at their own at district level. District government will take decision according to the
requirement and the needs of the areas. Local government should report to the provincial government
about its activities and provincial government should report to federal government. If our government does
so we can do more by same resources which are being wasted today. Economic growth rate can be raised
from 6-7 percent average to 8-9 percent annually.

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Interest rate is one of the factors which can increase the economy of country. Government can offer low
interest rate to the public so that it becomes easier for the investors to borrow money from the banks and
invest it in their business. Return in the form of interest rate should be low so that people do invest their
money. Borrowing at low interest rate and investing money will increase the level of demand in the
economy. It will increase the demand of labor force to meet the high production level. GDP and living
standard of people will improve.

Tax collection can play a vital role to improve the economy of Pakistan. For the past four years, Pakistan has
witnessed 81 percent rise in tax revenue, which is a big plus for Pakistan. There was 5.4% growth in GDP,
which is highest and the first time in over a decade. Government should allow Federal Board of Revenue
(FBR) to work as impartially, independently and transparently which will make FBR an efficient and effective
tax administration. This will increase the confidence of taxpayers in FBR and increase tax collection in fair
manner. This higher collection of tax can be used for the development of infrastructure. It will help to create
jobs by reducing unemployment and generate income for the millions.

Pakistan is among those countries which has a young labor force which can be bound for its own and global
economy. If we tool these young women and men accurately, we increase the female participation in labor
force, give them knowledge and skills, they can become the labor force for the rest of the world. This will
give immense boost to Pakistan's economy. In 2001, worker allowances were less than a billion dollars;
today we have almost 7-8 billion dollars. Currently this can be multiplied by three or four times if we have
educated labor force i.e. skilled labor force going for foreign employment. This is the best mode to create
employment opportunities because if you have younger people approaching to labor force and you don't
have job opportunities for them you can have social disturbance. Therefore, it is commanding to make
employment opportunities for them and train them in the kind of skills which are not necessary only by the
national economy but also by the international economy. Pakistan can put over 30 million plus population
by drilling training in various fields to meet the market needs in the age group of 25-35.

Technology has been spreading like a wild fire. 5 years ago, not every individual had mobile phone but today
95 million Pakistanis have mobile phones today. This technology can be used to provide individuals banking
services, information on climate/weather, agriculture extension, health, education etc. Technology
particularly the information/communication technology can be used for the betterment of social and
economic problems of Pakistan. Pakistan is making good progress on Business-to-Business (B2B) front as
software industry aims to achieve the goal of $5 billion export mark by year 2020 through software
development and service out-sourcing which will help to improve economy of country.

While there is a crucial need to fix persistent challenges, more innate reforms are required to improve and
attract talent to serve in the businesses and public sector. Instead of politicians, the academics, intellectuals
and community leaders should come forward and play their role in social revolution.

8 SOCIETY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Pakistani society is ethnically diverse yet overwhelmingly Muslim. It is largely rural yet beset by the problems
of hyper-urbanization. Since its independence in 1947, Pakistan has enjoyed a robust and expanding
economy-the average per capita income in the mid-1990s approached the transition line separating low-
income from middle-income countries-but wealth is poorly distributed. A middle-class is emerging, but a
narrow stratum of elite families maintains extremely disproportionate control over the nation's wealth, and
almost one-third of all Pakistanis live in poverty. It is a male-dominated society in which social development
has lagged considerably behind economic change, as revealed by such critical indicators as sanitation, access
to health care, and literacy, especially among females. Increasing population pressure on limited resources,
together with this pattern of social and economic inequity, was causing increased disquietude within the
society in the early 1990s.

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Pakistan was created in 1947, as a homeland for Muslims in South Asia, and about 97 percent of Pakistanis
are Muslim. The founders of Pakistan hoped that religion would provide a coherent focus for national
identity, a focus that would supersede the country's considerable ethnic and linguistic variations. Although
this aspiration has not been completely fulfilled, Islam has been a pervasive presence in Pakistani society,
and debate continues about its appropriate role in national civic life. During the 1990s, Islamic discourse
has been less prominent in political controversy, but the role that Islamic law should play in the country's
affairs and governance remains an important issue.
There is immense regional diversity in Pakistan. Pakhtuns, Baloch, Punjabis, and Sindhis are all Muslim, yet
they have diverse cultural traditions and speak different languages. Ethnic, regional, and-above all- family
loyalties figure far more prominently for the average individual than do national loyalties. Punjabis, the most
numerous ethnic group, predominate in the central government and the military. Baloch, Pakhtuns, and
Sindhis find the Punjabi preponderance at odds with their own aspirations for provincial autonomy. Ethnic
mixing within each province further complicates social and political relations.

8.1 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

No society in the world is static. Children are enrolled to different training institutions for education, training
and transformation of cultural and societal aspects. In big social institutions, besides family, the institutions
of religion, education, politics, welfare and recreation are worth mentioning.
8.1.1 Family: Training is the process of learning and teaching. Good training enables a person to live better
life in society. Family plays an important role in the training of children. It is the important institution of
social training. Parents teach the children how to become good human beings, how to behave and what
type of relations should be developed with the and neighbors. Family transfers and teaches religion, ethics,
arts, habits, values, traditions and languages, etc.
8.1.2 Neighbors: Neighbors hold great importance in society. In rural areas, children spend most of their
time with the children of neighbors. They visit one another's house. They play together. In this surrounding
a child learns a lot.
8.1.3 Religious Institutions: Mosque is the most important institution of our society. Educational
institutions are responsible for the formal and non-formal education. Parents also acquaint their children
with religious education.
8.1.4 Political Institutions: There is a great need of making the people habitual of rules and regulations and
to take necessary steps for their collective welfare. If someone breaks the rules and regulations, he can be
stopped. This policy of need of time has given birth to the political institutions in the society.
8.1.5 Social Training Institutions for Children: Following institutions give social training to the children:
1. Family
2. Religious Institutions
3. Educational Institutions
4. Political Institutions
5. Welfare Institutions
6. Cultural Festivals
8.1.6 Recognition of Various Values: Great and high values exist in all the provinces of Pakistan. Elders are
cured everywhere. Women are respected. Elders treat young ones with love and care. Needy and helpless
people are supported. Regional social problems are solved with mutual collaboration and consensus. They
another in happiness and sorrow. In rural areas, punchaaiti system comprised of elders and learned people,
resolves the conflicts at local level. This system saves them from going to courts and police stations.

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8.1.7 ELEMENTS THAT AFFECT THE VALUES

8.1.7.1 Religion: Every society has its own religious and cultural values; for example, to say Salat, to keep
Roza, to respect Holy Quran and to follow its teaching, consider Hazrat Muhammad (s) the last Nabi of Allah
and to act upon His (-) Sunnah are our religious values. All the values of life revolve around them. Sympathy,
generosity, honesty, nobility, patience, piousness, truth and respect of laws and regulations are called the
Islamic values.
8.1.7.2 Culture: Every society has its own culture, which differentiates it from the other. This difference is
not the symbol of non-confidence rather it is the source of identity, for example language, dress, way of
living, food and customs are the basic elements of culture. Values are greatly promoted in all the cultures
of the world.
8.1.7.3 Education: The more the education is promoted, the more it affects the social values. If education
is given higher priority in a society then it will become an important part of public life to spread education
and to send their children to school.
8.1.7.4 Sports: In Pakistan, sports are also part of curriculum along with formal education. The countries
which give importance to sports outplay others in the playground. In pa games are held which volleyball
etc. Wrestling skills are also liked in Pakistan. "Polo" is popular in Gilgit and northern areas. Hockey is our
national game.

8.1.8 Prominent Social Values in Pakistani Society

Prominent social values in Pakistani society are as under:

8.1.8.1 Marriage: Marriage is a religious and social obligation which is organized in regular manner by both
parties (bride and groom). Government has made a law for the public facilities and to save people from
unnecessary expenditures. It is prohibited by law to serve more than one dish in the marriage ceremonies.
8.1.8.2 The Birth of a Child: Every person acts according to his religious rituals on the birth of child. Right
after the birth of a Muslim child, Azan is recited in his ears. Relatives celebrate the event and present gifts.
Similarly, the people of other religion act according to their traditions.
8.1.8.3 Death Rites: On the death of a person, rites are performed according to his religious beliefs. People
in the surrounding share the grief.

9 ETHNICITY

9.1 DEFINITION: The major ethnic groups of Pakistan include Jatts, Rajputs, Punjabis, Pashtuns, Sindhis,
Saraikis, Muhajirs Baloch, Hindkowans, and Chitralis. Smaller ethnic groups found throughout the nation
include Kashmiris Kalash, Siddi, Burusho, Wakhis, Khowar, Hazara, Shina, Kalyu and Baltis.
Pakistan's census does not include the 1.7 million naturalized refugees from Afghanistan mainly found in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), with significant populations in the cities of Karachi and Quetta. Most of thes
Afghan refugees were born in Pakistan within the last 30 years and are ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks
Baloch and Turkmen.

9.2 MAJOR ETHNIC GROUPS

9.2.1 Punjabi: Punjabis are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group and they are the largest ethnic group in
Pakistan by population, numbering approximately 91 million people and thus consisting of 44.7% of
Pakistan's total population of 200 million. The Punjabis found in Pakistan belong to groups known as
biradaris (literally 'brotherhood'), with further divisions between the zamindar or qoums, traditionally
associated with agriculture, and mocens, traditionally associated with artisanry. Some zamindars are further
divided into castes such as Rajput, Jat, Shaikh, Khatri, Khandowa, Gujjar, Awan, Arain and Syed.

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Ethnicities from neighboring regions such as Kashmiris, Pashtuns and Baluchis also form a sizeable portion
of the population of Punjab, especially in metropolises such as Lahore, Rawalpindi, Sialkot and Faisalabad.
A large number of Punjabis descend from groups historically associated with skilled professions and crafts,
such as the Sunar, Lohar, Kumhar, Tarkhan, Julaha, Mochi, Hajjam, Chhimba Darzi, Teli, Lalari, Qassab,
Mallaah, Dhobi, Mirasi, etc. The Pakistani Punjab is relatively religiously homogenous, with 97% of the
population adhering to Islam (with small Hindu, Sikh and Christian minorities). Notable Punjabi-Pakistanis
include Nobel laureate Abdus Salam, cricketer Wasim Akram and economist Mahbub al Haq.

9.2.2 Pashtuns: Pashtuns (also referred to as Pukhtuns" or "Pathans'), an Indo-Iranian ethno-linguistic

group, are Pakistan's second largest ethnicity (consisting 15% of the population). They are native to the
region known as Pashtunistan, an area west of the Indus River including the provinces of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and northern Baluchistan, constitute a significant diaspora community in the cities of Lahore,
Punjab and Karachi, Sindh and are also a major ethnic group among the 1.7 million Afghan refugees and
asylum-seekers in Pakistan. They speak Pashto, an Iranian language and are divided into tribes such as Afridi
and Yousafzai. They make up an estimated 35 million of Pakistan's total population and are adherent to
Sunni Islam. Notable Pakistani-Pashtuns include former president Ayub Khan, incumbent prime minister
Imran Khan, cricketers Shahid Afridi and Shaheen Afridi, actor Fawad Khan and Nobel Laureate Malala
Yousafzai.

The Sindhis are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the
Sindh province of Pakistan which was previously a part of pre-partition British India. Sindhis are
predominantly Muslim. Sindhi Muslim culture is highly influenced by Sufi doctrines and principles. Some of
the popular cultural icons are Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Jhulelal, Sachal Sarmast and
Shambumal Tulsiani. Notable Pakistani-Sindhi include Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Abdul Sattar Eidhi, Abida Parveen.

9.2.3 Saraikis: Saraikis are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group. Saraikis speak the language Seraiki and are
settled in southern part of Punjab. This is the second largest community in Punjab. There are almost 20
million Saraiki people in Pakistan. Notable Pakistani-Saraiki include Pathanay Khan, Attaullah Esa Khelvi,
Yusuf Raza Gillani.

9.2.4 Muhajirs: Muhajirs (meaning "refugees") are also called "Urdu Speaking people". Muhajirs are a
collective multiethnic group, which emerged by the migration of Indian Muslims from various parts of India
to Pakistan starting in 1947, as a result of world's largest mass migration. Majority of Muhajirs are settled
in Sindh mainly in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur and Mirpur Khas. But there are other parts of Pakistan,
including cities like Lahore, Multan, Islamabad, Peshawar where Muhajirs have sizable community. Muhajirs
held a dominating position during the nation building early years of Pakistan. Most Muslim politicians of
pre-independence era who supported the Pakistan movement were Urdu speakers. The term Muhajir is
also used for descendants of Muslims who migrated to Pakistan after the 1947 partition of India.

9.2.5 Baloch: The Baloch as an Iranic ethnic group are principally found in the east of Baluchistan province
of Pakistan, Despite living south towards the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian sea for centuries, they are
classified as a northwestern Iranic people in accordance to their language which belongs to the
northwestern subgroup of Iranic languages.

According to Dr. Akhtar Baloch, Professor at University of Karachi, the Balochis migrated from Baluchistan
during the Little Ice Age and settled in Sindh and Punjab. The Little Ice Age is conventionally defined as a
period extending from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, or alternatively, from about 1300 to about
1850. Although climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either
the start or end dates of this period, which varied according to local conditions. According to Professor
Baloch, the climate of Baluchistan was very cold and the region was inhabitable during the winter so the
Baloch people migrated in waves and settled in Sindh and Punjab.

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9.2.6 Kashmiris: Kashmiri are a Dardic (subgrouping of Indo-Aryan) ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley
and Azad Kashmir. The majority of Kashmiri Muslims are Sunni. They refer to themselves as "Kashur" in their
mother language. Kashmiri Muslims are descended from Kashmiri Hindus and are also known as 'Sheikhs'.
Presently, the Kashmiri Muslim population is predominantly found in Kashmir Valley. Smaller Kashmiri
communities also live in other regions of the Jammu and Kashmir state. One significant population of
Kashmiris is in the Chenab valley region, which comprises the Doda, Ramban and Kishtwar districts of
Jammu. There are also ethnic Kashmiri populations inhabiting Neelam Valley and Leepa Valley of Azad
Kashmir. Since 1947, many ethnic Kashmiri Muslims also live in Pakistan. Many ethnic Kashmiri Muslims
from the Kashmir Valley also migrated to the Punjab region during Dogra and Sikh rule and adopted the
Punjabi language. Surnames used by Kashmiris living in Punjab include Dar (Dhar), Butt (Bhat), Lone, Mir,
Khuwaja (a term used by converts just like sheikh), Wain (Wani), Sheikh (Saprus), etc. Kashmiri language, or
Kashur, belongs to the Dardic group and is the most widely spoken Dardic language.
9.2.7 Bengalis: Bengalis in Pakistan form at least 1% of Pakistani population. Their roots in Pakistan dates
back to 1940s when the eastern part of Bengal in undivided India joined Pakistan. Between 1947 and 1971,
many Bengalis migrated to Pakistan. Though some returned to Bangladesh after its independence, a small
number remained in Pakistan. Examples of Pakistani Bangladeshis include Jharna Basak, Runa Laila, and
Robin Ghosh.
9.2.8 Brahuis: The Brahui or Brahvi people are a Pakistani ethnic group of about 2.2 million people with the
vast majority found in Baluchistan, Pakistan. They are a small minority group in Afghanistan, where they are
native, but they are also found through their diaspora in Middle Eastern states. They mainly occupy the area
in Baluchistan from Bolan Pass through the Bolan Hills to Ras Muari (Cape Monze) on the Arabian sea,
separating the Baloch people living to the east and west. The Brahuis are almost entirely Sunni Muslims.

9.3 MINOR ETHNIC GROUPS

9.3.1 Hazara: The Hazara people, natives to the present day Hazarajat (Hazaristan), are a Persian-speaking
people mostly residing in all Pakistan and specially in Quetta. Some are citizens of Pakistan while others are
refugees. Genetically, the Hazara are a mixture of Turko-Mongols and Iranian-speaking peoples, and those
of Middle East and Central Asia. The genetic research suggests that they are closely related to the Eurasian
and the Uyghurs. The Pakistani Hazaras estimated population is believed to be more than 1,550,000.
9.3.2 Burusho people: The Burusho or Brusho people live in the Hunza and Yasin valleys of Gilgit-Baltistan
in northern Pakistan. They are predominantly Muslims. Their language, Burushki, has not been shown to be
related to any other language. The Hunzakuts or Hunza people, are an ethnically Burusho people indigenous
to the Hunza Valley, in the Karakorum Mountains of northern Pakistan. They are descended from
inhabitants of the former principality of Hunza. The Hunzas are predominantly Shia Muslims, with many of
them Ismaili.

10 FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN AND CHALLENGES

Foreign policy is a government strategy to deal with other nation. Foreign policy or foreign relations refers
to how a government deals with other countries. We also call it foreign affairs policy. Foreign policy includes
such matters as trade and defence. Pakistan is situated in the south of the continent of Asia; it is a country
of fertile land, mountains, rivers and beautiful valleys. It shares its eastern border with India, northern
border with China, and western border with Afghanistan and Iran whereas to its south is the Arabian Sea.

10.1 OBJECTIVES OF PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY

When a country establishes relations with other countries, it has to abide by some fundamental principles
and objectives. The policy of a state in this regard is called the foreign policy. Following are the objectives
of the foreign policy of Pakistan:

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10.1.1 Territorial sovereignty and security: The main objective of Pakistan's foreign policy the security of
its borders, freedom and sovereignty. When Pakistan emerged on the world map, it was necessary for it to
make appropriate arrangements for the safety and security. Therefore, Pakistan always gave importance to
the security in its relations with foreign countries. National security is always the fundamental objective in
Pakistan's foreign policy. Pakistan respects the territorial sovereignty of other countries and expects the
same from them. India conducted atomic blasts, not keeping in view the national safety of Pakistan,
Pakistan, in return, also conducted atomic blasts. It was a show of strength which gave an evidence of
Pakistan being an atomic power. Pakistan follows the United Nations Charter and is a part of the world's
struggle against the use of force.
10.1.2 Ideological objectives: The ideology and foreign policy of Pakistan are linked together. Pakistan is an
ideological nation with the Islamic base. The main objective of Pakistan's foreign policy is to protect the
ideological borders of Pakistan. The stability of Pakistan is linked to the protection of Pakistan's ideology. It
can protect its ideology only by establishing better relations with the Islamic countries. Therefore, Pakistan
has always maintained good relations with them. In its every constitution, closer relations with the Islamic
countries have always been stressed. Pakistan played an important role in setting up the organisations of
the Islamic Conference and the Economic Cooperation. Wherever the Muslims faced some problems,
Pakistan helped them as much as possible. Conflicts in Palestine, Cyprus, Bosnia, Kashmir, Ethiopia,
Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria are the burning issues of the Muslim world.
10.1.3 Development in financial and economic trends: For the defence of a country, economic aspect has
remarkable effects on foreign policy of a country. Pakistan is a developing country and it wants to progress
economically. Pakistan is wishing to have cordial relations with all those countries which can help Pakistan
financially. Pakistan has made important changes in its foreign policy, keeping in view the recent economic
trends. It has allowed free trade, free economy and privatization. The main reason for close contacts with
the Western countries is economic aid which has made Pakistan closer to America and the Western World.
10.1.4 Cultural enrichment: Different cultural factors have always had an effect on Pakistan's foreign policy.
The Pakistani nation also has the right to protect and show its culture like other countries. Its culture reflects
the Islamic values like tolerance, respect for humanity, modesty, self-respect and courage. Pakistan wants
to develop strong relations with those countries which give an opportunity to promote and preserve
Pakistani culture. Cultural relations are further developing with Islamic states, and cultural troupes are
exchanged among them. Pakistani dresses and other items are liked in other countries. This paves the way
to strengthen relations with other states on cultural level.

10.2 FOREIGN POLICY CHALLENGES TO PAKISTAN

No country in the world can live in isolation, hence, in the independent world foreign policy holds a
significance place. A country without Foreign policy is like a ship without radar which drifts aimlessly in the
water. Pakistan is situated on a hot line where world supply line passed. Pakistan is the member of OIC and
Non NATO alliance against terrorism. Pakistan is world's 42nd largest GDP and 25th largest purchasing
power of the world. To understand the country foreign policy, we need to start with the circumstance from
the beginning.
To formulate foreign policy, Pakistan faces such challenges which are as follow:
Pakistan and India: An adversary is sometimes more important than a friend. Moreover, the majority of
Pakistan's population lives in proximity to the border with India. It is also the only country with which
Pakistan has fought wars and it targets Pakistan with its nuclear weaponry. For Pakistan, India is our only
potential nuclear target. The costs for Pakistan of its relations with India exceed those of its relations with
any other country. How to significantly reduce these costs without compromising Pakistan's principled stand
on major outstanding issues, especially the 'core issue' of Jammu and Kashmir, remains a principal challenge
for our foreign policy.

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War of any kind is not an option for a Kashmir settlement. The United Nations (UN) resolutions must remain
the basis of Pakistan's Kashmir diplomacy although they cannot in reality deliver a settlement. In fact, there
is no short-term solution for Jammu and Kashmir. The international community, including the UN and all
major powers, will not force any Kashmir settlement upon India that is unacceptable to it. Pakistan's nuclear
weapons are also irrelevant to the search for a just Kashmir settlement.
Pakistan cannot stay on a transformational economic growth path of an average of 8.9 per cent per annum
over the next three decades in a state of tension and confrontation with India a country seven times its size
in population, economy and military strength. Accordingly, the search for a broader and long-term strategy
for a Kashmir settlement is inevitable. Any settlement will ultimately entail a principled compromise and it
must pass the test of acceptability to the people of Kashmir. Until that time, the United Nations resolutions
on Jammu and Kashmir must be the basis of Pakistan's stand if it is to remain a relevant party to a settlement
process.
This requires developing a strong working relationship with India, including a comprehensive and structured
dialogue that addresses the core concerns of both countries. This must include the management of nuclear
threats. On this basis, a whole range of revived and new confidence and security building measures (CSBMs)
can provide a good start, beginning possibly with an invitation to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and
other heads of state or government from the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC), Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and Economic Cooperation Organisation
(ECO) to attend the prime minister's inauguration.
Such an approach will be vehemently opposed by the powers that be inside Pakistan. There is also no
guarantee that India will immediately reciprocate Pakistan's initiatives. Public opinion can be deliberately
inflamed. Incidents can happen to thwart such initiatives. Caution, consultation and preparation will be
essential to prevent them. Even more so will be leadership.
Afghanistan: While India is necessarily a longer-term challenge, Afghanistan represents a problem that
should not even exist. Mutual trust can be easily built if Pakistan's policies towards Afghanistan are wise,
generous and sincere. There is no historical basis for animus and hostility. There is no reason for Pakistan's
Afghanistan policy to be 'India-centric". No Afghan will accept that. The Taliban can also never be a strategic
asset for Pakistan if we are to meet the challenges and imperatives of the 21st century. Yes, the Americans
need to leave Afghanistan and, yes, the Islamic State is a greater threat to regional stability than the Taliban
but the Taliban need to morph into a credible interlocutor for credible peace in Afghanistan.
Pakistan should participate in Afghan peace talks without holding a brief for the Taliban. Nor should Pakistan
allow its territory to be used to influence the balance of power inside Afghanistan. That only opens the
floodgates to Afghan resentment and Indian influence in Afghanistan. Our Afghanistan policy has been
short-sighted and self-defeating. It has been formulated in the dark by people who know little about Afghan
history and care less about the Afghan people. Imran Khan will have to ensure that no aspect of Pakistan's
foreign policy remains the preserve of faceless forces.
Let Afghanistan choose its own friends; it will not choose against Pakistan unless Pakistan's follies force it
to, which has happened ever since the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. Within these parameters,
specific issues, including transit trade, border management and refugees, can be easily addressed and a
detailed strategy to develop substantial and wide-ranging bilateral ties can be devised. Historically inherited
issues, such as the differences over the Durand Line, will lose their salience and eventually disappear.
United States: Pakistan also needs to keep in mind that the United States is a global neighbour and will
remain the number one military, economic and technological power for the rest of this century. It cannot
be a strategic partner of Pakistan because it prefers India. Along with India, it targets the China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor (CPEC). Nevertheless, predictable, substantive and mutually satisfactory relations with
the United States are a priority for Pakistan. The costs of gratuitously annoying it are considerable.

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Afghanistan, counterterrorism and Pakistan's nuclear arsenal remain issues of concern for the United States.
Without having to bend a knee, these are not insuperable obstacles for Pakistan especially if it rationalises
its policies and refrains from playing games unrelated to its national interest. The US policy dictation does
not have to be accepted. Nor should Pakistan dress up compliance in the guise of defiance to fool its own
people. To have an honest bilateral relationship with the United States should be a sufficient foreign policy
goal.
China: Retaining Chinese confidence in the viability of Pakistan as a strategic partner, however, is a challenge
that should not be underestimated. Without good governance and a credible foreign policy, Pakistan will
not meet this challenge. CPEC is a golden opportunity, not a magic wand or a free ride. China is shaping up
to be the future of Asia. And Pakistan can be a critical part of this transformation provided Imran Khan
overcomes critical impediments and lays the foundation for a New Pakistan.
11 FUTURISTIC OUTLOOK OF PAKISTAN
The contemporary issues of Pakistan are the institutional, economic, and cultural transformation if the
Pakistan state is to survive future population pressures, with shortage of food, water, and power. In a worst-
case scenario, Pakistan could within the next couple of decades have a population of around 220 million
people, with a water shortage equivalent to over two-thirds of the present flow of the Indus, 6 million of its
youth unemployed, and close on 30 million of its citizens out of school. Both an under-employed youth
bulge and provincial conflicts over diminishing water resources could present even greater threats to
Pakistan's survival.
11.1 THE DEMOGRAPHIC TIME BOMB AND YOUTH BULGE
The phrase 'demographic time bomb' has been used to dramatize Pakistan's expanding population problem.
The present population is predicted to rise to 335 million by 2050, making Pakistan the fourth largest
country in the world. To start with, one of the major obstacles for Pakistani youth is the absence of
employment opportunities. Pakistan has the 9th largest labour force in the world, which is increasing every
year. According to the Labour Force Survey 2017-18, the unemployment rate for the year 2020-21 has been
estimated at 9.56 per cent (22 July, 2022). Improvements in the provision and quality of education will
enable Pakistan to benefit from the youth bulge, rather than suffer from its consequences.
11.2 WATER AND ENERGY CRISIS
Alongside a demographic time, bomb, Pakistan is facing possibly future shortfalls in energy and water
supply. These are obviously linked with growing demands because of population increase, but are also
impacted by climate change and failures of governance and management.
Pakistan's current energy crisis also doesn't mean that its long-term prospects are necessarily as depressing
as they may initially appear. The country possesses vast potential energy supplies; it contains as much future
energy as is available from Saudi Arabia's existing oil reserves. There is great potential also for extending
hydroelectricity supply.
11.3 THE NEED FOR NATIONAL CONSENSUS
Pakistan's different regime path from India has resulted in part from not just weak political
institutionalization inherited from the freedom movement, but a lack of ideational strength. Aside from a
vague commitment to Islam, the Pakistan movement was marked by "negative nationalism' with no vision
for the future. Certainly, Pakistan requires a sense of national purpose in the coming years if it is to achieve
the uphill tasks of educating, feeding, employing, and providing social justice for a rapidly growing
population. This requires coordination and cooperation on a vast scale in a country which has historically
been marked by confrontation and short-term thinking. There has been no consistency of policy except
resistance to Indian military domination. Pressure of events may nudge Pakistan's leaders and its people in
the direction of a national consensus, as was seen in the widespread commitment to tackle militancy in
2009 following the TTP's excesses in Swat. The media explosion of recent years can perhaps play a role here,
but this is not guaranteed.

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11.4 THE REQUIREMENT FOR IMPROVED GOVERNANCE

The governance reforms must include the improvements in delivery of services, tax-rising capabilities, along
with reform to key institutions including the bureaucracy, the military, the police, state-run corporations,
political parties, and electoral processes. To these might be added greater transparency in economic life,
especially with respect to the privatization of loss-making state enterprises. The direction of the changes
would be to empower citizens at the expense of rent-seeking political elites, and increase the resources
available for education and health provision.
The military intervention has undermined political development, national unity, and sustainable economic
growth. Democratic consolidation will only become irreversible with civilian control over the army and with
its expenditures becoming transparent and open for political debate. The reining in of the military influence
can only occur within the context of the kind of national reappraisal of Pakistan's future security
environment.
CONCLUSION
Pakistan faces massive future problems arising from population and environmental pressures. They present
potentially greater challenges to the state. It seems unlikely that Pakistan will be able to muddle through in
the future, as it has done throughout much of its troubled history. During the next two decades, a major
turnaround of national policy direction is required in order to avoid future catastrophe. The responsibility
for this will lie with Pakistan's leader and people, although external well-wishers can assist the process
through financial and technical expertise. A future stable and sustainable Pakistan state will bring immense
benefits to tis population. It will enable the South Asia region to fulfil its economic potential. Failure of a
nuclear weapons state would have global as well as regional repercussions. Until Pakistan has moved
towards economic sustainability and democratic consolidation, it will continue to be the focus of heightened
international concern.

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