Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge

Into the Food Chain

Anna McElhatton
Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi Editors

Modernization of
Traditional Food
Processes and
Products
ISEKI-Food Series
Series editor: Kristberg Kristbergsson University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland

FOOD SAFETY: A Practical and Case Study Approach

Edited by Anna McElhatton and Richard J. Marshall
ODORS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Edited by Xavier Nicolay
UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS AND TREATMENT OF WASTE IN THE FOOD
INDUSTRY
Edited by Vasso Oreopoulou and Winfried Russ
PREDICTIVE MODELING AND RISK ASSESSMENT
Edited by Rui Costa and Kristberg Kristbergsson
EXPERIMENTS IN UNIT OPERATIONS AND PROCESSING OF FOODS
Edited by Maria Margarida Vieira Cortez and Peter Ho
CASE STUDIES IN FOOD SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Edited by Maria Margarida Vieira Cortez and Peter Ho
NOVEL TECHNOLOGIES IN FOOD SCIENCE: Their Impact on Products, Consumer
Trends, and the Environment
Edited by Anna McElhatton and Paulo José do Amaral Sobral
TRADITIONAL FOODS: General and Consumer Aspects
Edited by Kristberg Kristbergsson and Jorge Oliveira
MODERNIZATION OF TRADITIONAL FOOD PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS
Edited by Anna McElhatton and Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF TRADITIONAL FOODS
Edited by Kristberg Kristbergsson and Semih Ötles
FOOD PROCESSING
Edited by Kristberg Kristbergsson and Semih Ötles
APPLIED STATISTICS FOR FOOD AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Edited by Gerhard Schleining, Peter Ho and Saverio Mannino
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY FOR FOOD SCIENTISTS
Edited by Stephan Drusch and Kirsi Jouppila
PROCESS ENERGY IN FOOD PRODUCTION
Edited by Winfried Russ, Barbara Sturm and Kristberg Kristbergsson
CONSUMER DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT OF FOOD FOR HEALTH AND WELL BEING
Edited by Kristberg Kristbergsson, Paola Pittia, Margarida Vieira and Howard R. Moskowitz
BOOK ON ETHICS IN FOOD PRODUCTION AND SCIENCE
Edited by Rui Costa and Paola Pittia

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7288

Anna McElhatton • Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi
Editors

Modernization of Traditional
Food Processes and Products
Editors
Anna McElhatton Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi
University of Malta Université Mohamed V
Msida, MSD2090, Malta École Normale Supérieure
Rabat, Morocco
Series Editor
Kristberg Kristbergsson
University of Iceland
Reykjavík, Iceland

Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge Into the Food Chain
ISBN 978-1-4899-7669-7 ISBN 978-1-4899-7671-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015960937

Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Series Preface

The ISEKI-Food Series was originally planned to consist of six volumes of texts
suitable for food science students and professionals interested in food safety and
environmental issues related to sustainability of the food chain and the well-being
of the consumer. As the work progressed, it soon became apparent that the interest
and need for texts of this type exceeded the topics covered by the first six volumes
published by Springer in 2006–2009. The series originate in work conducted by the
European thematic network “ISEKI-Food,” an acronym for “Integrating Safety and
Environmental Knowledge In to Food Studies.” Participants in the ISEKI-Food net-
work come from most countries in Europe, and most of the institutes and universi-
ties involved with food science education at the university level are represented. The
network was expanded in 2008 with the ISEKI Mundus program with 37 partners
from 23 countries outside of Europe joining the consortium, and it continues to
grow with approximately 200 partner institutions from 60 countries from all over
the world in 2011. Some international companies and nonteaching institutions have
also participated in the program. The network was funded by the ERASMUS pro-
gram of the EU from 1998 to 2014 first as FoodNet coordinated by Professor
Elisabeth Dumoulin at AgroParisTech-site de MASSY in France. The net then
became known as “ISEKI-Food” and was coordinated by Professor Cristina Silva at
the Catholic University of Portugal, College of Biotechnology (Escola) in Porto,
from 2002 to 2011 when Professor Paola Pittia at the University of Teramo in Italy
became coordinator of ISEKI-Food 4.
The main objectives of ISEKI-Food have been to improve the harmonization of
studies in food science and engineering in Europe and to develop and adapt food
science curricula emphasizing the inclusion of safety and environmental topics. The
program has been further expanded into the ISEKI-Food Association (https://www.
iseki-food.net/), an independent organization devoted to the objectives of the ISEKI
consortium to further the safety and sustainability of the food chain through educa-
tion. The motto of the association is “Integrating Food Science and Engineering
Knowledge into the Food Chain.” The association will continue work on the ISEKI-
Food Series with several new volumes to be published in the near future. The series
was continued with volume 7 in 2012 with the publication of Novel Technologies in

v
vi Series Preface

Food Science: Their Impact on Products, Consumer Trends and The Environment,
edited by Anna McElhatton and Paolo J. Sobral. The book is intended for food sci-
entists and engineers and readers interested in the new and emerging food process-
ing technologies that are intended to provide foods that are safe, but maintain most
of their original freshness. All 13 chapters are written from a safety and environ-
mental standpoint with respect to the emerging technologies.
We now see the publication of the Trilogy of Traditional Foods written for food
science professionals as well as for the interested general public. The trilogy is in
line with the internationalization of the ISEKI consortium and will offer close to 80
chapters dedicated to different traditional foods from all over the world. The trilogy
starts with a text offering general descriptions of different traditional foods and top-
ics related to consumers and sensory aspects with a volume entitled Traditional
Foods: General and Consumer Aspects edited by the undersigned and Jorge Oliveira.
The second book in the trilogy is Modernization of Traditional Food Processes and
Products edited by Anna McElhatton and Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi. The chap-
ters are devoted to recent changes and modernizations of specific traditional foods
focusing on the processing and engineering aspects. The third volume in the trilogy
is Functional Properties of Traditional Foods devoted to functional and biochemi-
cal aspects of traditional foods and the beneficial effects of bioactive components
found in some traditional foods.
The series will continue with several books including the textbook Food
Processing edited by the undersigned and Semih Ötles, intended for senior-level
undergraduates and junior graduate students providing a comprehensive introduction
to food processing. The book should also be useful to professionals and scientists
interested in food processing both from the equipment and process approach as well
as in the physicochemical aspect of food processing. The book will contain five sec-
tions starting with chapters on the basic principles and physicochemical properties of
foods, followed by sections with chapters on conversion operations, preservation
operations, and food processing operations with separate chapters on most common
food commodities. The final section will be devoted to post-processing operations.
Applied Statistics for Food and Biotechnology, edited by Gerhard Schleining,
Peter Ho, and Saverio Mannino, will be intended for graduate students and industry
personnel who need a guide for setting up experiments so that the results will be
statistically valid. The book will provide numerous samples and case studies on how
to use statistics in food and biotechnology research and testing. It will contain chap-
ters on data collection, data analysis and presentation, handling of multivariate data,
statistical process control, and experimental design.
Process Energy in Food Production, edited by Winfried Russ, Barbara Sturm,
and the undersigned, will offer an introduction section on basic thermodynamics and
an overview of energy as a global element and environmental effects of energy pro-
vision and usage. This will be followed with chapters on the use of energy in various
food processes like flour production, bakery, fish processing, meat processing, brew-
ery and beverage production, direct and indirect heat integration in breweries, fruit
juice, spray drying systems (milk powder), and chilling and storage of fresh horti-
cultural products. There will also be chapters related to energy supply (thermal,
Series Preface vii

solar, hydroelectric), energy distribution, insulation for energy saving, storage sys-
tems for heat and coldness, waste heat recovery, and energy management systems.
Three more volumes are being prepared. The textbook Physical Chemistry for
Food Scientists edited by Stephan Drusch and Kirsi Jouppila; the book will provide
a text for the senior undergraduate- and beginning graduate-level students on the
basic principles of physical chemistry of foods. The first part of the book will be
devoted to fundamental principles of physical chemistry. The second part of the
book will be devoted to the physical chemistry of food systems. A volume entitled
Consumer-Driven Development of Food for Health and Well Being edited by the
undersigned, Paola Pittia, Margarida Vieira, and Howard R. Moskowitz is in prepa-
ration with chapters on general aspects of food development, the house of quality
and Stage-Gate® process, consumer aspects of food development, mind genomics,
conceptualization of well-being in the framework of food consumption, formulation
of foods in the development of food for health and well-being, ingredients contribu-
tion for health and well-being, new trends on the extension of shelf life, nutritional
aspects of development of foods focusing on health and well-being, regulatory and
policy aspects, and several case studies on product development with special empha-
sis on health and well-being. Finally there is a Book on Ethics in Food Production
and Science that will be edited by Rui Costa and Paola Pittia being developed.
The ISEKI-Food Series draws on expertise from universities and research insti-
tutions all over the world, and we sincerely hope that it my offer interesting topics
to students, researchers, professionals, as well as the general public.

Reykjavík, Iceland Kristberg Kristbergsson

July, 2011
Series Preface to Volumes 1–6

The single most important task of food scientists and the food industry as a whole
is to ensure the safety of foods supplied to consumers. Recent trends in global food
production, distribution, and preparation call for increased emphasis on hygienic
practices at all levels and for increased research in food safety in order to ensure a
safer global food supply. The ISEKI-Food book series is a collection of books where
various aspects of food safety and environmental issues are introduced and reviewed
by scientists specializing in the field. In all of the books, a special emphasis was
placed on including case studies applicable to each specific topic. The books are
intended for graduate students and senior-level undergraduate students as well as
professionals and researchers interested in food safety and environmental issues
applicable to food safety.
The idea and planning of the books originates from two working groups in the
European thematic network “ISEKI-Food,” an acronym for “Integrating Safety and
Environmental Knowledge In to Food Studies.” Participants in the ISEKI-Food net-
work come from 29 countries in Europe, and most of the institutes and universities
involved with food science education at the university level are represented. Some
international companies and nonteaching institutions have also participated in the
program. The ISEKI-Food network is coordinated by Professor Cristina Silva at the
Catholic University of Portugal, College of Biotechnology (Escola) in Porto. The
program has a web site http://www.esb.ucp.pt/iseki/. The main objectives of ISEKI-
Food have been to improve the harmonization of studies in food science and engi-
neering in Europe and to develop and adapt food science curricula emphasizing the
inclusion of safety and environmental topics. The ISEKI-Food network started on
October 1 in 2002 and has recently been approved for funding by the EU for renewal
as ISEKI-Food 2 for another 3 years. ISEKI has its roots in an EU-funded network
formed in 1998 called FoodNet where the emphasis was on casting a light on the
different food science programs available at the various universities and technical
institutions throughout Europe. The work of the ISEKI-Food network was orga-
nized into five different working groups with specific task all aiming to fulfill the
main objectives of the network.

ix
x Series Preface to Volumes 1–6

The first four volumes in the ISEKI-Food book series come from WG2 coordi-
nated by Gerhard Schleining at Boku University in Austria and the undersigned.
The main task of the WG2 was to develop and collect materials and methods for
teaching of safety and environmental topics in the food science and engineering
curricula. The first volume is devoted to food safety in general with a practical and
a case study approach. The book is composed of 14 chapters which were organized
into three sections on preservation and protection, benefits and risk of microorgan-
isms, and process safety. All of these issues have received high public interest in
recent years and will continue to be in the focus of consumers and regulatory per-
sonnel for years to come. The second volume in the series is devoted to the control
of air pollution and treatment of odors in the food industry. The book is divided into
eight chapters devoted to defining the problem, recent advances in analysis, and
methods for prevention and treatment of odors. The topic should be of special inter-
est to industry personnel and researchers due to recent and upcoming regulations by
the European Union on air pollution from food processes. Other countries will
likely follow suit with more strict regulations on the level of odors permitted to enter
the environment from food processing operations. The third volume in the series is
devoted to utilization and treatment of waste in the food industry. Emphasis is
placed on sustainability of food sources and how waste can be turned into by prod-
ucts rather than pollution or landfills. The book is composed of 15 chapters starting
off with an introduction of problems related to the treatment of waste and an intro-
duction to the ISO 14001 standard used for improving and maintaining environmen-
tal management systems. The book then continues to describe the treatment and
utilization of both liquid and solid wastes with case studies from many different
food processes. The last book from WG2 is on predictive modeling and risk assess-
ment in food products and processes. Mathematical modeling of heat and mass
transfer as well as reaction kinetics is introduced. This is followed by a discussion
of the stoichiometry of migration in food packaging, as well as the fate of antibiotics
and environmental pollutants in the food chain using mathematical modeling and
case study samples for clarification.
Volumes 5 and 6 come from work in WG5 coordinated by Margarida Vieira at
the University of Algarve in Portugal and Roland Verhé at Gent University in
Belgium. The main objective of the group was to collect and develop materials for
teaching food safety-related topics at the laboratory and pilot plant level using prac-
tical experimentation. Volume 5 is a practical guide to experiments in unit opera-
tions and processing of foods. It is composed of 20 concise chapters each describing
different food processing experiments outlining theory, equipment, procedures,
applicable calculations, and questions for the students or trainee followed by refer-
ences. The book is intended to be a practical guide for the teaching of food process-
ing and engineering principles. The final volume in the ISEKI-Food book series is
a collection of case studies in food safety and environmental health. It is intended to
be a reference for introducing case studies into traditional lecture-based safety
courses as well as being a basis for problem-based learning. The book consists of 13
chapters containing case studies that may be used, individually or in a series, to
discuss a range of food safety issues. For convenience the book was divided into
Series Preface to Volumes 1–6 xi

three main sections with the first devoted to case studies, in a more general frame-
work with a number of specific issues in safety and health ranging from acrylamide
and nitrates to botulism and listeriosis. The second section is devoted to some well-
known outbreaks related to food intake in different countries. The final section of
the book takes on food safety from the perspective of the researcher. Cases are based
around experimental data and examine the importance of experimental planning,
design, and analysis.
The ISEKI-Food books series draws on expertise from close to 100 universities
and research institutions all over Europe. It is the hope of the authors, editors, coor-
dinators, and participants in the ISEKI network that the books will be useful to
students and colleagues to further their understanding of food safety and environ-
mental issues.

Reykjavík, Iceland Kristberg Kristbergsson

March, 2008
Preface

Modernization of Traditional Food Processes and Products is the second book in

the Trilogy of Traditional Foods, part of the ISEKI-Food Series. The three books in
the trilogy are devoted to different characteristics of traditional foods. The trilogy
covers general and consumer aspects, modernization of traditional foods, and func-
tional properties of traditional foods in a total of 74 chapters written by authors from
all over the world. The “List of Contributors” in this second book of the trilogy cites
authors from China, Thailand, India, Argentina, New Zealand, and the United
Kingdom and thus embraces the ethos of the ISEKI-Food family.
Modernization of Traditional Food Processes and Products is divided into two
sections, with the first section dedicated to foodstuffs developed in Europe. The first
six chapters in this section deal with foods and beverages that contain dairy prod-
ucts, while Chaps. 7 and 8 deal with grain-based products. The second section is
devoted to foods from the rest of the world. Products covered in these chapters are
very varied, as are the processes that produce them.
The book should be of interest to the practicing food professional and the inter-
ested reader, with all chapters written by food scientists or engineers working in
industry or involved in academia. The book is meant to encourage both food profes-
sionals and the interested general public to look beyond the label and packaging of
the foodstuffs tackled in the 15 chapters. By providing insight into the history and
development of these foods and beverages, the editors hope to encourage people to
become even more curious about the food products they commonly use, especially
the composition and origins of these items.

Msida, Malta Anna McElhatton

Rabat, Morocco Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi

xiii
Acknowledgments

ISEKI_Food 3 and ISEKI_Mundus 2 were thematic networks on food studies,

funded by the European Union through the Lifelong Learning and Erasmus Mundus
programs as projects No. 142822-LLP-1-2008-PT-ERASMUS-ENW and
145585-PT-2008-ERA MUNDUS—EM4EATN, respectively. The ISEKI_Mundus
2 project was established to contribute for the internationalization and enhancement
of the quality of the European higher education in food studies and work toward the
network sustainability, by extending the developments undergoing through the
Erasmus Academic Network ISEKI Food 3 to other countries and developing new
activities toward the promotion of good communication and understanding between
European countries and the rest of the world.

xv
Contents

Part I Europe
1 Traditional Polish Curd Cheeses ........................................................... 3
Małgorzata Ziarno and Andrzej Lenart
2 “Túró Rudi”: Everyone’s Favourite Milk Dessert in Hungary .......... 13
József Csanádi, Zsuzsanna László, and Cecilia Hodúr
3 Quark: A Traditional German Fresh Cheese ....................................... 21
S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur
Production Process .................................................................................. 31
Peter C. Mitchell
5 Modernization of Skyr Processing: Icelandic Acid-Curd
Soft Cheese............................................................................................... 45
Gudmundur Gudmundsson and Kristberg Kristbergsson
6 Karachay Ayran: From Domestic Technology
to Industrial Production ......................................................................... 55
I.K. Kulikova, S.E. Vinogradskaya, O.I. Oleshkevich,
L.R. Alieva, and Anna McElhatton
7 German Bread and Related Process Technology ................................. 63
Karl Georg Busch
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour..................................... 75
C.S. Martínez, M.C. Bustos, and A.E. León

Part II Americas and the Rest of the World

9 Use of Edible Coatings, a Novel Preservation Method for Nuts ......... 93
Lorena Atarés, Amparo Chiralt, and Anna McElhatton

xvii
xviii Contents

10 Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern Preservation Process

for a Traditional Maori Fermented Food ............................................. 103
John D. Brooks, Michelle Lucke-Hutton, and Nick Roskruge
11 Thai Fish Sauce: A Traditional Fermented Sauce................................ 115
Wunwiboon Garnjanagoonchorn
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) ..................................... 125
Qi Lin, Sarote Sirisansaneeyakul, Qiuping Wang,
and Anna McElhatton
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices ...................................... 145
Hadi K. Purwadaria, Dedi Fardiaz, Leonardus Broto Sugeng Kardono,
and Anna McElhatton
14 Modernization of Manufacturing Process for Traditional
Indian Dairy Products ............................................................................ 163
P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea ................................................................................. 175
Jiashun Gong, Qiuping Wang, Sarote Sirisansaneeyakul,
and Anna McElhatton

Index ................................................................................................................. 199

Contributors

L.R. Alieva FSAEI HPE, North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia

Lorena Atarés Instituto de Ingeniería de Alimentos para el Desarrollo, Universidad
Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
John D. Brooks Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Applied
Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Karl Georg Busch Beuth University of Applied Sciences, Berlin, Germany
M.C. Bustos Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos Córdoba
(CONICET—Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Córdoba, Argentina
Amparo Chiralt Instituto de Ingeniería de Alimentos para el Desarrollo,
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
József Csanádi Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
S. Drusch Institute of Food Technology and Food Chemistry, Technische
Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
U. Einhorn-Stoll Institute of Food Technology and Food Chemistry, Technische
Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Dedi Fardiaz Department of Food Science and Technology, Bogor Agricultural
University—IPB, Bogor, Indonesia
Wunwiboon Garnjanagoonchorn Department of Food Science and Technology,
Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
Jiashun Gong Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural
University, Kunming, P.R. China

xix
xx Contributors

Gudmundur Gudmundsson Department of Food Science and Nutrition,

University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
LYSI hf., Fiskislod 5-9, Reykjavik, Iceland
Cecilia Hodúr Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
Kristberg Kristbergsson Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University
of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
Leonardus Broto Sugeng Kardono Research Centre for Chemistry, Indonesian
Institute of Sciences—LIPI, Serpong, Indonesia
I.K. Kulikova FSAEI HPE, North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia
Zsuzsanna László Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
Andrzej Lenart Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—
Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego (WULS-SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
A.E. León Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos Córdoba
(CONICET—Universidad, Nacional de Córdoba), Córdoba, Argentina
Qi Lin Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University,
Kunming, P. R. China
Michelle Lucke-Hutton Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of
Applied Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
C.S. Martínez Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos Córdoba
(CONICET—Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Córdoba, Argentina
Anna McElhatton Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
Peter C. Mitchell Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health, University of
Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK
P.S. Minz National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India
O.I. Oleshkevich FSAEI HPE, North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol,
Russia
Hadi K. Purwadaria Department of Food Technology, Swiss German University—
SGU, Serpong, Indonesia
Nick Roskruge Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Applied
Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
R.R.B. Singh National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India
Sarote Sirisansaneeyakul Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-
Industry, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
Contributors xxi

S.E. Vinogradskaya FSAEI HPE, North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol,

Russia
Qiuping Wang Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural
University, Kunming, P.R. China
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok, Thailand
Małgorzata Ziarno Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—
Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego (WULS-SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
About the Editors

Anna McElhatton is a senior lecturer and head of the Department of Food Studies
and Environmental Health in the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of
Malta. Anna McElhatton has an undergraduate degree in pharmacy, an M.A. in
bioethics from the University of Malta, and M.Phil. and Ph.D. from the Queen’s
University of Belfast in Northern Ireland. Her main research interests include food
safety (of dairy products), modernization of traditional foods, sensory aspects of
food preference, and ethical issues in research.

Mustapha Missbah El Idrissi is professor of general microbiology at the “Ecole

Normale Supérieure” at Mohammed V University of Rabat (UM5R), Morocco. He
is responsible of the master’s degree “biotechnology and environment.” He was a
senior lecturer of food microbiology for over 20 years at Mohamed Premier
University in Oujda and moved to Rabat to teach general microbiology at UM5R. His
main research include legumes improvement through biological nitrogen fixation
with rhizobia. The molecular characterization of bacteria in different ecosystems is
also one of his research interests.

xxiii
About the Series Editor

Kristberg Kristbergsson is Professor of Food Science at the Department of Food

Science and Nutrition at the University of Iceland. Dr. Kristbergsson has a B.S. in
food science from the Department of Chemistry at the University of Iceland and
earned his M.S., M.Phil., and Ph.D. in food science from Rutgers University. His
research interests include physicochemical properties of foods, new processing
methods for seafoods, modernization of traditional food processes, safety and envi-
ronmental aspects of food processing, extrusion cooking, shelf-life and packaging,
biopolymers in foods, and delivery systems for bioactive compounds.

xxv
 Part I
Europe
Chapter 1
Traditional Polish Curd Cheeses

Małgorzata Ziarno and Andrzej Lenart

Contents
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Traditional Technology and Modern Modification of Curd Cheese Production............... 5
1.2.1 Preparation of Milk for Processing ....................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Treatment and Coagulation of Milk ...................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Cutting, Pressing, and Formation of the Curd ...................................................... 6
1.3 Polish Classification of Curd Cheese ................................................................................ 7
1.4 Curd Cheese Properties ..................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Curd Cheese on the List of Polish Traditional Food Products .......................................... 8
1.5.1 Ser Zabłocki .......................................................................................................... 8
1.5.2 Gzik Wielkopolski ................................................................................................ 9
1.5.3 Łódzki Twaróg Tradycyjny ................................................................................... 9
1.5.4 Ser Biały Z Handzlówki........................................................................................ 9
1.5.5 Serek Twarogowy Ziarnisty .................................................................................. 9
1.5.6 Twaróg Hajnowski ................................................................................................ 10
1.5.7 Jędrzejowski Twarożek Śmietankowy .................................................................. 10
1.5.8 Wielkopolski Twaróg Tradycyjny ......................................................................... 10
1.5.9 Serek Śmietankowy Wielkopolski ........................................................................ 11
References .................................................................................................................................. 11

M. Ziarno (*) • A. Lenart

Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—Szkoła Główna
Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego (WULS-SGGW), Nowoursynowska Str. 159C,
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 3

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_1
4 M. Ziarno and A. Lenart

1.1 Introduction

Curd cheese is produced throughout the world, usually by denaturation and coagu-
lation of milk proteins according to traditional recipes and rules. This is a very
large and diverse group of dairy products. Together with the ripening cheeses, they
are one of the most varied and attractive direction of milk processing. Products of
this type in Poland are commonly referred to as “white cheese,” and it is hard to
find their counterpart in the world, although somewhat similar to them are
American “pressed farmers cheese” and German “quark.” Polish curd cheeses are
characterized by a full, delicate, creamy taste, and a creamy, dense consistency
with smooth grains.
Curd cheeses have a significant traditional niche in Poland and remain a popular
foodstuff. Homemade curd cheeses were in the past produced by most home cooks
in village households. They had a unique aroma and a place in Polish cuisine and
culture. In 2010, the average consumption of curd cheese in Poland was 6.6 kg per
capita and was higher than in other countries of the European Union, and their pro-
duction exceeded ca. 370,000 t. They retain the reputation of being a natural product
of high nutritional value that makes these products attractive and able to survive
very well in a competitive dairy market. This could be attributed to the nutritional
attributes of the curd cheese (i.e., a high content of protein compounds, easily
absorbable calcium, B vitamins, in particular riboflavin, and easily digestible fat),
combined with an uncomplicated production process, the affordable price of the
final product, and the wide application of curd cheese in households (Śmietana et al.
1994a, b, c; Kitlas and Ziarno 2002; Ziarno and Zaręba 2007; Siemianowski and
Szpendowski 2014). The unique role of curd cheese is one of the characteristics that
distinguish Polish cuisine from all other.
Curd cheeses are offered in several convenient packages and forms for custom-
ers: full-fat, skimmed or semi skimmed, natural, steamed, fried, smoked or flavored,
formed in wedge or cubes, sliced or ground, wrapped in parchment paper or plastic
wrap, in cups or vacuum packed, with or without sour cream added. They are sold
in various portions: 200 g, 250 g, even 1 or 2 kg packed. They are suitable for direct
consumption, and as ingredients in savory dishes or sweets such as cakes. The best-
selling formats are vacuum packed; on the other hand, curd cheese packed only in
parchment paper and sold by weight is no longer appealing to consumers.
Manufacturers of curd cheese have taken care to improve both the quality of
the cheeses as well as the design of convenience packaging. The quality of curd
cheese and their attractiveness to consumers are dependent on many factors. The
most important are the quality of the raw milk used for production, hygienic con-
ditions of the production process, and the conditions of storage and distribution
that guarantee shelf life as these cheeses do not contain preservatives. In addi-
tion, the traditional curd cheese aroma and ease to use are important quality attri-
butes that need to be retained if consumers are to continue appreciating this
traditional product.
1 Traditional Polish Curd Cheeses 5

1.2 Traditional Technology and Modern Modification

of Curd Cheese Production

Curd cheese is a term that describes a large and diverse group of dairy products that
are produced in large quantities. A common feature of all curd cheese is their
processing, which is the coagulation of milk protein (mainly casein) by lactic acid
fermentation or an acid–rennet combination (a coagulant enzyme simultaneously
in conjunction with the lactic acid bacteria) (Śmietana et al. 1994a, b, c; Żylińska
et al. 2014). The main stages of the production of curd are (Guinee et al. 1999;
Bohdziewicz 2008):
• Preparation of milk for processing
• Treatment and coagulation of milk
• Cutting and pressing the curd
• Formation of the curd cheese
Detailed curd cheese production technologies differ in (Nitecka and Popiołek
1990; Śmietana et al. 2003):
• Use of different types of coagulation agent (rennet, acid),
• Duration of milk coagulation
• Fragmentation of the clot
• Forming techniques
The resulting final products are intended for direct consumption (Śmietana et al.
1994a, b, c; Pikul 2004; Siemianowski et al. 2013a).

1.2.1 Preparation of Milk for Processing

Milk used to production of curd cheese should be of high quality and have appropri-
ate chemical composition (especially casein) (Bohdziewicz 2008; Danków and
Pikul 2011).
The first step is the preparation of milk for processing (traditional homemade
curd cheese was produced from raw milk, but curd cheese production in industrial
conditions requires the use of pasteurized milk). Skim or fat standard milk is
subjected to low pasteurization (Low-Temperature-Long-Time, LTLT) or high
(High-Temperature-Short-Time, HTST or Very High Temperature, VHT). In the first
case, the milk is heated to a temperature of 65 °C and held for 30 min. HTST requires
higher temperatures, a minimum of 72 °C and a holding time of 15 s. In VHT sys-
tems, milk is heated to 80–90 °C for 2–25 s (or even 10–15 min) before it is cooled.
LTLT pasteurization has been used in industrial scale production for many
decades in production lines that use the batch production method. However, cur-
rently HTST or VHT systems are used in continuous flow pasteurization of milk.
6 M. Ziarno and A. Lenart

The significant difference in these pasteurization processes is the degree of denatur-

ation and coagulation of albumin and globulins of milk, which in the case of the
HTST is as high as 50 %. This is important in the production of curd cheese as it
improves the structure of the formed curd (Lopez et al. 1995; Śmietana et al. 2003).
VHT system can further increase the yield of the curd cheese by 10–20 % due to
coagulation of most of the whey protein with casein (Śmietana et al. 1994a, b, c;
Siemianowski et al. 2013b).

1.2.2 Treatment and Coagulation of Milk

Curd cheese production is highly dependent on the appropriate mechanical and

thermal treatment of milk curd. A curd formed from milk proteins, mainly casein,
coagulates at pH that corresponds to the value of isoelectric point of casein (Ziarno
and Zaręba 2007; Siemianowski and Szpendowski 2012). Milk preparation and
coagulation and curd treatment including cutting and mixing all take place in
temperature-controlled baths or tanks.
There are two types of coagulation: long- and short-time. In the long-time coagu-
lation method, pasteurized milk is cooled to 20–23 °C, starter lactic acid bacteria are
added (inoculum of 0.5–2.5 % of processed milk), and milk is left in these condi-
tions for 14–16 h to obtain a curd (Śmietana et al. 1994a, b, c; Żylińska et al. 2014).
This method requires the use of mesophilic lactic acid bacteria: Lactococcus lactis
subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, and Lactococcus lactis subsp.
diacetylactis (Żylińska et al. 2014).
The presence of aroma-producing bacteria facilitates the development of the tra-
ditional Polish curd cheese. Lactococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis produces lactic
acid and diacetyl in addition to CO2. Large amounts of gas produced cause that the
curd cut floats on the surface of cheese whey and does not sink to the bottom.
In short-time method, pasteurized milk is cooled to 32–35 °C and then starter
lactic acid bacteria are added (inoculum of 5 % of processed milk), including ther-
mophilic bacteria such as Streptococcus thermophilus. In this case, the coagulation
time is only 6–8 h (Guinee et al. 1999). However, the product obtained by this
method is less aromatic due to insufficient growth of aroma-producing bacteria
(Śmietana et al. 1994a, b, c; Guinee et al. 1999; Śmietana et al. 2003).
The pH value of curd obtained is about 4.5–4.7, and acidity 30–34°SH (sometimes
the milk is acidified to only 20–25°SH and coagulation is achieved by heating to
40 °C). Mature curd has the consistency of soft jelly with no cracks and separation of
whey. It should give a break with equal edges and smooth walls (Dmytrów et al. 2010).

1.2.3 Cutting, Pressing, and Formation of the Curd

The curd treatment process is designed to release the whey from the milk and to obtain
a concentrated protein curd (Nitecka and Popiołek 1990; Siemianowski et al. 2013b).
1 Traditional Polish Curd Cheeses 7

The cutting of curd should involve a process of gradual size reduction. The curd
should be sliced into blocks of about 12 × 12 cm. The curds should not be crushed.
Gentle further size reduction to 1–5 cm is carried out with gentle mixing while heat-
ing to 35 °C (temperature increase by about 1 °C per 5 min). This dries the grain curd
and facilitates the separation of clear whey (Śmietana et al. 1994a, b, c; Guinee et al.
1999). Depending on the type of curd cheese produced, a separation of all or part of
the whey followed by the addition of the same volume of water (heated to 30–35 °C)
is recommended; this whole volume of curd and water is then gently mixed.
After cooling the curd grains to 10–12 °C, the curd is transferred to cone-shaped
flax bags, molds covered with a flax cheese cloth, or in a perforated plastic molds;
this facilitates further drainage of whey from the curd. The flax bags or molds cov-
ered with a flax cheese cloth have been used both in traditional manufacture of curd
cheese and for homemade curd cheese. Industrialization of curd cheese production
and high standards of hygiene requirements necessitated the use of perforated plas-
tic molds.
Pressing also takes place in flax bags or molds. It begins with the application of
gentle pressure, not exceeding 10 N/kg, and then the pressure is increased up to
about 30 N/kg. Pressing the curd is a process that causes significant further drying
of the curd (Śmietana et al. 1994a, b, c; Siemianowski et al. 2013b).
Curd cheese can be formed or molded in the form of a flat block or cylinder, or
as flat wedge shape (“klinek” in Polish language). The curd cheese has to be chilled
to 2–8 °C soon after packing to prevent over acidification of curd.

1.3 Polish Classification of Curd Cheese

The Polish classification system describes the following types of unripened curd
cheese (Ziarno and Zaręba 2007; Bohdziewicz 2008):
• Acid curd cheese (cut into cube or wedge shapes, full-fat, half-fat, or skimmed).
• Curd cheese or acid–rennet cheese (produced by traditional method with mild
treatment of a curd), with or without sour cream added, homogenized.
• Acid–rennet curd cheese (produced by centrifugal method), with uniform struc-
ture, natural, or flavored.
• Acid–rennet curd cheese similar to American cottage cheese.
• Acid curd cheese produced from milk heated to 92 °C for few seconds, with
addition of 0.04 % CaCl2, with traditional curd treatment.
• Milk–buttermilk and buttermilk curd cheese (obtained from a mixture of milk
and buttermilk or only buttermilk) with traditional method of curd treatment.
There are also ripened curd cheeses that are produced from skimmed curd cheese
through the crushing of the curd, salting, and seasoning with cumin or pepper, fol-
lowed by maturation for up to twelve days. This process of ripening is called “gli-
wienie” in Polish and refers to the process of growth of proteolytic bacteria and
mold of Oospora lactis species on the surface of curd cheese (Bohdziewicz 2008).
8 M. Ziarno and A. Lenart

1.4 Curd Cheese Properties

The final product has a taste and a smell that is described as mild, clean, slightly
acidic. Its structure and texture are uniform, compact, without lumps, and slightly
loose, and it may be slightly granular. The color of curd cheese should be white to
light cream and be uniform throughout the whole cheese.
Water content in curd cheese should not exceed 70–75 %. Acidity should be
80–110°SH.
Traditional curd cheeses have a short shelf life, usually less than 72 h, due to the
presence of live lactic acid bacteria and high water content (70–78 %) (Cais and
Wojciechowski 1996). The application of modern technology and modern methods
of curd cheese packaging allows extending the shelf life to 21 days (Śmietana et al.
2003; Olborska and Lewicki 2006; Siemiankowski et al. 2012).

1.5 Curd Cheese on the List of Polish Traditional

Food Products

The National List of Traditional Products has been established by virtue of an act in
2004. One of the main aims of this list was the promotion of Polish traditional prod-
ucts made with the use of traditional methods. This list is published and maintained by
the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development as well as governors of particular
Polish provinces. It is some guide through the Polish regional cuisine and the source
of information about Polish regional traditions, ways of food production, and the char-
acteristics of the products listed there. A dozen products from that list are protected
within the EU scheme as PDOs, PGIs, and TSGs. In the middle of 2015, The National
List of Traditional Products included 1433 food products, including 84 traditional
Polish dairy products from all Polish regions (The National List of Traditional Products
2015). The most important traditional curd cheeses are presented below.

1.5.1 Ser Zabłocki

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 5th March 2009 in the category
of dairy products. Zabłocki cheese is a traditional product that has been produced
for over a hundred years in the Southern Podlasie region, where the monks were
involved in the production of cheese. The cheese is obtained only from fresh cow’s
milk (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).
Zabłocki cheese is produced as a small curd cheese in shape of cylinder (length
approx. 20 cm, weight 75 g, width 15 cm, height 4 cm). Taste: Slightly salty. The
consistency was slightly spongy, plastic, and allows users to easily cut with a knife.
Color is white, slightly creamy with a slight sheen. Smell is buttery (The National
List of Traditional Products 2015).
1 Traditional Polish Curd Cheeses 9

1.5.2 Gzik Wielkopolski

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 11th May 2007 in the category
of dairy products. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it contributed to the
increase in the manufacture of cheese from cow’s milk in Wielkopolska region,
where curd cheese called “gzik” was used to season dishes (The National List of
Traditional Products 2015). There are many recipes for gzik; one of the easiest is to
blend the curd cheese with sour cream, chives or onions, and salt. This mixture is
then served with the potatoes.
Gzik wielkopolski is a white curd cheese that has a thick and sticky consistency
(The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.3 Łódzki Twaróg Tradycyjny

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 15th February 2010 in the cat-
egory of dairy products. Twaróg tradycyjny is produced from cow’s milk and formed
into cubes and wedges; it is either white or light cream in color that is uniform
throughout the cheese mass. It is easily cut with a knife. The cube is usually about
10 cm long, 8 cm wide, and about 4 cm high with a weight of 250–380 g or about
17 cm long, 8 cm high, and about 7 cm wide with a weight of 0, 5–0, 8 kg. The
weight of wedge is 150–500 g. The consistency is uniform, compact, without lumps,
and slightly loose to easily cut with a knife. Taste and smell are clean, soft, and
slightly acidic with a pasteurized flavor. Color should be white to light cream, and
uniform throughout the mass (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.4 Ser Biały Z Handzlówki

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 19th August 2010 in the cate-
gory of dairy products. Ser biały z Handzlówki is a traditional product produced in
the Podkarpacie region. It is a white or cream colored curd cheese, with a shape of
hook or circular which is sometimes cut into quarters of approximately 0.5–0.6 kg.
Its consistency is lumpy or creamy, depending on the fat content. Taste and smell
are sweet–sour, and the aroma is characteristic of an acid curd (The National List of
Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.5 Serek Twarogowy Ziarnisty

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 17th January 2011 in the
category of dairy products. It is a traditional product produced in the Podkarpacie
region. The cheese consists of cheese grains mixed with sour cream. The shape
10 M. Ziarno and A. Lenart

of cheese grains is irregular. Cheese size is 0.2–20 kg. Taste and smell are creamy;
it may be slightly sour and slightly salty. Color is white or light cream, uniform
throughout the mass (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.6 Twaróg Hajnowski

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 14th July 2009 in the category of
dairy products. It is a traditional product produced in the North-Eastern part of Podlasie
region—a part of the Bialowieza National Park, an area with unique microclimate that
guarantees the character of product. This area is a typical agricultural area that has a
strong tradition of dairy farming. Therefore, twaróg hajnowski is produced in a way
which is common in other parts of Poland, but it owes its specific quality to the milk
quality of the area. Twaróg hajnowski is produced in the form of block or wedge, of
weight 600–800 g and 250 g, respectively. Its consistency is uniform, compact, without
lumps, and slightly loose. The taste is clean, mild, and slightly sour. Color is white to
light cream, depending on fat content (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.7 Jędrzejowski Twarożek Śmietankowy

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 26th July 2010 in the category of
dairy products. It is a traditional product produced in the Świętokrzyskie region. The
origin of this curd cheese is closely connected with the Regional Dairy Cooperative,
which was founded in February 1937. This is the kind of acid–rennet curd cheese.
Initially, it was produced using wood equipment from pasteurized milk, then in stan-
dard dairy equipment after the modernization of the cooperative in 1957. It has a shape
of cube of weight 30–80 g. Its consistency is thick, creamy with a smooth grain—lubri-
cating. Taste and smell are slightly acidic, aromatic, and delicate. Color is white to light
cream, uniform throughout the mass (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.8 Wielkopolski Twaróg Tradycyjny

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 1st December 2010 in the cate-
gory of dairy products. It is a traditional product produced in the Wielkopolska
region, a typical agricultural area that is free of heavy industry. Wielkopolski twaróg
tradycyjny is produced from cow’s milk and is the simplest form of cheese produced,
with a method that has remained unchanged to this day. Freshly collected milk is
poured into bowls, jars, or pots and left at room temperature for spontaneous fer-
mentation. The fermentation occurs at 20–30 °C due to the presence of the environ-
mental flora. During the fermentation cream accumulates on the surface of the curd,
1 Traditional Polish Curd Cheeses 11

and depending on how fatty cheese should be, sour cream may be collected, then the
curd is processed by heating. With heating the whey separates. The curd is then
poured into flax cloth bags or kerchiefs to remove the whey and form cheese shape.
The appearance of this curd cheese is uniform, compact, with granular mass. Its
shape is rectangular cut by hand, wedge, or oval-molded by hand. The net weight of
the block is not less than 100 g. The consistency is grainy. Taste and smell are
slightly acidic, clean, and mild. The color is white to light cream, depending on fat
content (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

1.5.9 Serek Śmietankowy Wielkopolski

It was registered on the List of Traditional Food on 12th August 2010 in the cate-
gory of dairy products. It is a traditional product produced in the Wielkopolska
region where the first Polish dairy cooperative was established in 1882. This is
acid–rennet curd cheese with chives or onion. Milk is heated to 30 °C and then lactic
acid bacteria culture is added, and after about 4 h rennet is added. The milk is left to
form curds (approximately 12 h). The resulting curd is cut and inverted several
times to remove the whey. The final product is a white color curd cheese with irreg-
ular shape, resembling a cylinder, slightly ellipsoidal, of weight 250 g. Its consis-
tency is uniform, compact, and without lumps. Taste and smell are slightly acidic,
and gentle (The National List of Traditional Products 2015).

References

Bohdziewicz K (2008) Acid curds—a processing. Przegląd Mleczarski 7:12–15. Abstract in English
Cais D, Wojciechowski J (1996) Changes in selected qualitative characteristics of curd cheeses
during their storage. Przegląd Mleczarski 6:177–179. Abstract in English
Danków R, Pikul J (2011) Technological suitability of goat milk for processing. Nauka Przyr
Technol 5(2):1–15. Abstract in English
Dmytrów I, Mituniewicz-Małek A, Dmytrów K (2010) Physicochemical and sensory features of
acid curd cheese (tvarog) produced from goat’s milk and mixture of cow’s and goat’s milk.
Food Sci Technol Qual 2(69):46–61. Abstract in English
Guinee TP, Pudja PD, Farkye NY (1999) Fresh acid-curd cheese varieties. In: Fox PF (ed) Cheese:
chemistry, physics and microbiology, vol 2. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 363–419
Kitlas M, Ziarno M (2002) Trial of fortification of quark with calcium salts. Food Sci Technol Qual
3(32):79–88. Abstract in English
Lopez MB, Botet MJ, Hellin P, Luna A, Laencina J (1995) Effect of thermal treatment on goat milk
clotting time. Milchwissenschaft 50(3):126–129
Nitecka E, Popiołek P (1990) Effect of coagulation of milk to changes in the nutritional value of
the curd cheese protein. Przemysł Spożywczy 44(11):284–286. Abstract in English
Olborska K, Lewicki PP (2006) Packing process for chosen dairy products as a critical control
point. Inżynieria Rolnicza 7(82):351–358. Abstract in English
Pikul J (2004) Factors affecting the shelf life of milk and milk products. Part 2. Dairy products with
short, intermediate and long shelf life. Chłodnictwo 10(39):41–47. Abstract in English
12 M. Ziarno and A. Lenart

Siemiankowski K, Szpendowski J, Bohdziewicz K (2012) Effect of packaging, storage and distri-

bution conditions on the extension of shelf life of acid twaróg cheese. Chłodnictwo 47(9):38–
41. Abstract in English
Siemianowski K, Szpendowski J (2012) Possibilities of tvarog cheeses enrichment with calcium in
the light of hitherto existing research. Eng Sci Technol 4(7):83–98. Abstract in English
Siemianowski K, Szpendowski J (2014) Importance of tvorog in human nutrition. Problemy
Higieny i Epidemiologii 95(1):115–119. Abstract in English
Siemianowski K, Szpendowski J, Bohdziewicz K, Kołakowski P, Bardowski J (2013a) Nutritional
value of acid tvarog produced from milk concentrated by evaporation and ultrafiltration (UF).
Eng Sci Technol 4(11):111–119. Abstract in English
Siemianowski K, Szpendowski J, Bohdziewicz K, Kołakowski P, Pawlikowska K, Żylińska J,
Bardowski J (2013b) Effect of the dry matter content in milk on the composition and sensory
properties of acid tvarog cheese. Folia Pomeranae Universitatis Technologiae Stetinensis.
Agric Aliment Pisc Zootech 302(25):113–124. Abstract in English
Śmietana Z, Szpendowski Z, Bohdziewicz K, Świgoń J (1994a) General production rules of tvorog
and curd cheeses. Part I. Przegląd Mleczarski 1:7–9. Abstract in English
Śmietana Z, Szpendowski Z, Bohdziewicz K, Świgoń J (1994b) General production rules of tvorog
and curd cheeses. Part II. Przegląd Mleczarski 2:41–43. Abstract in English
Śmietana Z, Szpendowski Z, Bohdziewicz K, Świgoń J (1994c) General production rules of tvorog
and curd cheeses. Part III. Przegląd Mleczarski 3:69–71. Abstract in English
Śmietana Z, Szpendowski J, Bohdziewicz K (2003) Characteristics of traditional Polish curd cheese
obtained by its own design and technology. Przegląd Mleczarski 4:126–129. Abstract in English
The National List of Traditional Products (2015) The Polish Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development. http://www.minrol.gov.pl. Update 2015.07.08 /in Polish/
Ziarno M, Zaręba D (2007) Curd cheeses are not so bad as they are described. Higiena 3–4(28):16–
17. In Polish
Żylińska J, Siemianowski K, Bohdziewicz K, Pawlikowska K, Kołakowski P, Szpendowski J,
Bardowski J (2014) Starter cultures for acid curd—role and expectations. Post Mikrobiol
53(3):288–298. Abstract in English
Chapter 2
“Túró Rudi”: Everyone’s Favourite
Milk Dessert in Hungary

József Csanádi, Zsuzsanna László, and Cecilia Hodúr

Contents
2.1 The History of “Túró Rudi” .............................................................................................. 13
2.2 Technology ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.1 Traditional Technology ......................................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Modern Túró Rudi Technology............................................................................. 16
References .................................................................................................................................. 19

2.1 The History of “Túró Rudi”

The history of Túró Rudi goes back to 1954 when three dairy industry professionals
from Hungary—an industrial manager, a food industry engineer and a factory super-
visor—took a 2-week-long study trip to the Soviet Union to observe the Soviet styled
methodologies of dairy production. It was there that they first saw a product which
could be considered a predecessor of today’s Túró Rudi. Having no information about
the name of this soft, round confection made from a mixture of lactic acid curd, butter
and fat (and then sugared and coated in chocolate), they simply called it túró mignon.
This was probably where they got the idea to develop a similar product which could
appeal to the Hungarian palate. The túró mignon was also mentioned in their report
on the study trip, published in the pages of Hungarian Dairy Industry Newsletter.
Practical development of the new product first took place under the direction of
the production manager (Rudolf Mandeville) and his small team at the factory (in
Budapest). Many people mistakenly attribute the name “Rudi” to Mandeville, but
the name actually came from Sándor Klein, a young psychologist enlisted to create

J. Csanádi (*) • Z. László • C. Hodúr

Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 13

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_2
14 J. Csanádi et al.

the packaging design, and who was responsible for the initial advertising campaign
as well. The original Túró Rudi wrapping, decorated with the image of a red,
pigtailed little girl, was developed by two of Klein’s students at the College of
Applied Arts and displayed the characteristic dotted pattern right from the start.
Other anecdotal information implies that Klein, one of the original teams said:
“Let’s call it Túró Rudi”, which and promptly incurred the hatred of newspaper
publishers, who considered the brand name obscene and refused to advertise it. In
spite of this—or maybe because of it—Túró Rudi became a huge success.
Mass production, as we mentioned, was launched at a Dairy Firm located in
Budapest in 1968, but the operation was soon transferred to Szabolcs County due to
the poor manufacturing conditions, e.g. lack of space and insufficient environment.
The original wooden production equipment was first disassembled and then trans-
ported to the city of Nyíregyháza, where it was then reassembled prior to a trial run
that lasted for several weeks. Production continued here until the 20th of August
1970, when a new factory was established in the city of Mátészalka, but a separate
department for Túró Rudi production only was first set up only during the 1980s.
At first, the product was sold in the vicinity of Mátészalka and also in Budapest,
and then it was distributed further in the western regions as production capacity
increased. Túró Rudi production in the city of Nagybánhegyes was launched in 1981,
which was a source of healthy competition for the Dairy Firm in the city of Mátészalka
up to the 1990s, when both plants continued operating under the auspices of the
Nutricia Group. During the early 1980s, like in Mátészalka, the products still had a
brief shelf life of only 3–4 days, but this increased to 14 days in the course of further
development, which also led to the introduction of several new flavours in addition to
the basic non-flavoured Túró Rudi produced in the beginning. So, Túró Rudi with
authentic flavours (walnut, peanut) and their chocolate-coated versions were first man-
ufactured in Nagybánhegyes, but as product development continued during the 1970s
numerous different products were introduced, mainly throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
After 1990s, an ongoing development was evident not only in terms of the product
itself but also in packaging, technical improvement and advertising. In the beginning,
products in Mátészalka were packaged by hand, much like the way in which tradi-
tional Hungarian Christmas sweets were enclosed by twisting both ends of the foil
wrapper. Later, this method was replaced by more up-to-date machinery and packaging
materials, including the tinfoil wrapping utilized during the 1980s and the consumer-
friendly opening strip introduced after 2000. “Pöttyös” products have been regularly
displayed at various trade fairs and food product exhibitions over the last few decades,
winning nearly twenty different awards recognizing their quality, uniqueness and
innovation. Besides these developments and undiminished popularity of Pöttyös
Túró Rudi, the production of similar products by other factory owners started to
increase the competition.
Since 2000, the brand has undergone continuous rejuvenation, in the course of
which not only its packaging but also its message has been given a fresh and youthful
image. Along with its domestic success, Pöttyös (Dotted) has also penetrated foreign
markets outside Hungary. Túró Rudi was introduced to Romania and Slovakia in
2004 under the name Dots and as of 2006, the brand also became available for cus-
2 “Túró Rudi”: Everyone’s Favourite Milk Dessert in Hungary 15

tomers in the Italian Auchan stores, after which it gained tremendous popularity in
Spain as well. In 2007, two new innovations took place with the introduction of the
brands Pöttyös Túró Bonbon and Pöttyös Ice-cream, and the latter one is only available
on seasonal basis. The owner of the brand Túró Rudi is the “Bonafarm” Group
which includes Sole-Mizo Hungary Corporation as producer. Nowadays, the “newest”
trend in the Túró Rudi production is the return to the original mix composition,
without modern colouring agents and other discussed additives.

2.2 Technology

2.2.1 Traditional Technology

The technology of Túró Rudi is built on the production of túró. Túró technology
basically determines the texture, sensory properties and economy of this product.
The main operations of túró making are clotting by lactic-acid starters and drainage
of curd. First of all, we would like to introduce the traditional túró and Túró Rudi
technology.
The traditional túró and Túró Rudi technology used the approach and technologies
in use during the 1970s. Critical steps required for food safety and economical pro-
duction to compensate for variability in raw milk quality were adopted and included
HTST pasteurization (High Temperature Short Time). The conditions used were
72–78 °C temperature with 40 sec. holding time. Holding, drainage and cooling of
curd were usually slow and the whole process was mostly manual with numerous
workers were employed for mixing, forming and packaging the product. Túró Rudi
could therefore be called as a handmade product. The technology was divided into
three sections as follows:
– Milk pre-treatment
– Túró making
– Mixing, forming and packaging.
During pre-treatment, milk first was filtered, separated to cream and skim milk.
Pasteurization of milk and cream in plate heat exchanger followed the separation at
72–78 °C (milk) and 95–105 °C (cream). Then fat standardization was performed
by mixing of pasteurized and cooled cream and skim milk, occasionally. Firstly,
non-fat túró was usually made and the fat standardization was performed later while
mixing and flavouring the drained curd (Szakály 2001).
Then milk temperature was set to 24–26 °C and it was pumped to a traditional,
opened cheese vat. It was followed by mixing the starter and the fermentation until
pH 4.6 when milk was coagulated by the increased organic acid content. After coagu-
lation, the curd was cut into small pieces with tools equipped with wires. Cutting was
terminated as soon as the pieces of curd were of correct size (3–4 cm diameter, called
“walnut”-size) and the cutting tools were exchanged to stirring tools. The syneresis
(shrinking of curd pieces) immediately began after the cutting of curd which then
16 J. Csanádi et al.

resulted in the appearance of whey. It was followed by heating up the curd–whey mix
to 42–50 °C to accelerate the “drying of curd”. The curd was stirred only a few times
and gently in favour of temperature balance and to avoid the huge curd loss. While
heating, “drying” period usually lasted 3–5 h, not all the bacteria were killed, so the
acidity of curd usually increased further (Fenyvessy and Csanádi 2007).
The high total solid content of túró is very important in terms of product texture.
Thus, the curd was separated from whey in perforated vats (called “curd-drainage
car” since it had wheels). The small-meshed nets in drainage vats prevented the curd
from passing through. Curd drainage in the cheese making room or in a better case,
in a cooling room, continued while the total solids of curd reached the appropriate
value (about 16–24 h). Sometimes, the curd was pressed to remove more whey.
After it a mixture was created in a simple mixer from acid curd (túró), butter and
flavouring agents like sugar and lemon oil. This was the original recipe of Túró Rudi
but the precise mixing ratio was (is) a close kept secret. The traditional Túró Rudi
technology is demonstrated in Fig. 2.1.
Compression and forming were performed in mincer-like equipment, and then the
formed mix was cut into small pieces and dipped into melted chocolate or chocolate-
like coating material. As a next step, the pieces were collected in trays and cooled in
a cooling room (5 °C) and then it was followed by packaging. Many workers were
needed in the finishing operations, thus the labour costs were considerable.

2.2.2 Modern Túró Rudi Technology

Modernization of the process used to manufacture Túró Rudi technology has sought
to eliminate difficulties associated with the traditional process. Furthermore, there
were also attempts to increase product yield…

Butter

Cream
Curd making
Separation
Silo
Pasteurization

Whey

5 °C

Flavouring
Packaging Whey

Curd draining
Mincer
Cooling

Dipping Stretching - forming Blending

Fig. 2.1 Flow chart of traditional Túró Rudi processing (Modified from Dairy Handbook,
Alfa-Laval Engineering)
2 “Túró Rudi”: Everyone’s Favourite Milk Dessert in Hungary 17

Deficiencies related to food safety were addressed through milk. Raw milk quality
is considered very high in Hungary with more than 95 % of all raw cow milk meeting
EU Requirements with the larger producers selecting premium quality raw milk for
Túró Rudi production. Recontamination and excessive acidification have to be avoided
during production; this has been successfully addressed through the use of closed
cheese tanks and rapid curd cooling used in many dairy firms for this purpose (Walstra
et al. 2006).
Use of a modern closed cheese vat in curd making and curd handling prevents
recontamination of milk or curd with microbes and other contaminants, but the
visual monitoring of the stages of curd making cannot be monitored as well as in a
traditional open cheese vat, thus not all Túró Rudi producers use it.
In the past two decades (1990–2010), significant research has been carried out to
find means of increasing the yield of curd. Use of the HTST heat treatment at high
temperature (85–95 °C) with the incorporation of β-lactoglobulin to the curd is a
common practice that slightly increases curd yield (or lower protein loss in whey).
Use of ultrafiltration (UF) and protein concentration resulted in significant improve-
ments related to the yield (Britz and Robinson 2008). The evaporation of retentate
from UF, then lactic acid gelation resulted in higher yields and therefore a more
economical production. There were further improvements associated with the tex-
ture of the product which became creamier. This creamy inner texture did not gain
unanimous success among consumers. (Modern production of Túró Rudi making is
demonstrated in Fig. 2.2).
The product yield could also be increased further by selection of milk of higher
protein content. New flavoured and jam-filled product versions have also been
developed and put on the market and in general demand has remained stable.

Pasteurization Protein concentrate

Homogenization Standardization
Curd making

Cream
Silo
Permeate

Separation Pasteurization Ultrafiltration Whey

Curd draining

Optional operations

Whey

Cooling Dipping Cooling Feet

forming
Packaging

Extrusion Flavouring Blending Curd draining, Pressing

Whey

Fig. 2.2 Flow chart of modern Túró Rudi processing (Modified from Dairy Handbook Alfa-Laval
Engineering)
18 J. Csanádi et al.

Further changes in technology include acceleration of curd drainage to get the

required total solids of curd in less time. To obtain low fat or non-fat túró, perforated
rotary drums are used for the fast drainage of curd. Pressing of túró is also widespread
thus increasing total solids, as the high total solids of túró are very important in stan-
dardization of the composition and texture properties of the end product. The separated
whey may be further exploited such that its residual protein content is retrieved. This
retrieval is achieved through a process of ultrafiltration under conditions that remove
sugars, followed by evaporation. This process produces whey protein concentrate
powder that can be reintegrated into production thus optimizing protein recovery.
The finishing operations have also changed. Modern cutters-mixers are used for
the fast mixture preparation, thus the texture will not be as creamy as in a standard
blinder with long blending or when only the ultra-filtered milk concentrate is used
for production.
High quality extruders used for extrusion can contain combined forming head for
stuffed products, thus the inner structure of product can be controlled by demand.
Cutting of the extruded mixture to the appropriate size is processed automatically.
Dipping, setting of chocolate-like coating (or chocolate) and cooling are processed
by a continuous processing line using circulation system for coating and a cooling
tunnel. Products coming out of the tunnel are immediately wrapped by machines
and moved into a cooling room. The typical composition of Túró Rudi (30 g) is
similar to that of a medium fat cheese (Table 2.1) and these days is packaged very
attractively (Fig. 2.3) In conclusion, the modern technologies adopted by Túró Rudi
production have led to improved food safety levels and the efficient and therefore
economical and value-added production of a traditional product brought into the
twenty-first century.

Table 2.1 Composition of Túró Rudi

Energy in 100 g Energy in one
Product name Nutrition values (g/100 g) product product
Protein Fat Carbohydrates kJ kcal kJ kcal
Túró Rudi 30 g 10.79 18.94 38.86 1544.9 369.1 463.5 110.7
(dark coating)
Túró Rudi 30 g 11.20 22.32 39.15 1681.9 402.3 504.6 120.7
(milk coating)

Fig. 2.3 Giant Túró Rudi

2 “Túró Rudi”: Everyone’s Favourite Milk Dessert in Hungary 19

References

Britz TJ, Robinson RK (2008) Advanced dairy science and technology. Blackwell, Oxford
Dairy Handbook. Alfa-Laval Food Engineering, Sweden
Fenyvessy J, Csanádi J (2007) Dairy technology (Tejipari technológia), Universitas Szeged
Szakály S (Ed) (2001) Dairy technology and economy (Tejgazdaságtan). Dinasztia, Budapest
ISBN 963 657 333 6
Walstra P, Wouters JTM, Geurts TJ (2006) Dairy science and technology. Taylor & Francis, Boca
Raton
Chapter 3
Quark: A Traditional German Fresh Cheese

S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll

Contents
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Basics of Quark Processing .............................................................................................. 23
3.3 Traditional Quark Processing............................................................................................ 24
3.4 Classical Industrial Quark Processing .............................................................................. 26
3.5 Modern Quark Processing................................................................................................. 27
References .................................................................................................................................. 29

3.1 Introduction

Quark is a traditional German unripened cheese. Similar products are known in

other countries, e.g., cream cheese, Topfen, cottage cheese, tvorog, and fromage
frais. Unripened fresh cheese nowadays is still very popular in European and
Northern American countries; the production of fresh cheese and quark in Germany
in 2013 alone amounted to 842.000 t (Statista 2014).
According to the Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Cheese, cheese is gen-
erally defined as a ripened or unripened soft, semihard, hard, or extra-hard product,
which may be coated, and in which the whey protein/casein ratio does not exceed that
of milk.

S. Drusch (*) • U. Einhorn-Stoll

Institute of Food Technology and Food Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin,
Berlin, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 21

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_3
22 S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll

The product is obtained by:

(a) coagulating wholly or partly the protein of milk, skimmed milk, partly skimmed
milk, cream, whey cream or buttermilk, or any combination of these materials,
through the action of rennet or other suitable coagulating agents, and by partially
draining the whey resulting from the coagulation, while respecting the principle
that cheese-making results in a concentration of milk protein (in particular, the
casein portion), and that consequently, the protein content of the cheese will
be distinctly higher than the protein level of the blend of the above milk materials
from which the cheese was made and/or
(b) processing techniques involving coagulation of the protein of milk and/or products
obtained from milk, which give an end product with similar physical, chemical,
and organoleptic characteristics as the product defined under (a).
Unripened cheese including fresh cheese is cheese which is ready for consump-
tion shortly after manufacture (Codex Alimentarius Commission 2008a, b). The
composition of unripened cheese is defined in a dedicated standard, the Codex
Group Standard for unripened cheese including fresh cheese (Codex Alimentarius
Commission 2008b). Based on this standard only the following ingredients are
allowed in the production of fresh cheese:
– Starter cultures of harmless lactic acid and/or flavor producing bacteria and
cultures of other harmless microorganisms
– Rennet or other safe and suitable coagulating enzymes
– Sodium chloride
– Potable water
– Gelatin and starches: used in the same function as stabilizers
– Vinegar
– Rice, corn and potato flours and starches as anticaking agents for treatment of the
surface of cut, sliced, and shredded products
Specific German criteria for the ingredients of quark and its composition are
laid down in a German Regulation on Cheese (Käseverordnung 1985). According
to this regulation, milk, cream, skim milk, or whey from the process of quark pro-
duction shall be used as ingredients. Table 3.1 summarizes specific criteria for dif-
ferent types of quark. The whey protein content shall not exceed 18.5 % of the total
protein content.
The typical chemical composition of quark is summarized in Table 3.2.
Concerning the sensory properties, quark should have a color from milky white
to creamy yellow (depending on the fat content), a uniform smooth texture and a
light, acidic taste and smell without any noticeable off-flavor.
3 Quark: A Traditional German Fresh Cheese 23

Table 3.1 Requirements for different types of cheese including quark (Käseverordnung 1985)
Fat content Minimum content Minimum protein
Class [% dry matter] of dry matter [%] content [%]
Magerstufe (low fat) <10 18 12.0
Viertelfettstufe (quarter fat) >10 19 11.3
Halbfettstufe (half fat) >20 20 10.5
Dreiviertelfettstufe >30 22 9.7
(three-quarter fat)
Fettstufe (fat) >40 24 8.7
Vollfettstufe (full fat) >45 25 8.2
Rahmstufe (cream) >50 27 8.0
Doppelrahmstufe (double cream) 60–85 30 6.8

Table 3.2 Chemical composition of different types of quark (Bundesministerium für Landwirtschaft,
Ernährung und Verbraucherschutz 2010)
Low fat Half fat Fat
Energy (kcal/100 g) 75.3 109.5 158.7
Protein (g/100 g) 13.5 12.5 11.1
Fat (g/100 g) 0.2 5.1 11.4
Carbohydrate (g/100 g) 4.0 2.7 2.6
Water (g/100 g) 80.7 78.1 73.4
Calcium (mg/100 g) 114 85 95

3.2 Basics of Quark Processing

Quark traditionally consists of acidic precipitated caseins, the major milk protein
fraction (80 %). The precipitation takes place at the isoelectric point of the caseins
at pH about 4.6; whey proteins (20 % of the milk proteins) do not precipitate. The
acid for precipitation is produced by lactic acid bacteria, naturally present or added
to the product. They metabolize the lactose to lactic acid. Nowadays, lactic acid
bacteria are chosen as starter cultures according to their ability to produce lactic
acid and special aroma compounds and regarding their phage resistance. Upon
acidification, calcium, that stabilizes the casein micelle, is solubilized from
calcium phosphate bridges and the micelles themselves disintegrate. The dissolved
calcium is removed in the process later on; therefore, the calcium content of quark
is rather low compared to rennet-coagulated cheese. Furthermore, the surface
charge of the casein micelles decreases and the caseins aggregate due to hydrophobic
interactions. The supernatant after precipitation, the whey, containing whey proteins,
calcium and water, can be removed from the precipitate in different ways.
24 S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll

Apart from the pure acid coagulation (“Sauermilchquark”) also a combined acid/
rennet coagulation process (“Labquark”) can be performed. Rennet is a mixture of
proteolytic enzymes, which originally was extracted from the stomach mucosa of
young sucking calves. The most important enzyme is the chymosin. As a result
of the increased consumption, the demand for rennet increased considerably and
classical calf rennet had to be replaced. Extracts from special plants (“Labkraut”;
Galium verum) gave no sufficient results (Teichert 1931) and also enzymes from
adult cattle or pigs such as pepsin had side effects like bitter taste. Therefore, nowa-
days rennet is produced with biotechnological methods in high amounts in a con-
stant quality. The primary cleavage site for chymosin is a specific bond between two
amino acids (Phe105-Met106) of κ-casein, an amphiphilic molecule that is stabilizing
the casein micelles in the aqueous environment. However, also proteolytic activity
against the other caseins, e.g., β-casein at Leu192-Tyr193, has been reported (Fox et al.
2000). As reviewed by Schulz-Collins and Senge (2004), combined aggregation by
renneting and acidification leads to a synergistic effect with acidification potentiating
the aggregating tendency of the rennet-treated casein particles.

3.3 Traditional Quark Processing

The production of quark developed from the naturally occurring acidification during
storage of milk and subsequent coagulation of the milk proteins. The first quark was
made more or less “by accident”: In order to increase the yield of cream, milk was
stored for a prolonged period, during which natural acidification occurred. The
resulting product was found to be useful as a food. In the nineteenth century, quark
was almost exclusively produced for home requirements. The main focus on the
farm and in small dairy manufacturers was, for economic reasons, on the production
of butter (Kalka 2004). A milk product booklet from 1911 does not even mention
quark as an industrial product (Reitz 1911). Nevertheless, use of homemade quark
is described in traditional cooking and household books of that time.
At the end of the nineteenth century, industrial milk processing developed and
later on quark production from skim milk as a by-product of cream separation on a
commercial scale started. Knoch (1930) described quark as a fresh by-product,
which is made in the case of excess milk supply in a dairy company. Sometimes,
quark was produced also from slightly acidified raw milk that could not be processed
to fresh drinking milk any more (Teichert 1931). The main problem of quark as a
commercial food product at that time was the stability during transport and storage
without permanent cooling. Therefore, in an overview of commercial food products
(“Warenkunde”) from 1926 Quark is not mentioned as a regular food product but
only as an intermediate product for some cheese types (Kahrs 1926).
A prolongation of shelf-life through implementation of a more hygienic manu-
facturing practice and refrigerators in households was the driving force behind an
industrial quark production development. Henkel (1933) described that quark for
direct consumption (“Speisequark”) was produced by addition of lactic acid bacteria
3 Quark: A Traditional German Fresh Cheese 25

lactic acid
culture /
rennet
heating
filling into sacks,
70-85 °C, cutting,
coagulation draining out
cooling stirring
whey
28-32 °C

Fig. 3.1 Traditional production of quark around 1930

Fig. 3.2 Traditional quark

processing equipment.
(a) Pressing machine
(“Quarkpresse”) for quark
sacks; (b) Quarkfertiger—
vessel with perforated lid;
(c) “Passiermaschine”;
(d) Filling machine
(reproduced with
permission from Niemeyer
1951)

to the milk and according to Teichert (1931) also the combined acid/rennet coagula-
tion process was applied in an industrial scale as shown in Fig. 3.1. Quark is men-
tioned also in a new list of commercial dairy products (Schischke et al. 1934).
The coagulation took place in big vessels (“Quarkwanne”). The traditional
method of draining out the whey was to fill quark into linen or cotton sacks and to
form piles of these sacks, causing pressure on the lower layers. After 7–9 h and
several re-packings of the sacks, they were emptied and cleaned. For a more defined
pressure, the sacks were also treated in a pressing machine (Fig. 3.2a). Later on,
coagulation was performed in a special vessel (“Quarkfertiger”) with a perforated
lid. After fermentation, the coagulum was moderately cut and covered with a cloth,
the vessel was turned for 180° and the whey could drain out through the lid
(Fig. 3.2b). The final water content should always be below 75 % (Henkel 1933);
26 S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll

therefore, the resulting quark was rather dry and crumbly. For a better consistency,
the quark could be treated in a special apparatus (“Passiermaschine”, Fig. 3.2c),
where also the addition of cream for special purposes was possible. Finally, the
quark was filled into barrels or, for more convenience, into small packages (Fig. 3.2d).

3.4 Classical Industrial Quark Processing

From the mid of the twentieth century, quark was produced in a large industrial
scale. This was forced by a new technology for removing the whey. Quark separa-
tion by centrifugation developed as it is still performed nowadays. This process
considerably reduced the time for draining out the whey and was more hygienic
because no clothes or sacks were necessary any more. Moreover, a constant but
variable water content and quality could be achieved.
The separation step is performed in a specifically designed separator (Fig. 3.3).
The coagulum is axially fed into the separator and distributed into the disk stack in
the separating chamber via the rising channels. The disk stack facilitates separation
and mass flow within the chamber. The coagulated protein, the quark, is distally
removed from the separating chamber, while the whey is removed centrally in the
upper part of the bowl.
A typical classical industrial process for quark production is shown in Fig. 3.4.
In a first step the milk is pasteurized in order to inactivate pathogenic microorgan-
isms. This is usually performed at 72–75 °C for 15–30 s. The milk is cooled down
and the lactic acid bacteria are added to the coagulation tank. After stirring, the milk
is left for approximately 90 min until the pH reaches approximately 6.3. Rennet is
added and acidification continues until a pH of 4.5 is reached and a coagulum has
developed. The coagulum is thoroughly stirred to create a homogenous structure
(GEA Westfalia Separator Group GmbH 2010).

Fig. 3.3 Schematic 1 Feed

drawing of a QUARK 2 Discharge, whey
separator (Courtesy of 3 Discharge / cover cooling
4 Centripetal pump, whey
GEA Westfalia Separator 5 Disc stack
Group GmbH, with 6 Segmental insert
permission) 7 Brake ring, cooled
8 Feed, concentrate collector
and brake ring
9 Discharge, frame
10 Sterile air / CIP connection
11 Discharge to quark hopper
12 Concentrate collector
13 Nozzles
14 Rising channels
3 Quark: A Traditional German Fresh Cheese 27

1 Coagulation tank with stirrer 10 Reversing valve A Water feed

2 Self-priming centrifugal pump 11 Quark cooler B Whey discharge
3 Feed tank 12 Storage tank for cream, C Ice water feed
fruit concentrate, herbs etc.
4 Centrifugal pump 13 Cream pump D Ice water discharge
5 Double strainer (reversible) 14 Quark mixer E Skim milk feed
6 Feed regulator 15 Quark silo F To packaging
7 Quark separator 16 Tubular strainer
8 Quark hopper 17 Positive displacement pump
9 Positive displacement pump

Fig. 3.4 Processing line for quark using a standard process (Courtesy of GEA Westfalia Separator
Group GmbH, with permission)

3.5 Modern Quark Processing

Though the classical process is still applied in smaller and more traditional dairy
factories and sometimes also for special products, an alternative process with the
major advantage of an increase in quark yield has been developed and is nowadays
widely used in big companies of the dairy industry. The process is called “Thermo-
Quark” process and includes an intense heating step at the beginning (Fig. 3.5).
After cream separation, skim milk is heated at 82–88 °C for 5–6 min. The tempera-
ture is well above the temperature required for the denaturation of the whey proteins
in milk. During denaturation free thiol groups become available and undergo a
covalent binding via disulfide bridges with the caseins. As a consequence, the whey
proteins are bound and remain in the quark. After thermal treatment, the milk is
cooled down and acidification and renneting is performed in a similar manner to the
conventional process. Since covalent binding of the whey proteins to casein steri-
cally hinders the enzymatic cleavage, the amount of rennet is higher compared to
the conventional process. Acidification to the final pH of 4.5 needs approximately
16 h (GEA Westfalia Separator Group GmbH 2010). In order to facilitate separation
in the quark separator, the coagulum is pre-heated to 40–45 °C by blending ther-
mally treated coagulum (60–65 °C, 2–4 min) with non-heated coagulum.
28 S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll

1 Raw milk silo with stirrer 12 Plate heat exchanger 24 Quark silo
2 Centrifugal pump 13 Tubular regenerator 25 Positive displacement pump
3 Balance tank 14 Double strainer (reversible) 26 Tubular strainer
4 Centrifugal pump 15 Feed regulator A Raw milk feed
5 Plate heat exchanger 16 Quark separator B Cream discharge
6 Tubular regenerator 17 Quark hopper C Culture and rennet dosing
7 Skimming separator 18 Positive displacement pump D Water feed
8 Coagulation tank for vat milk 19 Reversing valve E Whey discharge
with stirrer 20 Quark cooler
9 Centrifugal pump 21 Cream tank F Ice water feed
10 Balance tank with stirrer 22 Positive displacement pump G Ice water discharge
11 Centrifugal pump 23 Quark mixer H To packaging

Fig. 3.5 Processing line for quark using the thermo-quark process (Courtesy of GEA Westfalia
Separator Group GmbH, with permission)

A new technological trend for some non-ripening cheese products since the
1980s is the application of membrane technology (GmbH 2014). There are several
possibilities for the implementation of membrane processing steps (Fig. 3.6).
1. A part of the milk can be treated by ultrafiltration or microfiltration before addi-
tion of bacteria and rennet in order to achieve a certain increase of dry matter
(pre-concentration) up to 4 %. After fermentation, the whey is drained off by
separation as described above.
3 Quark: A Traditional German Fresh Cheese 29

Pre-concentration by Classical Pre-concentration by

membrane filtration standardization membrane filtration

fermentation fermentation fermentation

Whey removal by Whey removal by Whey removal by

separation ultrafiltration ultrafiltration

Fig. 3.6 Possible implementation of membrane filtration steps into quark processing

2. The process can be similar to the thermo-quark process as described above, only
the whey is removed using ultrafiltration.
3. In a combined process pre-concentration as well as whey separation is performed
by ultrafiltration.
Nowadays, commercial quark is a protein-rich smooth product with a creamy
texture, nearly independent on the fat content. Quark is a common ingredient in
dairy-based and bakery products but is consumed also in a more or less pure form.
A broad variety of commercial sweet quark desserts or flavored spreads containing
herbs and other spices is available and even ice-cream has been produced from
quark. Low-fat quark is helpful in diets but also for cooking as a thickener in sauces
and dressings. Quark can be consumed as a plain product on bread or as a dip but is
an ingredient in different sweet and savoury dishes. However, it is important to know
that the application of traditional recipes for homemade food from old cook books,
such as quark cake or soufflé, can be difficult because of the completely different
texture properties of the traditional quark in comparison to the modern industrial
product.

References

Codex Alimentarius Commission (2008a) Codex Group Standard for Unripened Cheese including
Fresh Cheese. Codex Standard 221-2001. http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/stan-
dards/363/CXS_221e.pdf. Visited 20 May 2011
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2008b) Codex General Standard for Cheese. Codex Standard
283-1978. http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/175/CXS_283e.pdf. Visited
20 May 2011
Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010) Bundeslebens
mittelschlüssel. Version 3.01
Fox PF, Guineem TP, Cogan TM, McSweeney PLH (2000) Fundamentals of cheese science.
Aspen, Gaithersburg
30 S. Drusch and U. Einhorn-Stoll

GEA Westfalia Separator Group GmbH (2010) Process lines from GEA Westfalia Separator for
the production of soft cheese. 9997-8254-030/0810 EN
GEA TDS GmbH (2014) Fermented fresh cheese
Henkel E (1933) Die Milch. In: Dammer O (ed) Chemische Technologie der Neuzeit. Verlag von
Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart
Kahrs F (1926) Warenkunde für den Kolonialwaren- und Feinkosthandel. Weltbund, Hamburg
Kalka E (2004) Lebensmittelqualität zwischen Geschmack und Zeichen—Eine natur- und kulturwis-
senschaftliche Analyse am Beispiel von Speisequark. Ph.D. thesis. University of Kassel, Kassel
Käseverordnung (1985) Neugefasst durch B. V. 14.04.1986 BGBl. I S. 412; zuletzt geändert durch
Artikel 4 V. v. 17.12.2010 BGBl. I S. 2132; Geltung ab 23.11.1985
Knoch C (1930) Handbuch der neuzeitlichen Milchverwertung. Verlag von Paul Parey, Berlin
Niemeyer H (1951) Handbuch für Molkereifachleute. Milchwirschaftlicher Verlag Karl Mann,
Hildesheim
Reitz A (1911) Die Milch und ihre Produkte. Verlag von B.G. Teubner, Leipzig
Schischke F, Mohr W, Fehlow G (1934) Dr. Oetkers Warenkunde, Verlag Dr. August Oetker,
Nährmittelfabrik Bielefeld
Schulz-Collins, D, Senge, B (2004) Acid- and acid/rennet-curd cheeses part A: quark, cream
cheese and related varieties. In Fox PF, Mc Sweeney PLH, Cogan, TM, Guinee, TP (eds)
Cheese Chemistry, physics and microbiology, 3rd ed, vol.2 Major chees groups p. 301-328.
Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, CA
Statista (2014) Produktion von Frischkäse in Deutschland in den Jahren 1999 bis 2013. http://
de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/5579/umfrage/produktion-von-frischkaese-in-deutschland-
seit-1999/. Visited 23 Sept 2014
Teichert K (1931) Deutsches Käsereibuch. Verlagsbuchhandlung von Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart
Chapter 4
Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream
Liqueur Production Process

Peter C. Mitchell

Contents
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Irish Cream Liqueurs 33
4.2.1 Cream 33
4.2.2 Ethanol Stability 35
4.2.3 Defects Associated with Cream Liqueurs 35
4.2.4 Controls to Prevent and Minimize Destabilization of Cream Liqueurs 36
4.3 Homogenization Parameters 37
4.3.1 Formulation 37
4.3.2 Premix Quality 38
4.3.3 Valve Technology 39
4.3.4 Homogenization Process 40
4.3.5 Troubleshooting Protocol 41
4.4 Conclusions 41
References 43

4.1 Introduction

The spirit drinks sector in Ireland has a long tradition and strong links to the agri-
cultural sector. Whilst whiskey is the spirit drinks category with the greatest heri-
tage in Ireland, it is the cream-based liqueur category which has grown to prominence
in Irish food history. Today, Baileys as the number one selling liqueur brand in the
world leads the 126 million litre global cream-based liqueur category, with a 46 %

P.C. Mitchell (*)

Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health, University of Ulster,
Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 31

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_4
32 P.C. Mitchell

volume share (Cunnington 2010). The rest of the category is made up of a number
of small global brands and small regional/local producers (Cunnington 2010).
Varnam and Sutherland (1994a) state that liqueurs may be defined as distilled
spirits, which have been sweetened and flavoured with substances of compatible
taste. Traditional methods and practices prevailed in the manufacture of many
liqueurs, until their classification became better defined, particularly in Europe and
the USA. As a sub-classification of spirit drinks, a liqueur must contain at least
15 % alcohol by volume (Clutton 2003). However, there are significant differences
in the liqueur definitions within Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 of the European
Parliament (European Commission 2008) and the Federal Alcohol Administration
Act (Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau 2007), particularly in terms of
minimum sugar content. However, the definitions still allow for a wide variety of
liqueurs to be produced.
Commercial cream liqueurs are added value, long-life, oil-in-water emulsions,
combining the flavour of an alcoholic drink with the texture of thickened cream. To
control the kinetics of the processes that lead to the breakdown of cream liqueurs
requires a device to break up the milk fat globules and disperse them within the
emulsion system, and the addition of stabilizing chemical additives (Bergenstahl
1995) to reduce the interfacial tension and prevent flocculation and coalescence of
the dispersed phase (Kinsella and Whitehead 1989). The dispersed phase is more
likely than not to be partially solidified, and to an extent which is quite strongly
temperature dependent, and thus reference is made interchangeably within this
review to dispersed phase droplets and particles. The high-pressure homogenizer
and caseinates are the respective widely used device and stabilizer in the production
of traditional Irish Cream liqueurs. The inclusion of caseinate means that the prod-
uct cannot be consumed with a mixer drink, as the resulting pH drop would cause
protein precipitation. Traditional Irish Cream liqueurs are some of the finest food
emulsions (Dickinson and Stainsby 1988) where an exemplar manufacturing speci-
fication is 90 % of particles less than 0.5 μm. The particle size of the dispersed
phase droplets influences not only storage stability but also the palatability, mouth-
feel, texture and general appearance of traditional Irish Cream liqueurs.
Whilst the technology platform for the manufacture of stable cream liqueurs has
been in place since 1980s (Banks and Muir 1988), the commercial importance of
these products continued to drive scientific and technical investigations aimed at
increasing volume of production and range of products, and enhancing product quality
in a more demanding global supply chain. Today the use of alternative sources
(Medina Torres, Calderas, Gallegos-Infante, González-Laredo, and Rocha-Guzmán
2009) and new types of ingredients, and enhanced process technologies (Heffernan,
Kelly, and Mulvihill 2009) are under investigation in order to lower the cost of manu-
facture and formulate novel products. So in just over 35 years, traditional Irish Cream
liqueur products and production processes have evolved and modernized. This literature
review will focus on the problems encountered and solved, whilst emphasizing the
control of homogenization parameters, in the production of stable, high-quality
traditional cream-based liqueurs.
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur Production Process 33

Table 4.1 Composition of a Component Traditional product example

traditional cream liqueur
Milk fat 16 % w/w
Added caseinate 3.3 % w/w
Added sugar 19 % w/w
Ethanol 14 % w/wa
Total solids 40 % w/w
Fat to protein 4.2
a
Corresponds to 17 % v/v

4.2 Irish Cream Liqueurs

The composition of cream liqueurs can vary widely with milk fat, added caseinate,
added sugar and ethanol content ranging from 4.5 to 16.5 % w/w, 1.8 to 3.8 % w/w,
17.5 to 22 % w/w and 12.7 to 15.4 % w/w, respectively (Banks et al. 1981a). The
traditional Irish Cream liqueur is a premium product, containing whiskey as part of
the spirit content and a composition which is at high end of the milk fat range. The
composition of one commercial traditional Irish Cream liqueur is shown in Table 4.1.
The manufacture of cream liqueurs is detailed by Banks et al. (1981a), and Banks
and Muir (1985, 1988). The two methods of manufacture discussed are the single-
stage and two-stage methods. In the former, caseinate and sugar are dissolved in the
water at 85 °C by vigorous stirring, and the air is dispersed from the mixture. Next
double cream is blended into the mixture, and alcohol is added. This pre-emulsion
is then heated to 55 °C and homogenized at 27.6 MPa (4000 psi). The two-stage
method differs in that alcohol is added after homogenization. An example of a com-
mercial single-stage process flow diagram for the production of traditional Irish
Cream liqueurs is shown in Fig. 4.1. This highlights the importance of homogeniza-
tion parameters, including the use of the two-stage valve and multiple passes, which
will be covered in Sect. 4.3.
The formulation, testing and stability of 16 % fat by weight cream liqueurs have
been researched (Power 1996). Cream, ethanol stability, the defects associated with
cream liqueurs and the key controls to prevent and minimize destabilizing mecha-
nisms merit particular attention.

4.2.1 Cream

Cream is produced from unhomogenized milk by mechanical separation of the fat

globules. Cream is an oil-in-water emulsion where the globules are dispersed in an
aqueous (serum) phase consisting of protein, lactose and salts. Cream is defined in
the UK as “that part of milk rich in fat that has been separated by skimming or
otherwise”, and legally contains not less than 12 % fat by weight (Early 1998).
34 P.C. Mitchell

Fig. 4.1 Example of a commercial single-stage process flow diagram for the production of tradi-
tional Irish Cream liqueurs
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur Production Process 35

The World Health Organization standards for the minimum fat content by weight of
creams are: half, 10–18 %; single, 18 %; whipping, 28 %; heavy whipping, 35 %
and double, 45 % (Varnam and Sutherland 1994b).
Cream suitability for processing relates to fat content, acidity, seasonality, storage,
handling and heat treatment (Rothwell 1989; Towler 1994). Cream homogenization
and increased storage time increase cream viscosity. Winter cream has poorer ethanol
stability in comparison to cream separated from mid-lactation milk (Rothwell 1989).
Double cream is the most usual source of milk fat in traditional Irish Cream
liqueurs. Double cream contains surface active materials at circa 0.55 % by weight,
which includes protein and the naturally occurring milk fat globule membrane
(Anderson 1991). The protein to fat ratio in double cream is circa 0.04 (Muir and
Banks 1986). When double cream undergoes slight homogenization, fat globules
clump together and cluster, and there is a marked thickening of the cream (Mulder
and Walstra 1974). Cream liqueurs employ a much higher protein to fat ratio, and
also use more severe homogenization pressures (Muir and Banks 1986). It is the use
of double cream at circa 33 % of the formulation that gives the traditional Irish
Cream liqueur its richness and body, and masks the harshness of the alcohol (Muir
and Banks 1984).

4.2.2 Ethanol Stability

The addition of ethanol is used as an indicator of milk stability. The higher the calcium
concentration, the less stable the caseinate complex to ethanol (Davies and White
1958). Horne and Parker (1980) increased the ethanol stability of milk by increasing
the pH above 7. Horne and Muir (1990) demonstrated that the level of free calcium
controls the ethanol stability of the milk system. This finding has proved extremely
useful in the production of cream liqueurs. The inclusion of citrate to sequester
calcium prevents calcium-associated instability eliminating one of the major defects
of cream liqueurs (Banks et al. 1981a).

4.2.3 Defects Associated with Cream Liqueurs

The main defects which occur in cream liqueurs are: (1) creaming, where the fat
forms a layer at the surface of the liqueur; (2) formation of a plug of cream or fat in
the neck of the bottle; (3) gelation of the bulk of the product with some accompanying
syneresis and (4) appearance of a slight granular precipitate at the bottom of the
bottle (Banks and Muir 1985; Banks and Muir 1988; and Dickinson, Narhan, and
Stainsby 1989).
Creaming is the gravitational separation of emulsified droplets. This results in the
formation of layers, with oil volume fractions higher than that of the original emulsion.
The creamed layer is usually visible to the naked eye.
36 P.C. Mitchell

Creaming in cream liqueurs is usually reversible as gentle shaking will redis-

perse the fat layer. The formation of a cream plug or “cohesive cream” in cream
liqueur is more likely in cream liqueur formulations at low pH, high calcium content
or low emulsifier content. The effect of these factors will be increased substantially
by temperature fluctuations during storage (Banks et al. 1981a; Dickinson et al.
1989).
The type of gel which may form due to instability in cream liqueurs is classified
as a particle gel (Clark 1992; Power 1996). This gel undergoes syneresis with the
separation of a clear liquid at the bottom of the bottle.
The sodium or potassium salts of citric acid may be used to sequester calcium in
emulsions. Ionic calcium has a major effect on the stability of dairy products including
cream liqueurs (Banks et al. 1981a; Davies and White 1958; Horne and Muir 1990).
Citrate binds with the calcium, preventing instability. The appearance of a slightly
granular precipitate has occasionally been observed at the bottom of the bottle. This is
believed to be excess citrate. Citrate complexes the calcium in the liqueur and reduces
the possibility of gelation and thus increases the shelf life at ambient temperature from
months to years (Banks and Muir 1988). In the traditional product example shown in
Table 4.1, tri-sodium citrate di-hydrate is used at a level of 0.19 % by weight of the total
formulation.

4.2.4 Controls to Prevent and Minimize Destabilization

of Cream Liqueurs

Steric (polymeric) repulsion, electrical double layers (electrostatic repulsion) and

increased continuous phase viscosity are the main mechanisms for the stabilization
of food emulsions (Schubert and Armbruster 1989). Steric repulsion, attributed to
the protruding part of the casein molecule, and the repulsion by charged protru-
sions of the particles with similar charges are very important in the formation of
stable cream liqueurs (Narhan 1987). As the alcohol level increases in a cream
liqueur, there is a reduction in steric repulsion and an increase in the viscosity of
the continuous phase, with a resultant increase in particle aggregation and coales-
cence (Banks and Muir 1985). However, alcohol-induced aggregation will occur
above 17.5 % w/w alcohol strength, which must be avoided (Banks and Muir
1988). Excess heat treatment of cream must also be avoided in the production of
traditional Irish Cream liqueurs so as to prevent aggregation by cross-linking
(Power 1996). The addition of tri-sodium citrate to bind ionic calcium, which
would otherwise aggregate casein micelles, and ensuring the pH is above 6.8 are
also important controls in the production of traditional Irish Cream liqueurs (Muir
1989). Temperature controls are also important so as to minimize fat crystalliza-
tion, which could result in bridging between particles, and to avoid temperature
cycling with agitation, which could result in the desorption of the protective
protein layer (Narhan 1987).
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur Production Process 37

4.3 Homogenization Parameters

In cream liqueur production, the term “homogenization” and “homogenizer” refer

to the process and equipment related to the classically recognized homogenizer,
which was first developed by Auguste Gaulin for milk treatment (Tunick 2009). In
such a high-pressure homogenizer, a positive displacement pump, usually of plunger
or piston type, is used to force the liquid into the homogenizing valve where
mechanical energy is used to break drops into smaller droplets (Wilbey 1992).
The premix enters the valve seat at a relatively constant rate of flow, relatively
low velocity and high pressure (10–40 MPa or 1450–5801 psi) and, as it begins to
move into the narrow adjustable gap between the valve and the seat (15–300 μm), it
undergoes a very rapid rise in velocity and decrease in pressure causing turbulence,
cavitation and intense mixing. For example, a pressure drop of 13.8 MPa or 2000 psi
causes a velocity in excess of 160 m/s and the whole process of homogenization is
complete in less than 50 μs (Pandolfe and Kinney 1983). Turbulence on the low-
pressure side of the valve is probably the most important factor leading to the for-
mation of fine droplets (Dickinson 1992). Whilst the correlations between
characteristics of turbulence and cavitation, parameters of homogenizing valves and
homogenization efficiency are insufficiently known (Rovinsky 1994), much is now
understood about the efficient operation of high-pressure homogenization in Irish
Cream liqueur production. Current understanding of homogenization parameters is
now briefly discussed under the following headings: formulation; premix quality;
valve technology; homogenization process; and troubleshooting protocol.

4.3.1 Formulation

Important characteristics of formulation which influence homogenization efficiency

are the amount and type of emulsifier, the dispersed phase concentration and the
viscosity of the dispersed and continuous phases.
The emulsifier lowers the interfacial tension between the two phases being
homogenized, and therefore makes more efficient use of the available energy. Less
homogenizing energy is required to overcome interfacial tension. Also, the emulsi-
fier stabilizes the new interfacial area formed during homogenization and later pre-
vents coalescence and agglomeration of the droplets. The cost of emulsifier is many
times more than the cost of the mechanical energy thus the high-energy homoge-
nizer is more economical than the low-energy mixer for emulsification (APV n.d.c).
If the concentration of the emulsifier is insufficient or the wrong type of emulsifier
is used, overworking occurs (Pandolfe 1995). This can be recognized if an increased
average droplet size or even the formation of two separate phases of the emulsion is
obtained on increasing the homogenization pressure. This is because the emulsifier
cannot cover the expanded surface of the smaller droplets leading to a rate of coales-
cence which exceeds the rate of disruption. At a low protein to fat ratio of 0.10,
38 P.C. Mitchell

Muir and Banks (1986) found that the long-term stability of a traditional cream
liqueur, which used sodium caseinate as the stabilizer, was poor, and when such a
premix was subject to severe homogenization, it could lead to the formation of large
particles with subsequent creaming and fat plug formation. Whilst the protein to fat
ratio is 0.21 in the traditional Irish Cream liqueur example (Table 4.1), there are
other stable 16 % w/w fat and 17 %v/v traditional Irish Cream liqueurs which use a
lower protein to fat ratio by combining a low molecular weight emulsifier, such as
the nonionic glycerol monostearate (Euston 2008), with a reduced level of sodium
caseinate in the premix. In the production of cream liqueurs there are advantages to
be gained from using certain types of caseinate (Muir and Dalgleish 1987), and thus
manufacturers have a preferred caseinate supplier. Lynch and Mulvihill (1997) con-
cluded that changes in the apparent viscosity of cream liqueurs on storage at 45 °C
are caseinate dependent, and suggested that electrostatic and sulphydryl interactions
may be involved in these changes. Medina Torres et al. (2009) also observed signifi-
cant changes, with storage time at 40 °C, in apparent viscosity and particle size
distribution between caseinate batches which differed in metallic ion content. The
best caseinate batch for longer term cream liqueur stability and reduced age thickening
had the lowest total metallic (Ca++ and Na+) ion content.
As the concentration of the dispersed phase is increased, the probability of the
droplets not being reduced in size is increased (Pandolfe 1995). At a constant fat to
emulsifier ratio and constant homogenization pressure, the increase in average
particle size with increased dispersed phase concentration from 4.5 to 16.5 % w/w
milk fat would be very small. However, once above a minimum milk fat volume
fraction which is homogenization pressure dependent, the average particle size will
increase with increasing dispersed phase concentration (Phipps 1983). When the
emulsifier is required to handle an increasing surface area, it may not be able to
stabilize the interface before droplets collide and coalescence occurs.
As the dispersed phase viscosity is increased, the average particle size of the
homogenized product decreases. As the continuous phase viscosity is increased,
there is a slight increase in the average particle size of the homogenized product, but
above a viscosity of 50 mPa.s (cP), the average particle size remains constant
(Pandolfe and Kinney 1983). The specification for apparent viscosity at 25 °C and
39.6 s−1 shear rate for the traditional Irish Cream liqueur example given in Table 4.1
is 28–38 mPa.s (cP).

4.3.2 Premix Quality

At any given homogenizing pressure, a fixed amount of energy is available for

particle size reduction. If a significant portion of this energy is needed to reduce
very large particles, then there will not be enough energy left over to work on the
smaller particles and reduce them even further (Masucci 1989a). Thus to maximize
homogenization efficiency, it is important to improve premix quality, as measured
by uniformity and smaller particle size, whether by altering raw material quality,
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur Production Process 39

the formulation, the batch preparation method or the mechanical premix device
employed (Masucci 1989a; Pandolfe and Kinney 1983). In cream liqueur produc-
tion, the premixing of phases to form a pre-emulsion must be preceded by the
dispersion of the powdered ingredients. Caseinates are very cohesive and have a
tendency to form agglomerates. Caseinates are difficult to dissolve and will rapidly
increase in apparent viscosity, especially if added directly to cream (Silverson
n.d.). In cream liqueur production, long mixing times, the resting of caseinate after
dissolution and the testing of the pre-emulsion prior to homogenization for % of
particles less than 2 μm and apparent viscosity (39.6 s−1 shear rate) at the tempera-
ture at which homogenization occurs (55 °C), have traditionally been used to
ensure an acceptable premix quality. In recent times, the addition of a high-shear
in-line mixer to the existing cream liqueur production process has been adopted by
one manufacturer so as to give agglomeration-free dispersion of caseinate, rapid
mixing times, a more uniform, stable pre-emulsion of low particle size and faster
processing through the high-pressure homogenizer (Silverson n.d.). Short- and
long-term stability benefits have been realized in cream liqueur production prac-
tice, although use of the in-line mixer can lead to greater age thickening of the
cream liqueur.
Inclusion of air in the raw product, during premixing but more frequently by
leakage through the seals and/or gaskets of the homogenizer system, reduces
homogenization efficiency and results in the formation of a cream line shortly after
homogenization as very small fat particles which would not have separated other-
wise adhere to the surfaces of the air bubbles which escape to the surface of the
product. Increasing the homogenizing pressure will result in even smaller bubbles
of air; therefore, an even more severe separation of the fat occurs as these air bub-
bles escape to the surface (APV, n.d.a).

4.3.3 Valve Technology

The key to any homogenizer is valve technology. Whilst there a wide variety of
high-technology valves for different applications (Pandolfe 1999), a standard “plug-
flow” valve geometry configured as a two-stage valve assembly is used for most
emulsions, including cream liqueurs. An exception in dairy emulsions is the use of
a Gaulin Micro-Gap homogenizing valve assembly in high volume liquid milk pro-
cessing to produce the same or better product quality at up to 40 % lower pressure,
and thus reduced energy cost, and with increased valve life (Pandolfe 1999).
In a two-stage design, the second stage establishes controlled backpressure, con-
centrating the energy in the first homogenizing zone and also minimizing the pos-
sibility of clumping/coalescence. In evaluating valve combinations, it has been
found that with fluid milk at any given homogenizing pressure, efficiency is
increased by the use of a second-stage valve, whereby 10 % to a maximum of 20 %
of the total pressure is applied by the second-stage valve (APV, n.d.b). To give the
desired total pressure, which can be 27.6 MPa (4000 psi) in cream liqueur production,
40 P.C. Mitchell

the second-stage valve is set first, at for example 12.5 % of the total pressure
(3.45 MPa; 500 psi), followed by the first-stage valve, to give an actual pressure
drop of 24.1 MPa (3500 psi) through the first-stage valve.

4.3.4 Homogenization Process

In the homogenizing valve, according to turbulence theory it has been shown that
the homogenizing pressure (P) is related to the average volume/surface diameter
(dvs) by Eq. (4.1)

d vs is proportional to P -0.6 (4.1)

So increasing the homogenizing pressure will reduce the average particle size
and increase the energy input costs (Pandolfe and Kinney 1983). Banks et al.
(1981b) reported the typical total pressure for homogenization in pilot plant cream
liqueur production as 27.6 MPa (4000 psi), but with a requirement for a second pass
through the homogenizer at the same total pressure. Muir and Banks (1986) con-
ducted their pilot scale work on multiple homogenizations of cream liqueurs at
31.0 MPa (4500 psi). Widmar and Tripp (1990) presented their single pass process,
using a total pressure for homogenization of 34.5 MPa (5000 psi), for the prepara-
tion of cream-based liqueurs.
The temperature of homogenization is important, particularly as it relates to the
viscosity of the dispersed phase. Banks et al. (1981b) used a homogenization tem-
perature of 55 °C in the two pass pilot scale production of cream liqueurs at a total
homogenization pressure of 27.6 MPa (4000 psi), and subsequently Muir and Banks
(1986) used 50 °C in a multiple homogenization of cream liqueurs investigation.
Many applications require a very uniform droplet size distribution in the emulsion,
either for control of creaming rate or for some physical action or characteristic required
of the emulsion. This can be accomplished in the homogenizer by passing the product
more than once through the valve (Pandolfe and Kinney 1983). Multiple passes do not
reduce the modal particle size but reduce the probability of having oversized particles
thereby leading to a narrower distribution of sizes. A single pass process minimizes
production time and maximizes product consistency but for an extremely uniform
particle size as discussed above or for products such as cream liqueurs which require
a very small (0.1–0.3 μm) average particle size, it is simply not possible to reach these
goals in a single pass through a homogenizer (Masucci 1989b).
If the average particle size is greater than the critical particle size, then the
homogenizing pressure should be increased. On the other hand, if there is sizeable
tail of particles greater than the critical diameter or a bimodal distribution where the
second peak occurs at a particle size in excess of the critical diameter, then the num-
ber of passes should be increased (Masucci 1989c). This rule of thumb assumes that
the premix quality is good, the formulation is correct and there are no mechanical
deficiencies (Masucci 1989c).
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur Production Process 41

In production of stable, high-quality traditional Irish Cream liqueurs by one

manufacturer (Fig. 4.1), the optimal homogenization temperature and total pressure
and number of passes are considered to be 57 °C, 27.6 MPa (4000 psi) and two,
respectively. Whilst the case for two passes is well established, there may well be a
case to gain energy savings through the use of a lower homogenization temperature
and total pressure of 55 °C and 24.1 MPa (3500 psi), respectively, without detriment
to the traditional Irish Cream liqueur stability and quality.

4.3.5 Troubleshooting Protocol

A troubleshooting protocol for the production of traditional Irish Cream liqueurs

can be specified (Fig. 4.2) based on the scientific and technical literature review and
observations at one manufacturer.

4.4 Conclusions

Traditional Irish Cream liqueurs are added value, long-life, oil-in-water emul-
sions, combining the flavour of an alcoholic drink with the texture of thickened
cream. The fundamental studies of a number of workers in the UK and Ireland
during the 1980s have enabled the significant commercial problems associated
with the production of Irish Cream liqueurs to be overcome. Effective classical
high-pressure homogenization and selection of sodium caseinate, either as the
sole stabilizer at a protein to fat ratio of circa 0.2 or combined with glycerol
monostearate at a reduced level, can prevent creaming and fat plug formation.
Addition of tri-sodium citrate di-hydrate at 0.19 % by weight in the formulation
can prevent emulsion destabilization by calcium-induced aggregation and mini-
mize calcium citrate crystal deposits in an exemplar Irish Cream liqueur. The
standard two-stage design “plug-type” homogenizer valve is widely used in the
production of Irish Cream liqueurs. For efficient homogenization operation, it is
important to achieve a good premix quality, exclude air, control the dispersed
phase viscosity and effectively specify homogenization parameters. The use of a
high-shear in-line mixer within the process improves premix quality. A homoge-
nization temperature of 55 °C helps to control the dispersed phase viscosity.
Effective homogenization results through the use of a total pressure in two stages,
typically at 24.1 MPa (3500 psi) and 3.45 MPa (500 psi), and over two homogeni-
zation passes. There may be a case for a lower total homogenization pressure
(24.1 MPa; 3500 psi) based on energy savings, and the use of a troubleshooting
protocol for the production of traditional Irish Cream liqueurs. The commercial
importance of cream-based liqueurs will continue to drive scientific and technical
developments aimed at lowering the cost of manufacture, reformulating existing
products and generating innovative new products.
42 P.C. Mitchell

Action Comment

Is emulsifier Use sample per batch to Wrong type or inactive

supply prepare a standard lab emulsifier leads to
QC action
approved? no liqueur. If 98% are not coalescence or breaking.
<0.8µm then reject. (↑ Pressure to detect)
yes

Is emulsifier Signed off by operator. Insufficient emulsifier

weighed out leads to coalescence.
Production action
verified? no

yes

Is premix Adjust fat to within Slight increase in mean

fat content to specification. particle size at higher fat.
QC action
specification? no

yes

Is premix Particle size for premix. Poor premix will result

quality QC action If 70% are not < 2µm in larger mean particle
good? no then recirculate. size.

yes

Is homogenizer.
temperature Production action Signed off by operator Low temperature increases
verified? no fat viscosity resulting in
larger mean particle size.
yes

Are both Signed off by engineer. Inclusion of air results in

valve seals/ creaming shortly after
gaskets air Engineer action homogenization. (↑ Pressure
no
tight? to detect)

yes

Are stage 1 Signed off by operator. 2nd stage increases efficiency

& 2 pressures Production action and minimizes clumping.
on two valves no
varified?

yes

Is passed Signed off by operator. Needed to reduce probability

through Production action of oversized particles.
2 valves? no

yes

Are 98% Pass through again. Use Higher pressure should make
particles < Production action higher pressure if mean overworking detectable.
0.8µm? particle size is >0.4µm. Rework if not in specification

yes

Approved for packaging

Fig. 4.2 Troubleshooting protocol for the production of traditional Irish Cream liqueurs
4 Modernization of the Traditional Irish Cream Liqueur Production Process 43

References

Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (2007) Laws and Regulations under the Federal
Alcohol Administration Act. Department of the Treasury, Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade
Bureau, Washington, DC, pp 6–167
Anderson M (1991) Functional aspects of milk fat constituents. In: Rajah KK, Burgess KJ (eds)
Production, technology and utilisation. The Society of Dairy Technology, Huntingdon, pp 9–17
APV (n.d.a) Effect of air on homogenizing efficiency and product quality, APV, Technical Bulletin,
TB-72:1–2
APV (n.d.b) The effect of the second-stage homogenizing valve. APV, Technical Bulletin, TB-58:1–2
APV (n.d.c) An evaluation of emulsifier cost versus processing energy cost. APV, Technical
Bulletin, TB-61:1–3
Banks W, Muir DD (1985) Effect of alcohol content on emulsion stability of cream liqueurs. Food
Chem 18(2):139–152
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Chapter 5
Modernization of Skyr Processing:
Icelandic Acid-Curd Soft Cheese

Gudmundur Gudmundsson and Kristberg Kristbergsson

Contents
5.1 Introduction 45
5.2 Traditional Production 46
5.3 Modern Production 49
5.4 Research 50
5.5 Regulations and Composition 52
References 53

5.1 Introduction

Skyr is a traditional product which is very popular today but has been a part of the
diet in Iceland since the Viking era. It was a staple food in the old agricultural soci-
ety of Iceland and both sheep and cattle were raised for milk production and the
making of skyr (Gisladottir 1999). When the food supply in Iceland was modern-
ized during the last century, skyr proved to be suitable for mass production and
distribution.
Skyr is a fresh acid-curd soft cheese made from skim milk. Among related prod-
ucts in other countries are quarg in Germany, tvorog in Russia, and the Arabic lab-
neh (Fox et al. 2000; Nsabimana et al. 2005).

G. Gudmundsson
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Iceland, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
LYSI hf., Fiskislod 5-9, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
K. Kristbergsson (*)
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Iceland, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 45

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_5
46 G. Gudmundsson and K. Kristbergsson

Skyr has texture similar to a thick yogurt and is normally consumed as such. This
type of cheese is produced by the coagulation of milk proteins by acidification, or
the combined action of acid and heat, with or without a small quantity of rennet.
Skyr has probably been a part of the Icelandic diet since the first settlers arrived
in Iceland more than one thousand years ago (Gisladottir 1999). It is mentioned in
medieval Icelandic literature and remnants of products similar to skyr have been
found in archaeological excavations of medieval farms in Iceland.
The old society of Iceland was based on agriculture and remained without much
change until the end of the nineteenth century. Farms were based on self-sufficiency
and most of a farm’s produce was consumed on location. In this society, skyr was a
staple food and both sheep and cattle were raised for milk production and the making
of skyr. Normally at the time only a part of the milk was consumed fresh, and most
of it was separated into cream and skim milk, the cream was used for butter, while
the skim milk was used to make skyr. In skyr production both curds and skyr whey
were collected. The latter was used as a drink or for the preservation of meat
by pickling. The importance of skyr whey was probably one of the main reasons
why skyr production was considered more economical than production of hard
cheeses (Gisladottir 1999).
In the first part of the twentieth century enormous social changes took place in
Iceland. Agriculture was modernized, new industries evolved, small towns appeared,
and the established ones grew rapidly. This urbanization called for changes in the
food production and a new market for food had emerged and this market needed to
be supplied. Since cow milk is much better suited for mass production than ewe
milk, cow milk became the dominant type of milk produced. At the same time, dairies
were established to process and distribute milk to the new market, and gradually
took over the production of dairy products from farms.
Although skyr is a traditional product, which was tightly linked to the needs and
practices of the old society, it has proved to be suitable for mass production and
distribution. Actually it has in the last decade undergone a revival with constantly
increasing consumption. In Iceland in 2004 the consumption of skyr and a type of
set yogurt called “skyr.is” was 10.7 kg per capita and had then increased more than
twofold in ten years (Anon 2005). Still modern technology has shaped this product
in such a manner it now suits a completely different world. In 2015 the main dairy
in Iceland MS produced 36 million containers of skyr.is where 11.5 million were
used for domestic consumption. One needs to view this number with respect to the
total population of Iceland which is only 320,000. The rest 24.5 million containers
was exported to Europe and USA with about 2/3 to Scandinavia.

5.2 Traditional Production

Up to the beginning of last century two main types of skyr were produced depend-
ing on whether rennet was used or not. In “auto-coagulated skyr” rennet was omit-
ted and lactic acid bacteria gradually coagulated the skim milk, but in “coagulated
skyr,” a small quantity of rennet from calve abomasum’s (fourth and final stomach
5 Modernization of Skyr Processing: Icelandic Acid-Curd Soft Cheese 47

compartment in ruminants) was used to speed up the skyr making. In the production
of “auto-coagulated” skyr, a large vessel was used, which took days or weeks to fill
with skim milk. Prior to filling of the skyr vessel used for incubation a small amount
of fresh skyr was placed at the bottom of the vessel for inoculation and the skyr was
allowed to ferment overnight. Sometimes the skim milk was heated to boiling and
cooled down before pouring in the vessel, but sometimes heating was omitted.
When the vessel was full and the milk had coagulated, the whey was separated from
the curds using cloth (Gudmundsson 1914). Production of “auto-coagulated” skyr is
not suitable for modernization and this type of skyr probably disappeared at the
beginning of last century, when commercial rennet became available and the pro-
cessing of milk gradually moved from farms to dairies.
Today some traditional production of skyr is still practiced in Iceland, but both
the production methods and probably the product itself, differ from that produced
by the old production process. Skyr is coagulated with a combined action of lactic
acid bacteria and rennet (“coagulated skyr”) but in the modern production of skyr.is
there is no rennet used. Production on farms these days is almost nonexistent and
traditional skyr available at the commercial market is produced in modern dairies,
utilizing modern equipment (Fig. 5.1).
The production of traditional skyr may be divided into four steps: pasteurization,
incubation, cooling, and cloth filtration (Fig. 5.2). Fermentation and precipitation of
curds takes place during the cooling phase. What makes the process and product
“traditional” is the use of skyr from an earlier batch as a starter and separation of
curds and whey by filtration through cheese cloth. Gudmundsson (1987) describes
the traditional production as follows:
Skim milk was heated to 90-100 °C and then cooled down to 40 °C. Water-diluted skyr
from an earlier production was added, approximately 15 gr. per liter of milk along with
[commercial] cheese rennet, approximately 6 ml. per 100 liters of skim milk. This was
allowed to sour until it reached a pH of about 4.7, taking 4½ to 5½ hours. The liquid was
cooled down to 18–20 °C and left for about 18 hours or until the pH reached 4.2. Then the
filtering was started by pouring the skyr curd into linen bags and the whey allowed to drain

pH

40 °C
flavour

pH 4.0-4.2

temperature

yeast activity

acidification cooling post-souring filtration/cooling

Fig. 5.1 Production of traditional skyr. The figure is for illustrative purposes (Reconstructed from:
Magnusson 1986)
48 G. Gudmundsson and K. Kristbergsson

Skim milk

Pasteurization Pasteurization
(95 °C; 5 min) (90 °C; 30 min)

Incubation with pure Incubation with pure cultures Incubation with skyr
cultures (38 °C; 16 h) + rennet (38 °C; 16 h) + rennet (40 °C; 4-6 h)

Thermisation Pasteurization Cooling to 20 °C

Separation in Cloth filtration

Ultrafiltration
quarg-separator at 4-10 °C (24 h)

Skyr Skyr Skyr

Dry matter 16-17% Dry matter 16-17% Dry matter 18-20%

Cooling Cooling Packing

Packing Packing

Ultrafiltration (UF) Quarg-separator (SE) Cloth filtration (CF)

Fig. 5.2 Different methods of skyr preparation (Gudmundsson 2007)

through the bag for approximately 6 hours at a temperature of 19–20 °C, and then for
another 18 hours at 6–8 °C.
The total filtering time was about 24 hours, leaving the finished skyr with a pH of 3.8-4.0
and a dry matter of 17–20 %. To make one kilogram of skyr, 5 liters of skim milk were
needed.

Considerable variation was and still is between different producers of traditional

skyr. Heating and cooling profiles differ, but they are to a certain extent determined
by available facilities and equipment. Also quantity and quality of starter and quan-
tity of rennet varies greatly (Petursson 1939a). Petursson (1939a) recommends
0.1–0.15 % starter and 5 ppm rennet and Magnusson (1986) recommends 0.01–0.1 %
starter and 50–100 ppm rennet. According to the description above (Gudmundsson
1987) 1.5 % diluted skyr and 60 ppm of rennet would be appropriate, but the dilu-
tion factor is lacking, which makes comparison difficult.
The texture of the skyr produced, as described by Gudmundsson (1987), is firm
and water or milk has to be mixed with the skyr before serving. The taste is probably
much less sour than the taste of the old production styled skyr, but the shelf life is
also that much shorter. In the old days it was necessary to keep skyr for months, as
the summer production of skyr had to be stored until winter. This skyr which became
very sour, called “sour-skyr,” was stored in tightly closed barrels, which were sealed
with tallow to retard growth of molds (Petursson 1939b; Magnusson 1967a).
5 Modernization of Skyr Processing: Icelandic Acid-Curd Soft Cheese 49

5.3 Modern Production

Production of skyr has changed dramatically over the last 80 years. Today the raw
material is thoroughly standardized, acidification, heating and cooling accurately
controlled and a large part of the production is inoculated with pure bacteria
cultures (Fig. 5.2). The main difference between traditional skyr, as described previ-
ously, and modern skyr production, in addition to the use of pure starter cultures,
lies probably in the separation of curds and whey (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4). The large
diaries have modernized this process. This started with the introduction of quarg-
separators. As a result the yield increased almost 30 %, although a large part of the
whey proteins were still leached out with the whey (Gudmundsson 1987).
Quarg-separators are still in use, but today the bulk of the production is concen-
trated by ultrafiltration (Fig. 5.2). This method results in a much higher protein
yield, since the whey proteins are retained in the curds and loss of casein is mini-
mized. The product is similar to yogurt that is allowed to set in the final retail con-
tainer. At the same time the protein composition of the skyr has changed because the
ultra-filtered skyr (skyr.is) contains a higher ratio of whey proteins than skyr
produced by cloth filtration or separation. According to Gudmundsson (2007) the
modern skyr.is has a more porous microstructure but similar stability against oscil-
latory shear. This may be due to the high level of whey proteins.

Fig. 5.3 Tunnel for traditional separation of curd and whey. The skyr curds were placed in linen
bags and loaded in the tunnel. The tunnel was rotated in order to speed up separation of curds and
whey. The process went on overnight in the skyr separators (Saemundsson 1954)
50 G. Gudmundsson and K. Kristbergsson

Fig. 5.4 Ultrafiltration of modern skyr (©MS Selfoss, Iceland)

One large dairy in Iceland uses a method, which is a combination of old and new
technologies, where skyr is used as a starter, together with ultrafiltration for the
separation of curds and whey.
The modern skyr is without doubt very different from the skyr produced in the old
days. The acidification is most likely less and accordingly the taste much less acidic
or sour. The texture has also changed, being much softer today. In part, this can be
explained by a lower content of dry matter, but the new separation methods also
influence the texture making the skyr smoother. Due to the softer texture there is no
need for blending skyr with milk or water before consumption. In the last few years
a new product “skyr drink,” a very thin skyr type consumed as a drink, has become
immensely popular especially among school children.

5.4 Research

Through the years relatively little effort has been devoted to scientific research on
skyr. In the dairy industry various aspects of skyr production have been studied, but
the results have usually not been published in the scientific literature. All the same,
skyr research in Iceland has a long tradition. It started 100 years ago with the work
of Gudmundsson (1914) on the microbiology of skyr.
Gudmundsson described lactic acid bacteria in skyr, which appeared to be very
similar to the principal lactic acid bacteria in Bulgarian yogurt. These were cocci and
5 Modernization of Skyr Processing: Icelandic Acid-Curd Soft Cheese 51

bacilli, which when used for the acidification of milk gave very comparable results
to yogurt bacteria. However, Gudmundsson tried to acidify skyr with pure cultures of
these bacteria, but without success. According to his results, unfiltered skyr from
pure cultures had a very similar taste to unfiltered ordinary skyr, but after filtration
the taste of the test product was inferior to good genuine skyr. Gudmundsson
explained this by the lack of yeast activity in the former. He claimed yeast produced
ethanol and other volatile chemicals, which improved the flavor of skyr (Gudmundsson
1914). This assertion signified the start of a long debate on the importance of yeast
for the quality of skyr.
The most extensive scientific research on skyr took place 25 years later, when
Petursson (1938, 1939a, b) studied the microflora of skyr and various aspects of
skyr production technology. In accordance with earlier results of Gudmundsson
(1914), Petursson found lactic acid bacteria and yeast to be the principal microor-
ganisms in skyr. The lactic acid bacteria were of the types Streptococcus and
Thermobacterium. Petursson found three lactic acid bacteria to be most important.
These he classified with almost certainty as Streptococcus thermophilus,
Thermobacterium bulgaricum (Lactobacillus bulgaricus), and Th. jugurt (L. jugurt).
Petursson also found many strains of yeast in skyr, but all grew poorly in milk if it
did not also contain lactic acid bacteria. Petursson did not consider yeast beneficial
for the production or quality of skyr, but rather that yeast could impart off-flavors
and limit the shelf life of skyr (Petursson 1938).
Petursson tested single strains and various combinations of bacteria in skyr pro-
duction. He concluded that the combination of S. thermophilus and Th. jugurt seemed
essential for the production of good quality and high yield, S. thermophilus being
important for fast fermentation and acidification and Th. jugurt for flavor. Adding
yeast to the lactic acid bacteria did not improve the product (Petursson 1938).
According to Petursson, pure bacteria cultures could successfully be used to
produce skyr. This was tested in a dairy on both pilot and production scales with
good results. Further production tests with pure cultures of lactic acid bacteria were
probably not carried out. At that time Petursson was already supplying the dairies
with pure cultures, which contained yeast besides lactic acid bacteria (Petursson
1938, 1939a).
Petursson (1939a) studied various other factors in the production of skyr, pre-
heating of skim milk, fermentation temperature, use of cheese rennet, and quantity
of starter. The main results were as follows:
1. Preheating the skim milk at 90–100 °C for a few minutes gave optimum yield
and texture.
2. Fermentation temperature and cooling profile had a major effect on the quality
of skyr. Inoculation at a temperature of 40–45 °C with very slow cooling resulted
in optimum flavor and texture.
3. At a low fermentation temperature the use of rennet was important for expediting
coagulation, but if the milk was set at a high temperature (45 °C), addition of
rennet did not appear to be important.
52 G. Gudmundsson and K. Kristbergsson

4. Suitable concentration of starter for an inoculation temperature of 40–45 °C was

0.1–0.15 %, based on undiluted skyr. A higher concentration was needed if
fermentation temperature was low.
Later Magnusson (1967b) continued with the studies on the microbiology and
production of skyr. He isolated bacteria and yeast in skyr and concluded that S.
thermophilus and L. bulgaricus were the most important bacteria in skyr. According
to Magnusson the streptococci did not on their own give skyr of good quality. The
acidification was normal, but the skyr was dry and lacked flavor. Similarly lactoba-
cilli did not give good skyr. The acidification was too slow, the skyr was too thin and
lacked acidity. The combination of S. thermophilus and L. bulgaricus turned out to
be necessary for the production of good quality skyr, although according to
Magnusson it lacked the characteristic flavor of yeast. Magnusson tried to answer
the question whether yeast was necessary for skyr flavor, but the results were incon-
clusive. He suggested this depended on whether the skyr was consumed fresh or not.
For consumers, which were used to freshly prepared skyr, the yeast flavor was per-
haps not a benefit. On the other hand, consumers, which were accustomed to more
excessively fermented skyr, might prefer skyr with yeast flavor. Magnusson tried to
identify the yeast giving the characteristic skyr flavor and according to his results
only Saccharomyces steineri gave the typical yeast flavor (Magnusson 1967b).
It is of interest to note, that sixty years after Petursson’s research on skyr, the
largest dairy in Iceland started producing a type of skyr or set yogurt using pure
bacteria cultures without any yeast and no rennet. Today this product line “skyr.is”
enjoys great commercial success in Iceland. The elimination of yeast and rennet are
probably a part of an effort to optimize shelf life and minimize quality fluctuations.
Yeast activity would probably compromise both and rennin activity might limit
shelf life by imparting a bitter off-flavor to the product.

5.5 Regulations and Composition

Icelandic regulation on milk and dairy products include clauses on skyr criteria.
According to these, skyr has to be produced from pasteurized skim milk and acidified
with skyr starter. The use of cheese rennet is permitted. The minimum content of
milk solids is specified as 16 % (Ministry of Industries and Innovation 2012).
Unblended skyr contains typically 80.1 g water, 14.6 g protein, 4.3 g carbohy-
drates, 0.8 g ash, and 0.2 g fat per 100 g. The ready-made variety has a lower content
of dry matter, and typically contains 83.3 g water, 11.5 g protein, 3.3 g carbohydrates,
0.8 g ash, and 0.2 g fat per 100 g (Reykdal 2003).
Skyr contains significant levels of some vitamins and minerals. In 100 g of
unblended skyr there are approximately 0.10 mg thiamine, 0.29 mg riboflavin, 100 mg
calcium, 190 mg phosphorous, 150 mg potassium, and 0.4 mg zinc (Reykdal 2003).
5 Modernization of Skyr Processing: Icelandic Acid-Curd Soft Cheese 53

References

Anon (2005) Report on consumption of dairy products. Association of the Icelandic Dairy Industry
Fox PF, Guinee TP, Cogan TM, McSweeney PLH (2000) Fundamentals of cheese science. Aspen,
Cork
Gisladottir H (1999) Icelandic food tradition (in Icelandic). Mal og menning, Reykjavik
Gudmundsson G (1914) Icelandic and foreign skyr (in Icelandic). Bunadarrit 28:1–16
Gudmundsson B (1987) Skyr. Scandinavian Dairy Ind 4(87):240–242
Gudmundsson G (2007) Rheology and microstructure of Skyr. M.S. Thesis. Department of Food
Science and Human Nutrition, University of Iceland
Magnusson S (1967a) Skyr in the past and in the future (in Icelandic). Arbok landbunadarins 1967(1):
69–77
Magnusson S (1967b) Skyr and quality factors in skyr production (in Norwegian). Thesis. Milk
Department, Agricultural University of Norway
Magnusson S (1986) On the production of skyr (in Icelandic). Mjolkurmal 1986(2):13–18
Ministry of Industries and Innovation (2012) http://www.reglugerd.is/reglugerdir/allar/nr/851-2012.
Accessed 20 November 2015.
Nsabimana C, Jiang B, Kossah R (2005) Manufacturing, properties and shelf life of labneh: a
review. Int J Dairy Technol 58(3):129–137
Petursson SH (1938) Milk research and milk microbiology (in Icelandic). In: Report of Industry
Department. University of Iceland, Reykjavik, pp 48–54
Petursson SH (1939a) Milk research and milk microbiology (in Icelandic). In: Report of Industry
Department. University of Iceland, Reykjavik, pp 49–63
Petursson SH (1939b) Milk theory (in Icelandic) in Mjolkursolunefnd. Isafold. Reykjavik. pp 142–153
Reykdal O (2003) The Icelandic Food Composition Database (ISGEM). MATIS—Food Research,
Innovation & Safety, Reykjavik
Saemundsson J (1954) Cheese and Skyr. In: Tomasson H, Saemundsson J, Vestdal JE, Gudjonsson
SV (eds) No food is better than milk. (In Icelandic). Framleiðsluráð Landbúnaðarins, Reykjavik,
p 40
Chapter 6
Karachay Ayran: From Domestic
Technology to Industrial Production

I.K. Kulikova, S.E. Vinogradskaya, O.I. Oleshkevich, L.R. Alieva,

and Anna McElhatton

Contents
6.1 The History of Karachay Ayran 55
6.2 Ayran Home Production 56
6.3 Adaptation of the Homemade Karachay Ayran Technology
to Commercial Conditions 57
References 61

6.1 The History of Karachay Ayran

Karachay Ayran is a traditional fermented milk product that is popular and widely
available within the territory of the Russian Karachay-Cherkess Republic (the North
Caucasus region). Ayran microflora are known to consist of a symbiotic mixture of
lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. The main features of Karachay Ayran are its charac-
teristic taste and beneficial dietary properties.
There are several theories on how Ayran has appeared in the North Caucasus
region. One suggestion is that Ayran was brought by Tartars, while another indicates
that it was brought by Turks from Middle East. But the majority of ethnographers
consider Ayran to be an indigenous product of Karachai and Balkar people (Tekyev
1989). Traditionally Ayran production was associated with cattle breeding in the
region, in that a portion of the milk produced was transformed into this product.
In 1907 Kara-Vasilyev who was a veterinary surgeon and researcher of Karachay

I.K. Kulikova (*) • S.E. Vinogradskaya • O.I. Oleshkevich • L.R. Alieva

FSAEI HPE, North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. McElhatton
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 55

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_6
56 I.K. Kulikova et al.

mountain dwellers culture, wrote: “A lot of families eat only Ayran. Beverage Ayran …
has an exceptional nutritional value and medical properties.” He also noticed that the
peoples of Karachay-Cherkess region used Ayran for treatment of diarrheal
disease, burns, venomous snake bites and insects stings, severe intoxication, etc. (Kara
Vasiliev 1907).
Modern researchers have shown that the symbiosis of Ayran microorganisms has
the capacity to inhibit the growth of opportunistic and pathogenic microorganisms
(Vinogradskaya et al. 2002). Moreover antimicrobial properties of Ayran are said to
be comparable with the antimicrobial properties of acidophilic milk (Lb. Acidophilus)
and kefir (Table 6.1). The activity of Ayran microflora against spoilage microflora
has also been reported. It is thought that this characteristic is one of the reasons why
Aryan does not spoil during long-term storage.
In addition, recent literature (Grishina et al. 2011) has also suggested that Ayran
may exhibit anticancer effects. The authors reported that the liquid whey component
derived from Ayran was effective in reducing the DNA damage when applied to an
in vitro colon cell culture model.

6.2 Ayran Home Production

There are several kinds of Aryan made by the Karachays with each variety having a
distinct name: Dzhuyrt, Susap, Tuzluk, and others (Fig. 6.1). Dzhuyrt is a very
dense product. It is made by carefully separating the whey, formed after fermenta-
tion and retaining the curd Susap has a semi-liquid consistence as the curd and whey
are mixed; there are instances where water is added to get the right consistency.
Susap is a liquid and considered to be a very good refreshing beverage. Tuzluk is a
salted Ayran which has an extended shelf life. This form of Ayran is salted, boiled
and cooled and can be kept at room temperature for several months. Dzhuyrt is
considered to be the best of all Ayran types that can be used as a starter. One or two
spoons of Dzhuyrt added to the cooled boiled milk and the milk and mixed thor-
oughly is sufficient to get the cheese making process started.

Table 6.1 Diameter of zones of inhibition (mm) produced by microflora of fermented milk
products on the test strains as assessed by the disc diffusion methoda
Diameter of zones of growth inhibition (mm)
Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus
Fermented milk product Escherichia coli subsp. aureus megaterium
Acidophilic milk 16 ± 1.0 17 ± 1.2 17 ± 1.0
Kefir 13 ± 0.6 12 ± 0.5 17 ± 1.5
Homemade Ayran 14 ± 0.5 16 ± 0.8 21 ± 2.0
Homemade Ayran 13 ± 0.3 14 ± 0.5 17 ± 0.4
(after deacidification)
Ayran filtrate (after boiling) 14 ± 0.6 16 ± 0.5 20 ± 2.0
Control 8 ± 0.5 8 ± 0.5 8 ± 0.5
a
Reconstructed from Vinogradskaya et al. (2002)
6 Karachay Ayran: From Domestic Technology to Industrial Production 57

Fig. 6.1 Different types of

Karachay Ayran

The container with the milk is covered with a woolen blanket to keep it warm
and the milk gradually cools, allowing all groups of microorganisms to grow. The
process takes about 24 h. The taste of domestically produced Ayran varies as a lot
of factors influence Ayran properties: type of milk, milk temperature, speed of
cooling, and other. Such technology is acceptable for homemade beverages, but
not for commercial products.

6.3 Adaptation of the Homemade Karachay Ayran

Technology to Commercial Conditions

Commercial Ayran is a fermented milk product made by a mixed (lactic acid and
yeast) fermentation using pure cultures of lactic bacteria (Streptococcus salivar-
ius ssp. thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus) and yeast
(Russia. NSso: GOST R 53668-2009 Ayran specifications. State Standard of
Russian Fed.). The product can be salted or mixed with mineral or drinking water.
Its characteristics are determined by the Russian Federation legislation and tech-
nical documentation.
The main stages of Ayran production are similar to the production of other
fermented milks (Fig. 6.2). These technologies commonly used have been widely
described by many authors (Wszolek et al. 2006; Hutkins 2006). The specificity of
58 I.K. Kulikova et al.

MILK

HEAT&MECHANICAL
TREATMENT

1 stage - fermentation
Starter cultures Temperature: 35 - 40 ºC
ADDITION OF STARTER Length: 6 - 8 h
for ayran
2 stage - ripening
Temperature: 8 - 12 ºC
Length: 10 - 12 h
ADDITION OF FERMENTATION
WATER OR SALT (2 STAGES)

FINISHED PRODUCT
COOLING PACKING

Fig 6.2 The commercial Ayran technology

Ayran technology lies in its two-stage fermentation: cultivation of thermophilic bac-

teria at 35–45 °C and ripening at 8 °C for yeast growth. But the taste of a commercial
product is said to differ significantly from that of the homemade Karachay Ayran.
To adapt the homemade Karachay Ayran technology to commercial conditions
and yet retain the flavor associated with domestically produced Ayran two main
issues had to be solved. They are the identification of the real Karachay Ayran
microflora and the adjustment of technological parameters to produce the character-
istic and accepted taste of the domestic product.
Research based on the analysis of 37 homemade Ayran samples collected in vari-
ous places of Karachay-Cherkess Republic (the North Caucasus region) showed
that most of the samples had different organoleptic properties and microflora with
various morphological characteristics. Some samples had a thick consistency; other
samples were characterized by the presence of highly noticeable yeast flavor and a
slightly frothy consistency. But nevertheless all samples had a specific flavor which
differed from the taste of other well-known fermented milk products. The then
general features of typical Ayran microflora composition were identified as follows:
The major morphological types of microorganisms were found to consist of strep-
tococci, diplococci, rod bacteria, and yeasts. As regards composition, the bacilli
(rods) and yeasts were reported to be the dominant microorganism present and were
present well in excess of any other cocci present. Of the morphological groups of
microorganisms observed, significant diversity was noted, especially among bacilli.
Ripened Ayran when compared with kefir was found to have comparable population
densities of bacteria and yeasts.
More specifically, Karachay-Cherkess Ayran microflora consisted mainly of
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar. diacetilactis,
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophilus, and
6 Karachay Ayran: From Domestic Technology to Industrial Production 59

non-lactose-fermenting yeast. The major groups of microorganisms were visualized

in the images obtained by electron microscopy (Fig. 6.3, a, b). Thus it can be said that
Ayran is produced through the symbiotic relationship between thermophilic and
mesophilic lactic acid bacteria and yeasts (Vinogradskaya et al. 2002).
The use of three temperature intervals corresponding to the temperature opti-
mums of each microorganism type (Fig. 6.4) was proposed to create a commercial
technology to mimic that of domestically produced Ayran.
The high temperature at the first stage would contribute to the formation of the
thick consistency. At the second stage mesophilic microflora would create the char-
acteristic beverage taste, with the final stage organoleptic characteristics completely
formed by the yeasts.
The temperature of first two stages would need to be optimized to obtain a product
comparable to the homemade Ayran. Skim milk was fermented with a starter com-
prising microorganisms of Karachay Ayran. The milk was pasteurized, and then

Fig. 6.3 (a, b) Microflora

of Karachay Ayran

35-45°C 1 STAGE
Fermentation
Final titrable
acidity
95-100 °T
2 STAGE
25-30°C

Fermentation
Final titrable 3 STAGE
8-12°C acidity
105-110 °T Ripening
Final titrable acidity
Thermophilic Mesophilic 115-120 °T
bacteria bacteria Yeasts

Length 3 -5 hours 2 -3 hours 8 -10 hours

Fig. 6.4 Three stages fermentation technology

60 I.K. Kulikova et al.

cooled to the required fermentation temperatures. Then the 3 mL of a starter was

added to every 100 mL of milk. The fermentation temperatures at the first and second
stages varied within the range 35–45 °C and 25–30 °C, respectively. In all the cases
ripening temperature (the third stage) was 8–10 °C (according to commercial Ayran
technology). Fermentation was stopped when titratable acidity of milk curd reached
95–100 °Т at the first stage; 105–110 °Т at the second stage; and 115–120 °Т at the
third stage. Product sensory evaluation was used as an output parameter.
The results showed that if the temperature of first stage was more than 40 °C, the
product had an undesirable consistency with significant syneresis. When the second
stage temperature was less than 30 °C the speed of acidification was higher but the
taste was less intense. The analysis of data produced would indicate that (38 ± 2) °C
is the optimum temperature at the first stage, and (25 ± 2) °C—at the second stage.
At the optimal temperature conditions the ratio of the major microorganism
groups during fermentation, ripening, and storage were close to homemade Ayran
(Fig. 6.5). Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus plays a leading part promoting
a rapid milk clot formation within 3.5–4.5 h and dominated in the finished product
(107–108 per 1 cm3).
Cocci forms of bacteria (Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactis, Lactococcus lactis
subsp. Lactis biovar. Diacetilactis) developed more slowly; in the finished product
their number didn’t exceed 104 per 1 cm3. Yeast, as expected, were accumulated and
activated during product ripening and storage. On the second day of storage the
yeast and coccus amounts were nearly equal (Vinogradskaya et al. 2002).
Fresh Ayran has a pleasant sour milk flavor, and a thick consistency with gas
bubbles. During storage the yeasts become the predominant microorganisms so
the product acquires a light yeasty taste and specific odor. Thus, the recommended
temperature conditions allow to produce a fermented milk with typical properties of
Karachay Ayran.

8
y1 = -0,3045x2 + 2,7012x + 0,805
7 R2 = 0,9822
6
5
Lg CFU/cm3

y2 = 1,4472Ln(x) + 2,013
4
R2 = 0,9088 y3 = 0,8093e0.3237x
3
R2 = 0,9113
2
1
0
0 6 12 24 48 72
Length, h
rods cocci yeasts

Fig. 6.5 Changes of the main microorganism groups during Ayran fermentation and ripening
6 Karachay Ayran: From Domestic Technology to Industrial Production 61

Though commercial Ayran is available, the discerning consumer these days

tends to prefer authentic tastes. For this reason the modernization and commercial-
ization of what otherwise is a domestically produced dairy product has to be
approached with care. Effort is being made to recapture that which was commonly
available to rural and nomadic communities of the past, will with modernization be
available to the twenty-first century consumer who could benefit from the nutrition
and other benefits associated with this product.

References

Grishina A, Kulikova I, Alieva L, Dodson A, Rowland I, Jin J (2011) Antigenotoxic effect of Kefir
and Ayran supernatants on fecal water-induced DNA damage in human colon cells. J Nutr
Cancer 63(1):73–79
Hutkins RW (2006) Cultured dairy product. In: Hutkins RW (ed) Microbiology and technology of
fermented foods. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 107–144
Kara Vasiliev I (1907) Karachay Ayran. Herald of Public Veterinary Medicine 16:564
Russia. NSso: GOST R 53668-2009 Ayran specifications. State Standard of Russian Federation
Tekyev KM (1989) Karachay and Balkar. Traditional life-support System. Nauka, Moscow,
pp 260–285
Vinogradskaya SE, Evdokimov IA, Evsukova AN, Levchenko JV, Gorbacheva ES (2002)
Homemade Ayran Microflora. Proceedings of the 2 All-Russian Scientific-Practical Conference
Modern Advancement of Biotechnology. NCSTU, Stavropol, Russia, 2, pp 89–92
Wszolek M, Kupiec-Teahan B, Guldager HS, Tamime AY (2006) Production of Kefir, Koumiss and
other related products. In: Tamime AY (ed) Fermented milks. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 174–216
Chapter 7
German Bread and Related
Process Technology

Karl Georg Busch

Contents
7.1 Introduction 63
7.2 Dough Production 65
7.3 Kneading and Production 66
References 73

7.1 Introduction

Up until around 250 years ago, bread was the most important staple food in Germany
with its importance transmitted through traditional fairy tales and children’s songs
for centuries (Goetz 1973). In rural areas, bread used to be baked in stone ovens,
which were used by all the village inhabitants, until around 150 years ago. The
ovens were heated to the required temperature by means of a wood fire, after which
the ash was removed and the bread subsequently baked in the hot oven. A lack of
bread meant that people went hungry (Jacob 1954).
With the increase in the number of settlements and the growth of towns in medi-
eval times, the sale of bread became more and more important as many families no
longer had the possibility of baking their own. Similar to other craftsmen in that era,
bakers formed guilds which ensured that the production of bread was controlled and
organized to a certain extent. Although bread was initially only produced by craft

K.G. Busch (*)

Beuth University of Applied Sciences, Berlin, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 63

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_7
64 K.G. Busch

bakers, the technical innovations during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in
particular led to the baking process being simplified and improved. The milling of
cereals and the production of bread and other baked goods by craft bakers had such
importance that Museum in Ulm has been dedicated to German Bread.
Nowadays in Germany, baked goods are produced not only in craft or medium-
sized bakeries but also in industrial bakeries. As the size of bakeries increases, the
process is increasingly mechanized from the production of dough to the bread itself.
While the variety of bread produced in craft bakeries on a daily basis is often quite
large and only a small number of loaves of each type of bread are made, industrial
bakeries produce a small range of bread but bake tens of thousands of loaves of each
type. In order to ensure that daily production is maintained at a consistently high stan-
dard, the appropriate logistical and constructional facilities are required to deal with
the quantities involved. In Germany, 94 % of the population eat bread once or several
times a day (Source: GMF-Mehlreport 09) while 72 % also eat bread rolls, pastries,
and cookies (Source: GMF-Mehlreport 11). The daily quantities of bread consumed
in 2008 were 178 g for men (3–4 50 g slices) and 133 g for women (2–3 slices), which
translates into an annual consumption of 65.0 kg for men and 49.8 kg for women
(Source: Nationale Verzehrsstudie Max-Rubner-Institut Bundesforschungsinstitut für
Ernährung und Lebensmittel (2008)).
A prerequisite for good-quality bread are raw materials of high quality, correct
storage of the raw materials up to the time when they are processed, the exact metering
of the ingredients, the kneading and proofing processes, and the conditions during
baking. In Germany, bread is traditionally made almost entirely from baker’s wheat
and rye, with spelt also being used in Southern Germany. Kamut, einkorn, and emmer
(also known as farro) are varieties of wheat that are becoming increasingly important
in the production of “organic” bread and other bakery goods. In the 2008/2009 cereals
business year, 6178 million metric tons of soft wheat and 0.884 million metric tons of
rye were milled for bread production in Germany (Source: Verband Deutscher Mühlen
2009). The much higher proportion of wheat being milled illustrates the overriding
importance of wheat as a raw material for bread production.
Commercially produced flour must comply with the grades used to identify the
ash content which are laid down in legal regulations. Around 85 % of the wheat
flours used for baking are white flours with a low ash (mineral) content with which
well-leavened, light bread can be made. Owing to the morphological structure and
color of rye grain, rye flours always have a higher ash content and are darker in color
than wheat flours. Thus, rye bread is darker than wheat bread.
Five different grades of wheat and rye flour are on the market as well as coarse
meal (without the germ) and whole wheat flour. The great variety of grades and
blends of flour has resulted in more than 200 types of bread being produced in
Germany (Täufel et al. 1993a, b). Bread made from rye flour is more frequently
produced and eaten in Northern Germany while bread made from white wheat
flours is common in Southern Germany, with only small quantities of rye flour
being used.
7 German Bread and Related Process Technology 65

silo for ingredients required

in small quantities silo silo
1 2

receiver

big
bag

sieving machine

sour water
dough (temperature
controlled)

conveyor
sponge
scales
yeast
suspension
batch
kneader

Fig. 7.1 Example of a metering arrangement for major and minor ingredients (Busch 2010)

7.2 Dough Production

The production of dough for bread begins by metering the individual ingredients
such as flour, water, yeast, and salt; a leavening agent or special ingredients such as
oil seeds or other types of grain are also frequently added (Fig. 7.1).
In craft bakeries, the individual ingredients are frequently weighed entirely by
hand, with liquid ingredients being measured volumetrically in graduated containers.
The dough strength is controlled by means of the quantity of water added and is
checked manually. In many bakeries, the dough strength can be corrected by the
subsequent addition of water or flour. If the dough is also being processed manually,
any deviations from the desired dough strength can be remedied as required.
The uniformity of the dough characteristics is of great importance in larger bakeries
where machines are used to make and process the dough. It requires a great deal of
effort to compensate mechanically for any variations in dough viscosity or tempera-
ture. Hence, the ingredients need to be metered and temperature controlled with a
great deal of precision. Most factories employ computer-controlled metering
systems which ensure that the same quantities are always used, assuming the system
66 K.G. Busch

works correctly, and the same dough composition and properties are achieved.
There are two different methods of metering: either volumetric metering or gravi-
metric metering.
The method chosen depends on the dough consistency (either granular, paste-
like or liquid) and the metering quantity. The volumetric method is primarily used
to meter liquid/paste-like ingredients while granular additions can be metered either
volumetrically or gravimetrically (Busch 2010).
The kneading process is divided into three phases: mixing, swelling, and kneading,
respectively. During the mixing phase, the ingredients are uniformly distributed. The
surface of the flour components is moistened, low-molecular substances dissolve,
and the metabolic activity of the yeast increases. The moistening and limited swelling
of the protein in wheat doughs leads to the development of a three-dimensional elastic–
plastic network. The protein in wheat flour (gluten) governs the processing properties
of the dough and to a large extent determines the quality of the bread. The increase
in the elasticity of the protein caused by swelling marks the end of the mixing phase
and the transition to the swelling and kneading phases. During kneading, the knead-
ing elements generate shear stress fields which not only cause the dough to be torn
apart and compressed but also create laminar movement of dough layers relative to
each other. At the same time, mechanical energy is converted into thermal energy so
that the dough temperature rises. The temperature of wheat doughs should be
between 26 and 31 °C. Dough temperatures below 26 °C result in a reduction in the
proofing performance of the yeast and thus in longer proofing times. Dough tempera-
tures over 31 °C promote yeast performance and enzyme activity which can impair
the quality of the dough (Belitz und Grosch 1987).
In rye doughs, the swelling of the proteins does not lead to the development of a
viscoelastic matrix. Instead, malleable doughs, frequently with a moist surface, are
formed thanks to the high water absorption of the pentosans. Owing to the lack of
gluten in rye flour, energy of the order of 5 Watt Hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) dough
is required to produce a rye dough, while between 11 and 15 Wh/kg dough is
required for wheat doughs.
The kneading times depend on the geometry and speed of the kneading tool. A
distinction is made between kneaders with a single kneading tool (e.g., single-arm
kneaders) and kneaders with two kneading tools (e.g., spiral kneaders) or mixers.

7.3 Kneading and Production

The time taken to knead the dough is reduced if the speed is increased. Wheat
doughs are produced in intensive kneaders operating at speeds of up to 3000 rpm.
The kneading time is limited to 120–180 s. In high-speed kneaders operating at
speeds of 120–250 rpm, the kneading time for wheat doughs increases to around
4–6 min. Rye doughs are produced in low-speed kneaders as excessively high shear
forces can result in soft and sticky doughs. In addition to discontinuous kneaders,
7 German Bread and Related Process Technology 67

continuously operating systems have been available for several years and are used
where production times are sufficiently long and there is no change in the recipe.
Systems such as these (known as “continuous kneaders”) may comprise a mixer and
the actual kneader. The ingredients are conveyed continuously through metering
units to the mixing section where they are blended, after which they are conveyed to
the kneader in which energy is used to turn them into dough. The dough leaves the
kneader in an endless strand. The main advantages of continuous kneading are pri-
marily the fully automatic mode of operation, uniform and hygienic production, and
the savings in time and manpower (Klingler 2010).
After production, the dough is left to stand for 5–10 min when it absorbs any
water that had not been completely bound so that its surface becomes drier and
easier to handle. In wheat doughs, the cross-linking of the gluten increases even
further, enhancing the volumetric expansion of both the dough and the bread.
The next stage of production involves portioning the dough. This is still done
manually in some craft bakeries but otherwise dough is portioned by means of volu-
metric dough dividers. The dough is drawn or conveyed from a funnel into a cham-
ber, the volume of which is adjusted in accordance with the desired weight of the
dough and taking account of its density. The loss in volume caused by the evapora-
tion of water from the bread during baking must be taken into account during por-
tioning. The dough portions are subsequently formed step by step manually or by
machine to obtain the desired dough shape and the shape of the bread required after
baking. To this end, wheat doughs are rounded to form balls of dough and the ten-
sion in the gluten increases as a result of being stretched and elongated. At the same
time, the fermentation gases are partially driven out of the dough and large gas
bubbles collapse to form smaller ones. The pore structure of the crumb thus becomes
finer and more uniform. Rounding can either be carried out manually or mechani-
cally by conical dough rounders or, in the case of soft wheat doughs and rye doughs,
by belt rounders. Both methods have been used successfully in industrial bakeries.
Conical dough rounders comprise a grooved horizontal cone around which a guid-
ing plate runs in a spiral, from the largest cone radius to a smaller one. The rotation
of the cone causes the dough piece to be conveyed upwards along the guiding plate
from the largest cone radius. The dough is mechanically manipulated and formed
into balls. Belt rounders have two belts which are arranged at an approximately 90°
angle to each other and run in opposite directions at different speeds. The direction
in which the dough is conveyed depends on the direction in which the faster belt is
moving. The dough is mechanically manipulated by the belts moving in opposite
directions and formed into balls.
In order to obtain bread with an elongated shape and a fine and uniform pore
structure, the rounded dough is first rolled out between two counter-rotating rollers
and then rolled up in a long molder. Long molders comprise a curling net which
rolls up the rolled-out dough passing under it along a belt. A second belt running in
the opposite direction and at a slower speed above the conveyor belt can be used
instead of a net. The distance between the belts decreases in the direction in which
the dough is moving so that the laminated dough is rolled up by the upper belt.
68 K.G. Busch

Fermentation gas is expelled from the dough as it is being rolled out and subsequently
rolled up, thus reducing the size of the pores in the dough (Freund 1995).
Another method consists of cutting a laminated length of dough into portions.
Each dough piece is then individually rolled up by a long molder (Klingler 2010).
The resulting dough pieces can be proofed either individually, in pans or placed
such that the sides of the dough pieces are touching. Rye doughs are worked less
intensively to shape them as they do not contain any elastic gluten.
The pore structure defining the texture of the baked product is formed when the
dough pieces are proofed. The gases present in the dough after rounding and long
molding and the carbon dioxide that develops when the yeast ferments are more or
less retained in the dough. In wheat doughs, the gas is retained by a thin film of
protein (gluten film) on the inner surface of each pore. The volume of the dough,
and thus of the bread, is inversely proportional to the gas permeability of the protein
film. In rye doughs, it is the high viscosity of the dough that enables the gas to be
retained. Rye doughs, and thus rye bread, are always less well leavened than wheat
doughs and wheat bread. The shaped dough pieces are placed in proofing cabinets
or conveyed continuously through proofing chambers for the proofing period. The
parameters of relevance for proofing are the air temperature (30–40 °C) and a high
relative humidity (r.h. approx. 80–90 %). Higher temperatures reduce the proofing
times. If the humidity is too low, the surface of the dough can dry out and split, but
if it is too high droplets can form on the surface of the dough as a result of condensa-
tion and the dough pieces may stick to the proofing trays. The air velocity in the
proofing chamber should be between 0.5 and 1 m/s. The proofing times for bread
vary between 30 and 60 min but may be longer in some cases (Klingler 2010).
In order to add flexibility to the production of baked goods, the optimum proof-
ing time can be postponed by storing the prepared dough at temperatures between
+8 and −5 °C for up to 48 h. The lower temperatures, which must be reached in the
center of the dough pieces, inhibit the metabolic activity of the yeasts and enzymes
in the dough. During storage, the dough must be prevented from drying out and
shrinking by adjusting the air velocity and humidity as required. This procedure is
known as retarding and is primarily used when making wheat rolls and pastries.
Interrupting the proofing process enables the dough pieces to be stored for longer
periods of time. Temperatures of between −10 and −20 °C are reached in the dough
so that the yeast and enzymes are completely inactivated. After freezing, the dough
pieces can be stored for several months (Klingler 2010). The bread doughs used for
this procedure are frequently prebaked, i.e., the dough is baked for around two-
thirds of the required baking time prior to freezing.
The baking process uses heat to transform the shaped and leavened dough pieces
into an easily digested and tasty product that will keep. The necessary physical,
chemical, biochemical, colloidal, and microbiological processes are initiated in the
dough pieces when the temperature rises due to the heat input and are controlled by
the baking regime. The physical conditions in the oven are characterized by air
temperature, humidity, air velocity, and the temperature of the upper and lower sur-
faces of the baking chamber (Tscheuschner 1996).
7 German Bread and Related Process Technology 69

Table 7.1 Processes in Temperature range Processes in dough during baking

dough during baking
Up to approx. Swelling and dissolution processes
50 °C Enzyme reactions, yeast fermentation
50–90 °C Yeasts and enzymes are inactivated
Protein is denatured
Starch is gelatinized
Around 100 °C Water evaporates
The crust sets
>110 °C Maillard reactions, dextrinization,
caramelization
Source: Grundlagen der Getreidetechnologie, R.W. Klingler
(2010)

Baking is the process of transferring thermal energy to the dough (Table 7.1).
The energy used can be divided into required energy and variable energy. The
required energy is the amount of energy needed to gelatinize the starch, denature the
protein, and partially evaporate the water in the dough. The variable energy com-
prises the energy used to generate the water vapor, for the air exchange between the
baking chamber and its surroundings, to heat the oven, the radiation of heat and the
temperature of the exhaust gases. The sum of the required energy is, for example,
178 Wh/kg for rye-based bread and 142 Wh/kg for whole wheat bread baked in pans.
The variable energy is frequently two to three times greater than the required energy
(Klingler 2010). Thermal energy in ovens is transferred by thermal radiation, con-
duction, convection, and condensation. Depending on the design of the oven, the
primary heat source is either radiation or convection. As the dough absorbs thermal
energy, the temperature on the surface of the dough rises and a temperature gradient
develops between the crust and the crumb. The temperature of the crust can reach
around 180 °C while the temperature of the crumb does not exceed 100 °C. The
increase in the dough temperature at the beginning of the baking process causes the
yeast to produce more carbon dioxide which, together with the gas already present
in the dough, expands as the temperature rises. The volume of the dough therefore
increases during the first phase of the baking process. The high temperature causes
the surface of the dough to dry rapidly, as a result of which its mechanical stability
increases and flavor and color compounds are formed due to the Maillard reaction.
The transmission of heat into the center of the dough is accompanied by mass trans-
port. In addition to the conduction of heat through the pore walls, energy is trans-
ported into the center of the dough by water evaporating and condensing in each
pore. Swelling and dissolution processes occur up to dough temperatures of around
50 °C at which there is also an increase in the activity of hydrolytic enzymes and in
yeast fermentation. The fungi (yeasts), microorganisms (lactic acid bacteria), and
enzymes (α + β-amylases, proteinases, polyphenoloxidases) are inactivated at tem-
peratures between 50 and 90 °C. The protein is denatured and the water expelled
from the dough as a result is absorbed by the starch in the gelatinization process.
The crumb of the bread develops from the dough. Temperatures around 100 °C
70 K.G. Busch

cause the water to evaporate from the dough throughout the baking time, resulting
in a loss of volume. On the surface of the bread, the water content of the crust is low
enough to enable temperatures far exceeding 100 °C to be reached. In addition to
the Maillard reactions, dextrinization (thermal degradation) and caramelization of
the starch occur (Klingler 2010; Ternes 1990).
Ovens used for baking differ in design, type of heat transfer, and operation. In
craft bakeries, the most commonly used types are multi-deck ovens, reverse ovens,
and rotary ovens. Multi-deck ovens comprise two or more baking chambers arranged
one above the other in which the upper and lower heat can be controlled separately.
Some ovens are also equipped with fans which can be switched on in order to shorten
the baking time. This type of oven can only be loaded from the front. In the case of
reverse ovens, the trays can be removed at the front of the oven for loading and, in
some models, at the back of the oven for emptying. Rotary ovens bake very evenly
and quickly thanks to the high level of air circulation (up to 3000 m3/h) due to con-
vection. Continuous ovens with lengths between 12 and 50 m are used in industrial
bakeries. The width-to-length ratio is generally not less than 1:10. Continuous ovens
are usually divided into several zones in which the baking temperature and humidity
are set individually. The dough/bread is conveyed from the loading point through the
different temperature zones to the unloading point on a continuous net belt. The
temperature at the beginning of the baking process is generally around 240–280 °C
higher than at the end, when it drops to 220–200 °C. Some types of bread are pre-
baked in a preliminary oven before being placed in the continuous oven. The tem-
perature in the preliminary oven can be set at between 300 and 450 °C so that a crust
is formed in as little as 2–3 min which also promotes the development of flavor
compounds. Baking times range from 15 to 25 min for wheat rolls and pastries,
increasing in line with the size of the baked product and the proportion of rye. Rye-
based bread and rye bread are both baked for between 50 and 90 min.
Irrespective of the type of oven being used, water vapor is fed into the baking
chamber at the beginning of the baking process. Condensation (approx. 10 g/kg
bread) occurs when the temperature on the surface of the dough drops below the
dew point, thereby releasing the heat of condensation and raising the temperature of
the surface of the dough. As a result, the starch is gelatinized, the protein denatured
and the surface of the dough becomes elastic and mechanically more stable. The
starch undergoes thermal dextrinization and the low-molecular dough components
dissolve in the condensate, producing a smooth bread surface with a glazed appear-
ance after the condensate has evaporated (Klingler 2010; Tscheuschner 1996).
In Germany, typical baked goods are leavened rye bread, whole meal bread,
pumpernickel and lye dough products. The procedure for making dough and bread
from rye flour differs from that used for wheat flour as each type of flour has a dif-
ferent composition and different properties. In the case of wheat flour, the dough
properties are primarily determined by the quantity and quality of the gluten and
only to a lesser extent by swelling materials. Rye does not develop gluten but has a
higher proportion of swelling materials which have pronounced water-binding
properties. It is the swelling materials in rye flour that are responsible for the devel-
opment of the dough. Rye doughs are far more malleable than wheat doughs. The
7 German Bread and Related Process Technology 71

starch in rye flour gelatinizes at temperatures between 55 and 60 °C which means

that more starch can be hydrolyzed by α-amylase activity. The crumb of the bread
may therefore tear, resulting in cavities.
Lowering the pH in the dough to less than pH 5 reduces the amylase activity.
A fermented starter, known as sourdough, is therefore traditionally added to rye
doughs. Homo- and heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria, which produce lactic
acid, acetic acid, carbon dioxide, and other metabolites, cause fermentation of the
rye flour and provide the flavor or flavor precursors that give leavened rye bread its
typical flavor. For centuries, the starter has been made in three stages. A basic starter
is made with an inoculum consisting of lactic acid bacteria. Flour and water are
added after a few hours to make a larger piece of dough that ferments overnight.
Prior to making the final dough, the fermented dough is mixed with rye flour and
water once more, kneaded, and left to ferment for 3–4 h. This process allows forma-
tion of the acid needed to lower the pH in the bread dough. It has been demonstrated
that it is best to incorporate around 45–50 % of the flour needed to make sourdough
for bread dough in three stages. In order to rationalize the production of sourdough,
two-stage and one-stage methods have been developed as substitutes for the classi-
cal three-stage method. Although the two- and one-stage methods lower the pH, the
aroma and flavor of the doughs they produce are less intense than those of doughs
made with the three-stage method. Low-viscosity pumpable doughs suitable for
processing times of 1 week are made with special cultures by what is known as the
“storable sourdough method” (Spicher and Stephan 1982).
The sourdough used for daily production in craft bakeries is made in kneading
bowls. By contrast, the sourdough required for continuous bread production in
industrial bakeries is frequently made in continuously operating units, usually in
two stages (Fig. 7.2). Such units essentially comprise a thermostatically controlled

inoculum heat exchanger

2 nd fermenter
Flour
water
water
flour A B

2nd
1st mixer
mixer cooled
sour-
maturing sourdough
dough

1 st fermenter Storage tank sourdough for bread production

Fig. 7.2 Facility for the continuous production of sourdough

72 K.G. Busch

fermentation tube or cylindrical tank and a fermentation tank. The first stage
involves the continuous propagation of the lactic acid bacteria, acid formation, and
maturing. The fermented dough obtained in the first stage is divided, one part serv-
ing as an inoculum for the new sourdough, while the remainder is used in the second
stage or cooled in a storage tank until further use. Acidification of the dough also
promotes the swelling of the swelling materials (pentosans), and thus the water
absorption of the dough, as well as improving the elasticity of the crumb by com-
parison with unleavened rye bread (Klingler 2010).
The flour used for making bread generally has a particle size lower than 180 μm.
Meal is also used for making bread in Germany. It consists of partially ground
cereal grain and may also contain the germ. The particle sizes generally range from
250 to 1400 μm. The particles, which are larger than flour particles, absorb water
slowly and frequently insufficiently during dough production and may result in the
bread being dry and crumbly. Prior to making the bread dough, part of the meal is
therefore made into a sponge so that it has enough time to absorb water. There are
three ways of doing this. Soakers are made by covering one part meal with one part
water at around 20 °C and used to make bread dough after 16–24 h have elapsed.
Scalders are made with one part water with a temperature of 60 °C mixed with two
parts meal; swelling is complete after around 3–6 h. “Boiled sponges” are made by
mixing one part meal with two parts water with a temperature of around 100 °C. In
this case, the meal can be used after around 2 h. Meal doughs are soft doughs requiring
little energy for kneading. Dough preparation as described for wheat doughs is neither
necessary nor possible in this case. Doughs such as these can be baked in pans or
molds without further processing (Freund 2009).
Pumpernickel is a German specialty which was first made in Westphalia several
centuries ago. Pumpernickel was originally made solely of rye and rye meal. A scald is
made with the cereal and allowed to swell for 8–10 h. In addition to sourdough, yeast,
and salt, sugar beet syrup is added for color. The dough is partially baked in closed pans
at around 200 °C and then baked for a further 16–24 h at a temperature that is gradually
reduced to 100 °C. The bread is characterized by its lack of crust, slightly sweet taste,
very dark color, and the fact that it stays fresh for a long time (Täufel et al. 1993a, b).
Lye dough products are traditionally produced in Southern Germany and are
made of a firm dough prepared from white wheat flour. Typical shapes are pretzels
or elongated products. After shaping, the dough pieces are left to rise for a brief
period and then dipped in a 3 % lye solution. This causes the chemical degradation
of flour constituents on the surface of the dough pieces which is responsible for the
characteristic brown color and crispness of the crust. Lye dough products are fre-
quently sprinkled with salt, caraway seeds, or cheese. The baking temperature is
between 220 and 230 °C and the baking time is 12–15 min (Skobranek 1991).
Bread and other baked goods are some of the most important staple foods in
Germany, thanks in part to the variety of products available. Bread has traditionally
been eaten in Germany for many centuries and remains an established part of the
daily diet.
7 German Bread and Related Process Technology 73

References

Belitz H-D, Grosch W (1987) Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie, 3. Springer, Berlin

Busch KG (2010) Verfahren Weizenbrotherstellung—Dosieren. In: Freund W (ed) Handbuch
Backwaren Technologie. Behr’s-Verlag, Hamburg, pp 1–29
Freund W (1995) Verfahrenstechnik Brot und Kleingebäck. Gildebuchverlag, Alfeld
Freund W (2009) Technologie der Vorteige. Behr’s-Verlag, Hamburg
Goetz H (1973) Kinderlieder Kinderreime. Üeberreuter, Wien
Jacob HE (1954) Sechstausend Jahre Brot. Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg
Klingler RW (2010) Grundlagen der Getreidetechnologie. Behr’s-Verlag, Hamburg
Skobranek H (1991) Bäckereitechnologie. Verlag Handwerk und Technik, Hamburg
Spicher G, Stephan H (1982) Handbuch Sauerteig. BBV-Verlag, Hamburg
Täufel A, Ternes W, Tunger L, Zobel M (1993a) Lebensmittel-Lexikon A-K. Behr’s-Verlag, Hamburg
Täufel A, Ternes W, Tunger L, Zobel M (1993b) Lebensmittel-Lexikon L-Z. Behr’s-Verlag,
Hamburg
Ternes W (1990) Naturwissenschaftliche Grundlagen der Lebensmittelzubereitung. Behr’s-Verlag,
Hamburg
Tscheuschner H-D (1996) Grundzüge der Lebensmitteltechnik, 2. Auflage Behr’s-Verlag,
Hamburg
Verband Deutscher Mühlen: Daten und Fakten 2009
Chapter 8
Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour

C.S. Martínez, M.C. Bustos, and A.E. León

Contents
8.1 Introduction 76
8.2 Pastas 76
8.3 Raw Material 79
8.3.1 Wheat Flour 79
8.3.2 Water 81
8.3.3 Salt 82
8.4 Pasta Processing 83
8.4.1 Mixing 83
8.4.2 Dough Resting 83
8.4.3 Sheeting 83
8.4.4 Cutting 84
8.4.5 Drying 84
8.4.6 Cooking Properties of Pasta 85
References 88

C.S. Martínez • M.C. Bustos • A.E. León (*)

Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos Córdoba (CONICET—Universidad
Nacional de Córdoba), Córdoba, Argentina
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 75

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_8
76 C.S. Martínez et al.

8.1 Introduction

Pasta, a traditional food with high consumer acceptance because of its convenience,
palatability, and nutritional quality, is consumed around the world (Petitot et al.
2009). There are those who prefer to make their own pastas with durum wheat flour
using traditional methods, however, most tend to use commercially available pastas.
Many factors contribute to pasta’s popularity, especially its nutritional profile. It is
a good source of complex carbohydrates and a moderate source of proteins and
vitamins. For example, a 55 g portion of dry pasta contains about 210 cal from about
75 % carbohydrates. In the USA, dietary guidelines published by the United States
Department of Agriculture and by Health Canada show that grain-based products,
which include pasta, should be a major part of a healthy diet. Pasta has good con-
sumer value and because of that it sells well in both good and bad economic times.
Besides, dry packaged pasta is virtually non-perishable if stored appropriately, pasta
is easy to cook, it has a wholesome taste, and an extensive variety of dishes can be
prepared using the very different pasta shapes and sizes available nowadays
(Marchylo and Dexter 2001).

8.2 Pastas

Approximately 12 million tons of pasta are produced worldwide per year. Italy is
the world’s largest pasta producer, with a production of 3,160,000 t a year (26 %).
The USA with 2,000,000 t represents 16 % of worldwide production, and Brazil
with 1,500,000 t (12 %) follows Italy. Considering pasta annual consumption, Italy
is also the major consumer with 26 kg per person (Lezcano 2009).
The preferred ingredient to make traditional pasta is durum wheat semolina,
obtained by milling durum wheat seeds (Triticum durum Desf.) Unfortunately,
durum wheat grows under a relatively narrow range of climatic conditions; it cannot
be cultivated in areas where the weather is too cold, too warm, or too wet.
In areas where durum wheat is expensive, supply and availability is low, and
when pasta is produced in areas far from durum wheat cultivation areas, bread
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour is often blended with durum or used to produce
pasta; the result is a good quality product, but not yellow in color and not as resistant
to overcooking as pasta produced from durum wheat semolina (Hoseney 1994;
Heneen and Brismar 2003).
Considering the limitations just mentioned, it is very common to find pasta made
from bread wheat flour, especially in products consumed by people who prioritize
price over quality. Even pasta made with bread wheat can be used to incorporate
ingredients that improve nutritional quality (Bustos et al. 2011, 2013; Martínez
et al. 2014; Rodríguez De Marco et al. 2014).
Pasta made with bread wheat flour has been compared with pasta made with
durum wheat semolina (Martinez et al. 2007). To evaluate the quality of commercial
spaghetti made with both types of wheat, cooking properties, optimum cooking
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour 77

Table 8.1 OCT, cooking loss, water absorption, and amylose content in cooking water
Cooking loss Water absorption
Samplea OCT (min) (% w/wb) (% w/wb) Amylose (% w/wb)
S-Sem 10.5 5.3 ± 0.0 b 266 ± 1 c 2.0 ± 0.2 a
S-TP1 8.5 4.4 ± 0.0 a 256 ± 1 ab 2.2 ± 0.2 a
S-TP2 9.5 4.5 ± 0.0 ab 254 ± 3 a 2.5 ± 0.2 b
S-TP3 7.5 6.4 ± 0.7 c 259 ± 0 b 4.7 ± 0.1 d
S-TP4 7.5 6.3 ± 0.3 c 267 ± 0 c 3.7 ± 0.1 c
Values followed by a different letter are significantly different (P < 0.05)
Results were expressed as the mean of replications ± SD. OCT, optimal cooking time (Martinez
et al. 2007)
a
S-Sem: sample made from durum wheat semolina, S-TP1 to S-TP4: commercial samples
made from bread wheat flour
b
Values expressed as g/100 g of dry pasta

time (OCT), cooking loss, water absorption, and amylose content in cooking water
(Table 8.1) have been analyzed. Although in general samples made from bread
wheat flour showed decreased OCT than samples made from durum wheat semolina
(S-Sem), in some of them that difference was only slight.
Dick and Youngs (1988) established that cooking losses should be around 7 %
and should not exceed 8 % for spaghettis made from durum wheat semolina, and
water absorption values should be three times over the dry weight if a good-quality
final product is expected. All pasta made from bread wheat flour and durum wheat
semolina evaluated by Martinez et al. (2007) showed cooking losses lower than
7 g/100 g of dry pasta, while water absorption values were between 254 and 266
g/100 g of dry pasta; some samples made from bread wheat flour presented even
lower values than S-Sem. In addition, amylose content in cooking water of bread
wheat pasta showed similar values to S-Sem; this parameter gives information about
the proportional amylopectin enrichment that takes place in the pasta surface, with
higher values leading to an increase in adhesiveness.
Instrumental firmness was evaluated in cooked pasta at OCT and at 150 and 200
% of OCT (Fig. 8.1). Pasta made from durum wheat semolina and some made from
bread wheat flour presented similar firmness at OCT, and a good resistance to over-
cooking at 150 and 200 % of OCT (Martinez et al. 2007).
A sensory evaluation of pasta made from both types of wheat was also performed
by Martinez et al. (2007). Yellow color, shininess, firmness, chewiness, elasticity,
surface smoothness, and superficial defects were evaluated by the authors.
Classifications obtained for all positive parameters by each judge were represented in
a radial graph, where a higher area implies better pasta quality. Figure 8.2 shows that
S-Sem and some samples of pasta made from bread wheat flour presented the highest
areas, so these samples resulted in a better quality according to panel evaluation.
Both cooking and textural properties as well as sensory evaluation of pasta made
from both types of wheat showed that the quality of pasta made from bread wheat
flour can be similar to the quality of pasta made from durum wheat semolina
(Martinez et al. 2007).
78 C.S. Martínez et al.

9 d TOC
c
8 d d OC-150%
Firmaness, N/mm2

7 e OC-200%
b d
6 c c
5
4 a a a a b b
3
2
1
0
S-Sem S-TP1 S-TP2 S-TP3 S-TP4

Fig. 8.1 Firmness of pastas cooked at optimum cooking time (OCT) and an overcooking of 150
and 200 % (OC-150 %, OC-200 %). Values followed by a different letter, at the same cooking
time, are significantly different (P < 0.05) (Martinez et al. 2007)

S-Sem S-TP1 S-TP1

Y.C. Y.C. Y.C.
7 7 7
6 6 6
S.D.* 5 Sh. S.D.* 5 Sh. S.D.* 5 Sh.
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
St.* Fi. St.* Fi. St.* Fi.

Sp. Ch. Sp. Ch. Sp. Ch.

Area1: 29.5% Area1: 23.6% Area1: 23.6%
S-TP3 S-TP4
Y.C. Y.C.
7 7
6 6
S.D.* 5 Sh. S.D.* 5 Sh.
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
St.* Fi. St.* Fi.

Sp. Ch.
Sp. Ch.
Area1: 13.8% Area1: 17.3%

Fig. 8.2 Radial representation of commercial pasta sensory evaluation. S-Sem: sample made from
durum wheat semolina, S-TP1 to S-TP4: samples made from bread wheat flour. Y.C. Yellow color,
Sh.: shininess, Fi.: firmness, Ch.: chewiness, Sp.: springiness, S.D.: superficial defects, St.: sticki-
ness. *: opposite values were used for surface smoothness and superficial defects in order to
include them in the graphic with a positive attribute. 1: Area percentage from total graphic area
(Martinez et al. 2007)
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour 79

8.3 Raw Material

Scientific research has been undertaken to understand the parameters influencing

industrial pasta processing and the quality of the final product. The choice of raw
material and processing variables in the production of dry pasta are the only measures
one can take to ensure al dente characteristics, namely, a firm and resilient pasta with
no surface stickiness and little if any cooking losses (Brunnel et al. 2010).

8.3.1 Wheat Flour

White wheat flour is obtained from grain endosperm. Considering the groove present
in the grain, it is impossible to remove the outer layers by simple abrasion. For this
reason, successive grindings (called molturations) followed by sieving are carried
out to separate the different grain fractions corresponding to teguments and aleurone
layers (bran), germ, and endosperm (Cheftel and Cheftel 1992).
Wheat flour has an important role in pasta processing as this ingredient accounts
for 95–98 % of solids in pasta.
Starch is the major component of wheat flour (approximately 65 g/100 g flour).
Starch consists of two main structural components, amylose, which is essentially a
linear polymer, and amylopectin, which is a larger branched molecule. Starch
granules are affected by thermal treatment due to their partially crystalline native
structure, so the starch granule experiments phase transitions called gelatinization
and retrogradation (Belitz and Grosch 1999).
Wheat flour proteins represent 10–15 % of total flour and can be divided into two
groups: gluten proteins and non-gluten proteins. The first ones are storage proteins
and correspond to 75–80 % of total proteins, while non-gluten proteins (20–25 % of
total proteins) include the majority of enzymes.
Lipids (approximately 2 % of flour), minerals (0.5 % of flour expressed as ash
weight), enzymes (α-y β-amylases), non-starch polysaccharides (e.g., pentosans),
and pigments like carotenes and flavonoids, which are responsible for flour color
that correlates with pasta color, are present in small quantities in wheat flour.
Finally, water content of wheat flour is approximately 14 g/100 g of flour (Ribotta
et al. 2009).
A relatively fine flour particle size enables even hydration during mixing and an
optimum and uniform gluten development during sheeting. Typical noodle flour retains
less than 15 % of material on 100 μm. The particle size distribution should be uniform
because small flour particles hydrate much faster than big ones, generating dough par-
ticles of different sizes that form spots (wet or dry) on the dough sheet. Flour with very
fine particle size may be indicative of high starch damage, which should be avoided,
due to its competition for water with gluten during mixing (Fu 2008).
80 C.S. Martínez et al.

8.3.1.1 Importance of Protein in Pasta

The unique ability of wheat flour to form cohesive, elastic and extensible dough is
due to the presence of gluten proteins. With regard to this, the rheological properties
of dough are controlled by proteins (De Noni and Pagani 2010), and the quantity and
quality of these proteins are important in pasta processing (Hoseney 1994). Pasta
with an elastic and chewy texture is produced by high concentrations of proteins
(10–14 %) which are able to form a strong gluten matrix. On the other hand, pasta
made from flour with low concentrations of proteins has a low resistance to cooking
and become soft and sticky. In consequence, adequate protein content is important to
textural properties (Ross et al. 1997; Park and Baik 2004; Zhao and Seib 2005).
It is remarkable that dried pasta generally contains higher protein content than
fresh pasta, because the dried pasta has to be able to withstand the drying process
without breaking (Fu 2008). In relation to this, pasta quality is related not only to
protein content, but it also correlates with gluten strength (D’Egidio et al. 1990;
Malcomson et al. 1993; Rao et al. 2001).
In the quality evaluation of wheat flour proteins, individual protein fractions
should be considered (Edwards et al. 2003; Sissons et al. 2005). Glutenins and glia-
dins are responsible for good cooking properties, since the protein matrix tenacity
and elasticity are determined by protein/protein and subunit/subunit aggregates.
Besides, other chemical properties of proteins, like sulfhydryl groups or low molec-
ular weight glutenin content, are related to pasta quality. In order to evaluate wheat
quality for pasta processing, other additional parameters like glutenin/gliadin, the
presence of specific protein fractions, superficial hydrophobicity, and functional
properties of gluten and dough should be considered (De Noni and Pagani 2010).

8.3.1.2 The Importance of Starch in Pasta

The role of starch in the rheological properties of dough for making pasta has been
underestimated if compared to the attention gluten has received, because the super-
ficial characteristics of granules can affect dough viscoelastic behavior, since this
characteristic determines the type of protein–starch interactions (De Noni and
Pagani 2010). According to Fu (2008), pasta made with high swelling starch flour
has softer texture than those with low swelling starch.
In pasta processing, during mixing the temperature is under 50 °C and starch
granules absorb water slowly due to the presence of a proteins-phospholipids layer
that limits swelling and gelatinization. In consequence, starch granules that have a
high temperature of gelatinization, delaying swelling and solubilization, are good
for pasta processing because these properties reduce the interferences with protein
matrix development. The presence of gluten increases the starch gelatinization tem-
perature (De Noni and Pagani 2010). A high proportion of small starch granules
(5–10 μm) (Soh et al. 2006) and a high amylose/amylopectin ratio have been
proposed to have the same effect. Amylopectin is the starch component related to
high stickiness in cooked pasta (De Noni and Pagani 2010).
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour 81

Besides, the mechanical breaking of starch granules (damaged starch) that takes
place during milling and the action of enzymes like α-amylase should be considered
negative modifications in starch (Matsuo et al. 1982), as they promote starch solu-
bilization during pasta cooking (De Noni and Pagani 2010). An increase in dam-
aged starch affects pasta color negatively, promoting an increase in cooking losses
and excessive swelling of pasta surface (Hatcher et al. 2002).

8.3.2 Water

Water is the second most important raw material after flour in pasta manufacturing.
Water provides the necessary medium for all the physicochemical and biochemical
reactions that underlie the transformation of raw materials into a finished product.
Without water, gluten proteins in the flour cannot exhibit viscoelastic properties.
Water-soluble ingredients are usually dissolved in water before mixing. However,
the amount of water required for pasta processing needs to be optimized so that it
can hydrate the flour and allow the development of a uniform dough sheet, and yet
prevent handling or sheeting problems in the formed dough due to stickiness.
Water absorption level for pasta processing is about 30–38 % based on flour weight
(Fu 2008).
Also, the quantity of water added to flour for mixing affects pasta color. In a
previous study, it was found that the lightness of fresh pasta made from different
varieties of bread wheat flour (Baguette, BAG, Buk Guapo, BUK, and commercial
wheat flour) and triticale flour (Triticosecale Wittmack var. Tatú) was negatively
affected by increased water addition during mixing (Fig. 8.3a). In relation to this, b*
and a* increased with increasing water addition (Fig. 8.4b, c) (Martinez et al. 2012).
Similar results had been observed in previous research in pasta (Hatcher et al. 1999;
Humphries et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2004; Solah et al. 2007; Ohm et al. 2008).
Apart from the basic fundamental sanitary requirements, water used for pasta
processing has to meet certain specifications in order to produce high quality

a 90
b 25
c
3.5
37.5% 43.8% 37.5% 43.8% b 37.5% 43.8% b
a 3 b
85 b 20 a a
a b b
Luminosidad (L*)

a 2.5
80 a a a b a a
15 a
b 2
75
b*

a*

a a a
b a 10 1.5
70
1
65 5
0.5
60 0 0
MCA BAG BUK TRI MCA BAG BUK TRI MCA BAG BUK TRI

Fig. 8.3 Effect of addition of different quantities of water during mixing in L* (a), b* (b), and a*
(c) parameters of fresh pasta made with 37.5 and 43.8 mL of water per 100 g of flour. Bars with
different letters for the same sample are significantly different (P < 0.05), (Martinez et al. 2012)
82 C.S. Martínez et al.

Fig. 8.4 Drying defect:

strands division in sheeted
pasta made from bread
wheat flour. Dry pasta (a)
and cooked pasta (b) (data
not published)

products. Water varies in hardness, alkalinity, and pH value, which in turn affects
flour hydration, dough sheet properties, starch gelatinization, and texture of the
finished products. Excessively hard water is undesirable because it retards flour
particles hydration by tightening the gluten proteins. The ions present in water also
have a very significant impact on the gelatinization of starch during steaming or
boiling. On the other hand, very soft water is objectionable since it lacks the gluten-
strengthening minerals and tends to yield soft, sticky dough sheets. Water of medium
to low hardness is considered suitable for noodle processing (Fu 2008).

8.3.3 Salt

The amount of salt added is usually 1–3 % of flour weight. Salt performs three principal
functions in noodle processing. The most important is the strengthening and tightening
effect on gluten and the improvement of viscoelastic properties (Dexter et al. 1979),
which is partly due to its inhibitory effect on proteolytic enzymes, although other
evidence indicates a more direct interaction of salt with flour proteins (Fu 2008).
A second function of salt is flavor enhancing and texture improving effects. Pasta
with added salt has a shorter cooking time (Dexter et al. 1979) and a softer but more
elastic texture than that without salt.
A third function of salt is the inhibition of enzyme activities and the growth of
microorganisms. Salt slows down the alcoholic and lactic fermentation process.
When making dried pasta, the amount of salt in the noodle can affect the rate of
drying. Moisture evaporates more slowly in pasta with higher amounts of salt,
preventing fractures during drying cycles (Dexter et al. 1979).
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour 83

8.4 Pasta Processing

According to the type of process, pasta is classified as sheeted (ribbon-cut pasta) or

extruded (spaghettis). Although pasta can have many variations in formulation,
shape, and size, the process of making pasta is quite constant.

8.4.1 Mixing

In pasta manufacturing, the main aims of mixing are to distribute the ingredients
uniformly and to allow hydration of flour particles. There is little gluten develop-
ment during the mixing stage in the low water absorption pasta dough in addition to
very short mixing times. The degree of gluten development, however, can be very
significant in high water absorption dough, as in bread processing (~50 %) with a
long mixing time (De Noni and Pagani 2010).

8.4.2 Dough Resting

Mixing is usually followed by dough resting. This step allows crumbly mixture to
accelerate further hydration of flour particles and to redistribute water in the dough
system. Resting can also improve processing properties and facilitate gluten forma-
tion during sheeting, which is achieved by the relaxation of the gluten structure
already formed during mixing (Fu 2008).

8.4.3 Sheeting

Although flour particles are sufficiently hydrated after mixing and resting, the
development of the gluten matrix is far from complete and is localized without
continuity. It is during the sheeting process that the continuous gluten matrix is
developed. Under compression, adjacent endosperm particles become fused
together so that the protein matrix within one flour particle becomes continuous
with the adjacent particles. The sheeting process is intended to achieve a smooth
dough sheet with the desired thickness, and a continuous and uniform gluten matrix
in the dough sheet.
In general, it is accepted that sheeted pasta should have a better quality compared
with extruded pasta, as gluten network reaches a greater development during sheeting
than during extrusion (Matsuo et al. 1978; Dexter et al. 1979).
84 C.S. Martínez et al.

8.4.4 Cutting

Once the dough sheet is reduced to the desired thickness, the sheet is then cut into
noodle strands along the direction of sheeting. The width and shape of the noodle
strands are determined by cutting rolls.
In the case of extrusion, when pasta comes out of the extruder screw and reaches
the head, which is generally rectangular for long pasta and circular for short pasta,
dough is cut with a blade. Inserts, either made of Teflon or bronze, are located inside
circular heads and determine the various pasta shapes according to their design
(Calvelo 2008).

8.4.5 Drying

The shelf life of pasta can be significantly extended if the microbiological and bio-
chemical stability is ensured. The most effective way of achieving this goal is to dry
pasta to a moisture content at which microbiological growth is impossible. An ade-
quate drying process involves many stages in order to minimize undesirable structural
changes. A very usual practice is a drying process with three stages: pre-drying, dry-
ing, and cooling. The first stage, which takes up to 15 % of total drying time, is of
primary importance. In this stage, pasta moisture content is reduced from 32 to 38 %
to less than 28 %. Its main function is to dry the noodle superficially soon after cutting
to prevent noodle strands from sticking together and to avoid the over-elongation of
pasta strands (Calvelo 2008). The preservation of pasta capillarity is essential for
water redistribution at the following stage (Professional Pasta, L1N06P044).
The following drying phase must include alternating phases of water evaporation
from the surface and inner redistribution. The speed of this phase is inevitably
slower than that of pre-drying because the structure of the product has become more
rigid, capillary action has decreased and so the migration of the remaining particles
of water from the inside to the outside of the product is slower. Drying normally
takes approximately 6–8 times longer than the time required for pre-drying
(Professional Pasta, L1N06P044).
To avoid excessive tension inside the product structure, all the drying process
must be interspersed with tempering phases, i.e., periods of minimum air circulation
and high humidity, to allow water diffusion from the center to the pasta surface
(Calvelo 2008).
An inappropriate drying process can damage pasta structure and generate over-
elongation, cracks, deformation, and strands division (Fig. 8.4) which causes many
problems during pasta manipulation and packing.
There are three different technologies for drying: drying at low temperature (LT)
(<60 °C), drying at high temperature (HT) (60 °C < T < 90 °C), and drying at very
high temperature (VHT) (T > 90 °C). The application of high temperature can be
performed under two conditions: high temperature-high humidity (HT-HM) (70–75
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour 85

°C, 20–25 % H) or high temperature-low humidity (HT-LM) (70–75 °C, ~18 % H).
In general, high temperatures reduce drying times and increase the process capacity.
Besides this, microbiological quality and cooking properties are improved and
yellow color is favored. However, high temperatures can have detrimental effects on
the nutritional value of pasta due to the decrease in available lysine (Maillard reaction),
and can also increase an undesirable red color in pasta (Calvelo 2008).

8.4.6 Cooking Properties of Pasta

The cooking properties of dry pasta are the result of the characteristics of raw materials
and processing conditions.
Pasta is a system with limited humidity; during cooking, a strong competition for
water between starch and proteins takes place. Proteins need water for coagulation
and produce an elastic matrix; at the same time, starch swells, gelatinizes, and becomes
more soluble due to water absorption. Because proteins denaturation and starch swell-
ing occur approximately at the same temperature, there is a physical competition
between these two processes during cooking. When interactions among proteins pre-
vail, starch, which hydrates slowly, remains trapped in the protein matrix and cooked
pasta will be firm and surface adhesiveness will be low, preventing the strands to stick
together. On the other hand, when the protein matrix is not sufficiently strong and
elastic, starch swells and gelatinizes before the coagulation of proteins occurs. In this
case, amylose diffuses into cooking water and amylopectin remains on the surface,
resulting in a soft and sticky texture (De Noni and Pagani 2010).
The key factors for cooking pasta are the relationship between water and pasta,
the OCT, and the quality of cooking water. The desirable volume of boiling water is
10–20 times the weight of uncooked wet noodles (Fu 2008).
Pasta quality is expressed in terms of water absorption, leached material during
cooking, and such texture properties as firmness and stickiness. The texture of
cooked pasta is generally recognized as its most important quality aspect (Brunnel
et al. 2010).
In a recent study, fresh pasta made from bread wheat flour was substituted with
5 and 10 % w/w of starch and 3 and 6 % w/w of gluten in order to evaluate how the
main flour components influence pasta quality (data not published). Pasta with
increased gluten content, G3 and G6, presented better cooking properties, according
to increased OCT, decreased cooking losses and water absorption observed in these
samples (Table 8.2). The increase in gluten content favors the formation of a firm
structure, limiting water diffusion to the center of pasta and in consequence
decreasing lixiviation of solid to cooking water. Other researchers (Zweifel et al.
2003; De Noni and Pagani 2010) found similar results.
The structure of two different types of pasta, one made from wheat flour substi-
tuted with 10 % w/w of starch (A) and the other substituted with 6 % w/w of gluten
(B) after 3 min of cooking, is shown in Fig. 8.5. In the sample substituted with
starch, there is a higher degree of starch gelatinization (translucent zone) than in
86 C.S. Martínez et al.

Table 8.2 TOC, Cooking loss, and water absorption in pastas

Samplea TOC (min) Cooking loss (% w/w) Water absorption (% w/w)
Control 12 6.5 ± 0.2 b 149 ± 4 b
A5 12 6.7 ± 0.0 bc 150 ± 1 b
A10 12 6.8 ± 0.1 c 152 ± 1 b
G3 14 6.0 ± 0.0 a 145 ± 0 ab
G6 14 5.9 ± 0.1 a 139 ± 6 a
Values followed by a different letter are significantly different (P < 0.05)
a
Control sample: only made with wheat flour without any incorporation. A5 y A10: pasta made
from flour substituted with 5 and 10 % of starch, G3 y G6: pasta made from flour substituted with
3 and 6 % of gluten (data not published)

Fig. 8.5 Structure of

sheeted pasta made from
wheat flour substituted
with 10 % w/w starch (a)
and 6 % w/w gluten (b)
after 3 min of cooking
(data not published)

Fig. 8.6 Scanning electron microscopy of cooked pasta surface made from bread wheat flour
substituted with 6 % w/w of gluten (a) and 10 % w/w of starch (b) (data not published)

the sample substituted with gluten, which indicates that the structure of the former
was weaker and allowed an increase in the diffusion of cooking water into the cen-
ter of pasta.
A more compact structure is observed in pasta with added gluten than in pasta
with added starch, in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photographs (Fig. 8.6a).
Starch-enriched pasta (Fig. 8.6b) presents many pores on the cooked pasta surface
which facilitate water diffusion to pasta, favors starch gelatinization, and thus its
lixiviation to cooking water (data not published).
8 Production of Pastas with Bread Wheat Flour 87

Table 8.3 Sensory evaluation of pastas made from bread wheat flour substituted with
starch and gluten
Samplea Firmness Chewiness Adhesiveness Yellow color
Control 0b 0 bc 0 bc 0a
A5 −1 a −1 ab 0 ab −1 a
A10 −1 a −1 a −1 a −1 a
G3 1c 1 cd 1c 1b
G6 2d 2d 0 bc 2c
Values followed by a different letter are significantly different (P < 0.05)
a
Control sample only made with bread wheat flour without any incorporation. A: Starch,
G: gluten (data not published)

4.00
4: the most preferred sample
1: the less preferred sample,

3.25
Scale from 1 to 4;

2.50

1.75

1.00

A10 A5 G3 G6

Fig. 8.7 Preference test of fresh pasta made from bread wheat flour substituted with 5 and 10 %
of starch and 3 and 6 % of gluten (data not published)

Sensory evaluation using a multiple discriminative test for fresh commercial

pasta made from bread wheat flour substituted with starch and gluten separately
showed that the addition of 3 and 6 % w/w of gluten increases firmness and chewi-
ness and decreases adhesiveness, while starch addition generates the opposite effect
compared to control sample (Table 8.3). In this regard, starch-enriched pasta pre-
sented a decrease in yellow color, while gluten-enriched pasta showed an increase
of this parameter, according to b* values determined by spectrophotometry of
reflectance (data not published).
In this sense, when a preference test using a scale from 1 to 4, being 1 the less
preferred sample and 4 the most preferred one, was carried out, sample G6 was the
one with the best qualification while the sample with high percentage of starch
substitution, A10, was the less preferred one (Fig. 8.7). Certainly, the consumer
preference in pasta texture varies around the world, the first thing that the consumer
takes into account when pasta quality is evaluated is its “al dente” texture because
of Italian tradition, which is characterized by high firmness and low adhesiveness
(data not published).
88 C.S. Martínez et al.

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 Part II
Americas and the Rest of the World
Chapter 9
Use of Edible Coatings, a Novel Preservation
Method for Nuts

Lorena Atarés, Amparo Chiralt, and Anna McElhatton

Contents
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 93
9.2 Edible Films and Coatings to Maintain Quality and Safety ........................................... 94
9.3 Application of Tailor-Made Edible Coating to Nuts ....................................................... 95
9.3.1 Organoleptic Compatibility................................................................................. 96
9.3.2 Antioxidant Activity ........................................................................................... 96
9.3.3 Good Adhesiveness on the Surface of the Nut.................................................... 97
9.3.4 Microbial Stability .............................................................................................. 97
9.3.5 Good Optical Properties ...................................................................................... 97
9.4 Edible Coatings for the Extension of Shelf Life ............................................................. 98
9.5 Application of Edible Coatings to Almonds ................................................................... 99
9.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 100
References ................................................................................................................................ 100

9.1 Introduction

It is widely known that nuts have high lipid content and are rich in essential fatty acids
(especially linoleic and linolenic acids). Their fatty profile very rich in mono- and
polyunsaturated fats makes them very prone to lipid oxidation and rancidity.
Nonenzymatic oxidation in roasted peanuts is known to be the major cause of rancid-
ity, since high temperature eliminates the activity of lipoxygenase (Lee et al. 2002). In

L. Atarés (*) • A. Chiralt

Instituto de Ingeniería de Alimentos para el Desarrollo,
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
A. McElhatton
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 93

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_9
94 L. Atarés et al.

their natural state, nuts have natural built-in packaging protection in the form of skins
and shells (Miller and Krochta 1997). These natural barriers retain flavor and aroma
and regulate the oxygen transport, as well as that of carbon dioxide and moisture.
However, processed foods that lack these natural barriers unfortunately dominate
modern dietary choices. Therefore, in minimally processed nuts, the kinetics of lipid
oxidation has to be controlled if the development of off-flavors that make the prod-
uct unacceptable to the consumer is to be controlled. This is of significance because
nuts in general and almonds especially are main ingredients of many traditional
confectionery products such as turrón (a form of nougat) or marzipan, and any deg-
radation of nut quality would consequently lead to loss of product quality.
Nuts are also ingredients in many dishes and widely consumed as snacks. Indeed,
nuts are considered a healthy food choice when they form part of a balanced and
healthy diet because they have proven cardioprotective effects. According to Abbey
et al. (1994), replacing half of the daily fat intake with nuts has been known to lower
total and LDL cholesterol levels in humans significantly. Numerous clinical studies
have revealed that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol reductions of 10–15 % have
been observed, where walnuts, almonds, macadamias, hazelnuts, pecans, or peanuts
were incorporated into the diet (Kurlandsky and Stote 2006). Over decades, syn-
thetic plastics (petrochemical based) have been the traditional materials used for the
packaging of food products. A variety of synthetic polymers and laminates have
been developed and represent an excellent barrier to oxygen transference (Miller
and Krochta 1997). The increased use of synthetic packaging films has resulted in
serious ecological problems due to their non-biodegradability (Tharanathan 2003).
The concern for a safe environment has led to a shift towards the use of biodegrad-
able materials, i.e., edible films and coatings.

9.2 Edible Films and Coatings to Maintain Quality

and Safety

In the last few years, the research in the field of edible films and coatings has attracted
significant attention within the scientific community. The main advantage of these
alternative materials is the reduction of synthetic packaging and the increase of recy-
clability, while having the potential to limit moisture, aroma, and lipid migration
between food components (Miller and Krochta 1997; Nussinovitch 2009).
An edible film or coating consists of a thin layer of an edible material that is
applied on the food product and is able to protect it from the environment. When
formulating an edible film, at least one of the components must be capable of form-
ing a structural matrix with a sufficient cohesiveness (Debeaufort et al. 1998). This
layer should provide a good moisture barrier so various materials such as carbohy-
drates, proteins, lipids, or hydrocolloids have been suggested and were tested, and
found to vary in their suitability. Carbohydrates and proteins were tried but found
insufficient due to their hydrophilic nature; however, this issue was mitigated
through the addition of lipids to the film formulation, to make composite films
(Tharanathan 2003). These multicomponent edible films and coatings have the
9 Use of Edible Coatings, a Novel Preservation Method for Nuts 95

advantage of possessing the complementary desirable functional properties of each

their components and counterbalance any component shortcomings. A composite
film formulation can be tailor-made to suit the needs of a specific commodity
(Tharanathan 2003). Composite films are generally based on a hydrocolloid struc-
tural matrix to which a plasticizer (such as sorbitol or glycerol) is added to promote
the formation of edible films and coatings with good mechanical properties. Many
materials are too brittle and would not form proper films without the addition of
these agents. Brittleness is reduced through the changes in the hydrogen bonding
between the film polymers.
An additional advantage of edible films and coatings is that they could act as vehi-
cles for edible active ingredients that could be added to the formulations. The film
material could be used to encapsulate selected additives which may have product
enhancing or functionality such as an antioxidant action. Other possibilities include the
encapsulation of antimicrobial agents, aroma compounds, and pigments, ions that stop
browning reactions or nutritional substances such as vitamins (Debeaufort et al. 1998).
The choice of a film-forming substance, and additives, depends mainly on the spe-
cific characteristics of the food product to be coated. In general, the most important
general prerequisites to be fulfilled by edible films and coatings are the following
(Debeaufort et al. 1998):
• Good sensory qualities
• High barrier and mechanical properties
• Enough biochemical, physicochemical, and microbial stability
• Free of toxics and safe for health
• Simple technology
• Nonpolluting
• Low cost of raw materials and process
In the last decade, the research into the use of edible films and coatings to main-
tain quality and extend the shelf life of food products has attracted significant atten-
tion. They have been successfully used in the shelf-life extension of many different
products: meat and meat derivatives (Oussalah et al. 2004; Chidanandaiah and
Sanyal 2009; Ou et al. 2005), fish and derivatives (Gómez-Estaca et al. 2007; Duan
et al 2010; Lopez-Caballero et al. 2005), fruits (Pérez-Gago et al. 2006; Tapia et al.
2008), and vegetables (Ponce et al. 2008; Ayranci and Tunc 2003).

9.3 Application of Tailor-Made Edible Coating to Nuts

Preservation of nuts through the use of corn zein and shellac wax coatings has been
used for hundreds of years (Tharanathan 2003). According to Debeaufort et al. (1998),
in the nineteenth century, sucrose was initially applied as an edible coating on nuts,
almonds, and hazelnuts to prevent oxidation and rancidity during storage. In recent
years, a variety of materials have been tested in order to meet the specific requirements
of this type of products. In the search for suitable film-forming materials for the proper
coating of nuts, the following requisites should be taken into account.
96 L. Atarés et al.

9.3.1 Organoleptic Compatibility

Being considered as food components, edible films and coatings are usually required
to be as tasteless as possible in order not to be detected during the consumption
(Contreras-Medellin and Labuza 1981). When applied to nuts, edible coatings
should not modify the taste and flavor of the product. If this is not possible, the
organoleptic properties of the coating should be compatible with that of the nut
(Biquet and Labuza 1988).

9.3.2 Antioxidant Activity

Given that nuts are rich in oxidation-sensitive lipids, the coating material should be
able to protect these components from the oxidation process that would result in
off-flavors. Edible films and coatings that are able to do so, are claimed to have
antioxidant activity. This protective capability of the edible films and coatings is the
result of two different actions:
(a) Barrier to oxygen. Among all the factors affecting the rate of lipid oxidation,
oxygen concentration is one of the most important (Labuza 1971). If oxygen
availability is reduced by the barrier action of the coating, the oxidation rate is
diminished. For this reason, materials with low oxygen permeability are the
best choice in order to obtain the best coatings for oxidation-sensitive products
such as nuts (Nussinovitch 2009; Swenson et al. 1953). In this respect, ambient
relative humidity plays an important role in the stability of the product because
the oxygen permeability of edible films and coatings depends greatly on water
availability. The greater the relative humidity, the greater the water content in
the film, which promotes molecular mobility and diffusion controlled pro-
cesses, such as oxygen permeation (Hong and Krochta 2006).
(b) Specific action of antioxidant additives. As commented on above, edible films
and coatings are able to encapsulate active ingredients or additives exhibiting
some specific action in the system. The incorporation of antioxidants is recom-
mended in our context (Nussinovitch 2009; Cosler 1957), given that these
chemicals will have an antioxidant action on the product. In the last few years,
natural antioxidants have received a great deal of attention because of the
worldwide trend to avoid synthetic food additives. According to Frankel (1996),
natural antioxidants in food products may have clear benefits because they have
anticarcinogenic effects and inhibit biologically harmful oxidation reactions in
the body. Due to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, essential oils
are being studied as additives to be incorporated into edible films and coatings
(Atarés et al. 2010).
9 Use of Edible Coatings, a Novel Preservation Method for Nuts 97

9.3.3 Good Adhesiveness on the Surface of the Nut

The antioxidant effect of the coating will be effective so long as the coating is in
close contact with the nut surface. Evidently, the occurrence of cracks and flaking in
the coating would drastically affect its barrier properties. Generally speaking, the
adhesiveness of the coating material on the food product is highly dependent on the
nature of both, as well as their affinity to each other. Adhesiveness depends on the
nature and on the number of interactions between film and support (Debeaufort
et al. 1998).
In the case of nuts, the inherently poor adherence of coating (hydrophilic) and
nut surface (hydrophobic) may be the cause of incomplete coverage, which is a
common and important setback. According to Lin and Krochta (2005), this problem
could arise during the coating step (dewetting), the drying (shrinking and cracking),
and the storage of the coated product (flaking). The addition of a surfactant (aka
emulsifiers or surface active agents) to the coating formulation is a common tech-
nique to solve this problem. They allow adherence and mixing between hydropho-
bic and hydrophilic materials. Their incorporation would reduce the interface
tension between coating and solid, hence the interactions between both are pro-
moted and the extensibility is improved. An alternative solution would imply the
modification of the nut surface with surfactant adsorption prior to the coating. Both
techniques will be commented on in Sect. 9.4.

9.3.4 Microbial Stability

Contamination of nuts by aflatoxins is a serious health problem. These toxins are

produced from infection by fungus Aspergillus and are considered as one of the
most dangerous contaminants of foods (Basaran et al. 2008; Luttfullah and Hussain
2011). The incorporation of an antimicrobial agent should also be considered in the
formulation of coatings for nuts.

9.3.5 Good Optical Properties

An additional interesting requisite for nut coating materials would be their ability to
improve the general appearance of the coated product. In this respect, the color of
the nuts should not be altered and the coatings should exhibit high transparency. The
gloss of the nuts can be improved to make them more appealing. Water-soluble cel-
lulose derivatives (methylcellulose (MC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), carboxy-
methyl cellulose (CMC), and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)) produce
transparent and shiny films (Debeaufort et al. 1998).
98 L. Atarés et al.

Table 9.1 Original research studies—performed over the last two decades on the application of
edible coatings to nuts
Nut product Coating Reference
Peanuts Whey protein Sugar esters, soy lecithin, Lin and
Sorbitan laureate (Span 20) (s) Krochta (2005)
Glycerol (p) Lee et al.
Lecithin (s) (2002)
Methyl paraben (am)
Vitamin E (ao) Lee and
Krochta (2002)

Glycerol (p) Maté et al.

Distilled acetylated (1996)
monoglycerides
Glycerol (p) Maté and
Krochta (1998)
Pecans Methyl cellulose (MC), Propylene glycol (PG), sorbitol (p) Baldwin and
(pecan hydroxypropyl cellulose Lecithin (s) Wood (2006)
kernels) (HPC), carboxymethyl α-tocopherol (vitamin A), butylated
cellulose (CMC) hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) (ao)
Almonds Hydroxypropyl Tween 80 (s) Atarés et al.
methylcellulose (HPMC) Ascorbic acid, Citric acid, (2011)
Ginger oil (ao)
p plasticizer, s surfactant, am antimicrobial, ao antioxidant

9.4 Edible Coatings for the Extension of Shelf Life

Other than maintaining organoleptic and other quality attributes, the latest advances
in the application of edible coatings have been developed to extend the shelf life of
nuts. A number of studies on the oxygen and aroma barrier properties of edible films
have been published between 1967 and 2005 presenting varied potential film mod-
els (Miller and Krochta 1997). Later studies (Table 9.1) show that suitable film-
forming materials include whey protein isolate and cellulosic derivatives which are
all good barriers to oxygen (Han and Krochta 2007; Maté and Krochta 1998; Lee
and Krochta 2002; Trezza and Krochta 2002; Miller and Krochta 1997), which
make them suitable for this use. The same studies state that these materials are good
barriers to aroma and oil.
Lin and Krochta (2005) dealt with the adherence of whey protein coatings on
peanuts which is vital for shelf-life extension. Peanuts were immersed in aqueous
solutions of the surfactants and air dried to modify the peanuts’ surface energy which
rendered it more compatible with the hydrophilic coating. The addition of surfactants
(Span 20) to the whey protein coating solution also improved the coverage of the pea-
nuts in a concentration-dependent fashion Maté et al. (1996) investigated humidity in
9 Use of Edible Coatings, a Novel Preservation Method for Nuts 99

peanuts and its effect on coatings, and concluded that the factors determining the
effectiveness of the coatings were their thickness and the relative humidity, which
indicated that the mechanism of protection was due to oxygen barrier properties. The
lack of discontinuities of the coatings was critical in improving the shelf life of
peanuts.
Protein coatings have been found to be beneficial in that whey protein coatings
delayed oxygen uptake and rancidity of dry roasted peanuts when compared to the
uncoated controls. Maté and Krochta (1998) found that coated peanuts were defi-
nitely more resistant to oxidation than those uncoated and hexanal levels which is a
degradation product of linoleic acid and an indicator of lipid oxidation and therefore
rancidity was found to be lower (Lee et al. 2002; Lee and Krochta 2002) confirm
this fact. This led to the conclusion that coated samples were oxidized significantly
slower than the uncoated reference, meaning a shelf-life extension of coated
samples.
Other studies such as that of Baldwin and Wood (2006) investigated the applica-
tion of cellulosic edible coatings on pecan kernels using two plasticizers (propylene
glycol and sorbitol), lecithin as surfactant, and several antioxidants (vitamin E,
BHA, and BHT). The coatings imparted gloss to the nuts. Determination of degra-
dation products (hexanal) by gas chromatography revealed that hexanal levels were
at least twice as low in coated kernels as in uncoated controls, meaning that coated
kernels underwent less fat oxidation and were less rancid, which correlated with the
sensory analysis, thus further proving the validity of selected coating materials for
the preservation of quality and product shelf-life extension.

9.5 Application of Edible Coatings to Almonds

Almonds are one of the most commonly used nuts and are a highly nutritional source
of vitamins (B complex) and minerals (Mg, P, K) (Ahmad 2010). They contain high
levels of fat (51 % w/w), but have a favorable fatty acid profile (64–82 % oleic acid,
8–28 % linoleic acid, 6–8 % palmitic acid). Here too, the oxidation process of unsat-
urated fatty acids can produce unpleasant rancid off-flavors, thus shortening the shelf
life of almonds under ambient conditions. Almonds with hydroxypropyl methylcel-
lulose (HPMC) formulations containing different antioxidant additives such as
ascorbic and citric acids, have been frequently studied. Other materials which may
contribute to the organoleptic properties of the nut are potential additives to coating
materials. Atarés et al. (2011) added ginger essential oil into HPMC coatings to be
applied to almonds, and studied the oxygen permeability of the films in order to
characterize the mechanisms that modulated the lipid oxidation protection. Results
in Table 9.2 show that acids incorporation produced a significant improvement of the
oxygen barrier performance of the films. However, the addition of ginger oil had
opposite negative effect on film integrity. This led to the conclusion that whenever
materials were added to coating systems they had to be tested rigorously as any
material added may affect the coating efficacy.
100 L. Atarés et al.

9.6 Conclusion

Edible films and coatings are a promising alternative to conventional packaging

systems that among their functions can be added maintenance of organoleptic and
other quality attributes. Many functions of edible packaging are identical to those of
plastic films. However, their use would still require an overpackaging, notably for
handling and hygiene purposes (Debeaufort et al. 1998).
The use of a coating acting as an oxygen barrier combined with a simpler plastic
film acting as a moisture barrier represents an alternative packaging system. The
film-forming techniques are critical for the performance of the films (Maté and
Krochta 1998) and more work is needed to improve the efficiency of the coatings
and achieve longer rancidity delay with thinner films.
Microbial stability will become more and more important as more edible poly-
mers approach commercial availability (Miller and Krochta 1997). And its effect on
other properties of the films and the product (oxygen permeability, organoleptic
properties, and others) also needs further investigation.
The mechanism of action of each specific compound or mixture should be con-
sidered individually to get the best match of the coating formulation and the require-
ments of the product. Such studies and the exploitation of these results have impact
on the quality of nuts in general.

References

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with almonds or walnuts lowers total plasma cholesterol and low-density-lipoprotein choles-
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Ahmad Z (2010) The uses and properties of almond oil. Complement Ther Clin Pract 16:10–12
Atarés L, Bonilla J, Chiralt A (2010) Characterization of sodium caseinate-based edible films
incorporated with cinnamon or ginger essential oils. J Food Eng 100:678–687
Atarés L, Pérez-Masiá R, Chiralt A (2011) The role of some antioxidants in the HPMC films prop-
erties and lipid protection in coated toasted almonds. J Food Eng 104:649–656
Ayranci E, Tunc S (2003) A method for the measurement of the oxygen permeability and the
development of edible films to reduce the rate of oxidative reactions in fresh foods. Food Chem
80:423–431
Baldwin EA, Wood B (2006) Use of edible coating to preserve pecans at room temperature.
HortScience 41(1):188–192
Basaran P, Basaran-Akgul N, Oksuz L (2008) Elimination of Aspergillus parasiticus from nut
surface with low pressure cold plasma (LPCP) treatment. Food Microbiol 25:626–632
Biquet B, Labuza TP (1988) Evaluation of the moisture permeability of chocolate films as an edi-
ble moisture barrier. J Food Sci 53(4):989
Chidanandaiah RCK, Sanyal MK (2009) Effect of sodium alginate coating with preservatives on
the quality of meat patties during refrigerated (4 ± 1 °C) storage. J Muscle Foods 20:275–292
Contreras-Medellin R, Labuza TP (1981) Prediction of moisture protection requirements for
foods. Cereal Food World 26(7):335
Cosler HB (1957) Methods of producing zein-coated confectionery. US Patent 2,791,509
Debeaufort F, Quezada-Gallo JA, Voilley A (1998) Edible films and coatings: tomorrow’s packag-
ings: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci 38(4):299–313
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Duan J, Cherian G, Zhao Y (2010) Quality enhancement in fresh and frozen lingcod (Ophiodon
elongates) fillets by employment of fish oil incorporated chitosan coatings. Food Chem
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Frankel EN (1996) Antioxidants in lipid foods and their impact on food quality. Food Chem
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Gómez-Estaca J, Montero P, Giménez B, Gómez-Guillén MC (2007) Effect of functional edible
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Han JH, Krochta JM (2007) Physical properties of whey protein coating solutions and films con-
taining antioxidants. J Food Sci 72(5):308–314
Hong SI, Krochta JM (2006) Oxygen barrier performance of whey-protein-coated plastic films as
affected by temperature, relative humidity, base film and protein type. J Food Eng 77:739–745
Kurlandsky SB, Stote KS (2006) Cardioprotective effects of chocolate and almond consumption in
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Labuza TP (1971) Kinetics of lipid oxidation in foods. CRC Crit Rev Food Technol 2:355–405
Lee SY, Krochta JM (2002) Accelerated shelf life testing of whey-protein-coated peanuts analyzed
by static headspace gas chromatography. J Agric Food Chem 50:2022–2028
Lee SY, Trezza TA, Guinard JX, Krochta JM (2002) Whey-protein-coated peanuts assessed by
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Luttfullah G, Hussain A (2011) Studies on contamination level of aflatoxins in some dried fruits
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Maté JI, Krochta JM (1998) Oxygen uptake model for uncoated and coated peanuts. J Food Eng
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Maté JI, Frankel EN, Krochta JM (1996) Whey protein isolate edible coatings: effect on the rancid-
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Chapter 10
Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern
Preservation Process for a Traditional Maori
Fermented Food

John D. Brooks, Michelle Lucke-Hutton, and Nick Roskruge

Contents
10.1 Introduction 103
10.2 The Traditional Fermentation Process 104
10.3 Microbiology and Safety 105
10.4 Packaging 106
10.5 Thermal Processing 107
10.6 Determination of the Thermal Process 107
10.7 Thermal Processing of Kaanga Wai 109
10.8 Comparison of Traditional Kaanga Wai with Model
Cream Style Corn during Thermal Processing 110
10.8.1 Sensory Evaluation 110
10.8.2 Shelf Life Testing 111
10.9 Legal Issues 111
10.10 The Future 112
References 113

10.1 Introduction

Kaanga wai (or kaanga kopiro) is a traditional fermented food produced by the
Maori of New Zealand from maize (Zea mays). It has been prepared by Maori since
the early 1800s (Asmundson et al. 1990). The traditional process involved putting
whole cobs into woven flax bags and immersing them either in a stream of running
water or in slow-moving swamp water (Whyte et al. 2001). The bags were kept
submerged for 2–3 months, after which the maize was judged ready by squeezing

J.D. Brooks (*) • M. Lucke-Hutton • N. Roskruge

Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Applied Sciences,
Auckland University of Technology, 24 St. Paul Street, Auckland, New Zealand
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 103

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_10
104 J.D. Brooks et al.

the kernels to check that they had softened. The cobs were removed from the bags
and kernels were scraped from the cobs before grinding using a stone mortar
(Asmundson et al. 1990). The distinctive flavour was highly prized by some Maori
and the product was consumed as a porridge, often with cream and sugar (Asmundson
et al. 1990), but it was also boiled and mixed with manuka ash in a product known
as Kaanga pungarehu (Roskruge 2007), or dried and used like flour in cake and
bread making.
Modern production of Kaanga wai was almost non-existent until a revival in the
last 20 years or so—pollution of streams, theft and the loss of suitable cultivars were
significant factors, but the influence of western missionaries on Maori to give up
their “unwholesome” and “uncivilised ways” and changes in the attitudes of young
Maori also resulted in a decline in the number of people with the knowledge and
experience to produce Kaanga wai. There is also very little published material on
production and qualities of Kaanga wai.
The modern, non-commercial fermentation process differs little from the tradi-
tional method, but there has been some evolution to use more modern materials, such
as hessian sacks, sometimes with muslin or cotton flour bag lining, instead of the flax
bags. In some cases, the traditional whole cob process has been replaced by stripping
the kernels from the cobs before the fermentation. Also, some practitioners are using
drums with water reticulation to replace the need to place the cobs in natural sites.
Programmes have been founded to aid the re-establishment of the traditional
varieties of corn and maize (generally Indian corn) for fermentation; many modern
cultivars contain too much sugar to be suitable for Kaanga wai production (personal
communication, Taanehopuwai Trust 2003).

10.2 The Traditional Fermentation Process

The best maize variety to use for the fermentation is an old cultivar referred to simply
as “Kaanga” (Taanehopuwai Trust 2003), which is nuttier in flavour and is a much
darker colour than sweet corn. These traditional varieties are generally referred to in
literature as “Indian corn” and are maize cultivars which have open pollinated over
generations. One old cultivar with very white kernels, found in the Waikato region of
New Zealand, was known as Niho hoiho (horse’s teeth) because of the size of the
kernels and this was the old preference.
The two methods of preparation currently used are whole cob, and fermentation
of kernels stripped from the cob (Figs. 10.1 and 10.2). In both methods, the cobs are
left on the plant until the kernels have dried and hardened, judged on the plant once
the cobs hang. This translates to a moisture level in the kernels of 12–14 % at harvest
(Roskruge 2007). The outer leaves of the cob are left on and the whole cob is placed
in a jute or hessian bag. The bag is completely immersed in running water in a pool
in a creek and left for 2–3 months to ferment. At intervals the corn is checked by
squeezing between finger and thumb—if the kernels are soft, then the corn is ready;
if the kernels are still hard, the bag is put back into the water. If the kernel method
10 Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern Preservation Process for a Traditional… 105

Pick corn, leave leaves on cob.

Put corn into a sack (made of hessian or jute).

Immerse sack containing corn in running water and leave for two months. A pool in a
creek is acceptable.

Check kernels are soft (press with finger). Leave to soak for two weeks longer if the
corn is still hard before checking again.

Fig 10.1 Flow diagram for the whole Cob method

Pick corn.

Strip leaves from cobs.

Shell kernels from cob.

Put corn into a sack (made of muslin or calico).

Immerse sack in a drum filled with clean water and leave for two and a half months.
Change water daily.

Check kernels are soft (press with finger). Leave to soak for two weeks longer if the
corn is still hard before checking again.

Fig. 10.2 Flow diagram for the Kernel method

is being used, the kernels are removed from the cob and placed in a muslin or calico
bag, which is then placed in a drum of clean water. The water must be changed
every day to simulate running fresh water. Again, the kernels are left for 10 weeks
and checked for softness at intervals.

10.3 Microbiology and Safety

Since the Kaanga wai fermentation is uncontrolled and no starter culture is used, it
is important to understand the course of the fermentation and the microbes to ensure
that all appropriate steps are taken to minimise risks to the consumer.
106 J.D. Brooks et al.

Both aerobes and anaerobes can be isolated, together with typical fermentation
products, such as lactic acid and volatile fatty acids (VFA) (Asmundson et al. 1990).
Lactic acid is produced between 2 and 20 days, but is slowly replaced by VFA. At
1.5–2.5 months propionic acid appears, but n-butyric acid, which is probably what
gives the product its characteristic smell, predominates by the time the process is
considered complete.
As in most natural fermentations, there is a succession of bacterial types observed.
Initially lactic acid bacteria predominate—strains of Lactococcus and Leuconostoc
dominate the early fermentation and during this time the lactic acid concentration
rises rapidly. Lactococcus disappears from the fermentation after 23 days, but
Leuconostoc survives for more than 67 days (Asmundson et al. 1990).
A major concern with natural fermentations is that the pH may not fall suffi-
ciently to inhibit Clostridium botulinum, a spore-forming strict anaerobe that pro-
duces botulin, a neurotoxin that is extremely toxic even at low concentrations
(Byrne et al. 1998). Asmundson et al. (1990) isolated a butyric acid producing
Clostridium species from their samples, indicating that C. botulinum could poten-
tially be present in the product. However, it appears that C. botulinum does not
compete well with large numbers of other microorganisms (Montville 2008) and
toxin containing foods are generally devoid of other types of bacteria because of
thermal processing (Jay et al. 2005). However, Whyte et al. (2001) have con-
cluded that the Kaanga wai preservation process is relatively low risk, provided
that there is an adequate cooking step before consumption. In addition, if the
fermentation process has failed, potentially allowing pathogens to grow, there is
reported to be an obvious strong, sharp, bitter taste that would warn against sig-
nificant accidental consumption. It should be noted that botulin is so toxic that a
taste sample might contain sufficient toxin to cause illness. However, the toxin is
heat labile, so tasting a cooked sample would be safe. These workers concluded
that normal safe food handling practices and the use of uncontaminated water for
the production process would be sufficient to prevent food poisoning from con-
sumption of this food.

10.4 Packaging

Traditionally, the Kaanga wai was consumed as soon as it was ready to eat. However,
the Taanehopuwai Trust (a member of the Tahuri Whenua collective, www.tahuri-
whenua.org.nz) wanted to develop a shelf-stable product that could be stored and
prepared easily. A retortable pouch was the obvious choice. These packages have
been described by Downing as consisting of a flexible pouch-shaped container gen-
erally made of a three-ply laminate consisting of polyester film, aluminium foil and
polypropylene film to give “superior barrier properties for a long shelf life, seal
integrity, toughness and puncture resistance” (Downing 1996). The retortable pouch
is currently used for packaging a variety of food products, including meats, sauces,
soups, fruits, vegetables and pet food.
10 Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern Preservation Process for a Traditional… 107

10.5 Thermal Processing

Foods packed and stored in hermetically sealed containers must be heat processed
to ensure safety, particularly if the product pH is above 4.5 since these conditions
may allow the growth and toxin production of C. botulinum (Weddig et al. 2007).
The thermal process is designed using the known heat resistance of C. botulinum
spores and the measured heat penetration into the slowest heating point (SHP) of the
product. It is critical to determine the SHP accurately to ensure that the entire prod-
uct receives an adequate thermal process. To ensure that worst-case conditions were
accounted for in the development of the thermal process, an assumption was made
that Kaanga wai would be classified as a low acid food, since its pH may be greater
than 4.5, so by regulation, it must be given a thermal process that will reduce the
number of C. botulinum spores present by a factor of 1012. This is referred to as a
12-D process (Weddig et al. 2007)

10.6 Determination of the Thermal Process

Retortable pouches have a complex geometry, particularly if there is a gusset at one

end. To measure the heat penetration and determine the SHP, thermocouples were
inserted into the pouches through the base and held in place by plastic pillars
(Figs. 10.3 and 10.4).
The pillars ensured that the thermocouples remained in the desired position
within the pouch and were made of plastic, rather than metal, to minimise the heat
sink effect. The thermocouple was secured in the base of the pouch, using a rubber
washer on the outside of the pouch and a brass washer and nut on the inside, thus
effectively sealing the pouch so that it did not leak during retorting. The pillars were
secured through the sides of the pouch using rubber o-rings and cap screws. Pillars
were placed at three different positions within the pouches to enable the SHP to be
determined.
The quantities of Kaanga wai presently available are relatively small. The
pouches were therefore filled with 540 g of Cream Style Corn (Wattie’s, Hasings,
New Zealand) and vacuum-sealed at 350 mbar. This product is similar to the fer-
mented Kaanga wai and provided a convenient model system, though it should be
noted that Cream Style Corn has already been processed and the starch is therefore
gelatinised, altering the thermal conductivity of the product. An automatically
controlled retort (steam pressure vessel) with an Allen-Bradley supervisory control
and data acquisition system (Rockwell Automation, Milwaukee, Wisconsin) was
used to process sealed pouches at 115 °C for 90 min (see Fig. 10.5). The tempera-
ture profiles from the thermocouples were recorded and the real time value of F0
was automatically calculated using Simpson’s rule (Timings and Twigg 2001).
Fig. 10.3 Thermocouple
held in place in retortable
pouch

Fig. 10.4 Pouch

assembled ready for
retorting

Fig. 10.5 Automatically controlled and monitored retort (steam pressure vessel)
10 Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern Preservation Process for a Traditional… 109

From the temperature–time profile, the lethal rate can be determined from the
equation:

L = 10(
(q -q ref ) / z )
(10.1)

where L = lethal rate, θ = product temperature (°C), θref = reference temperature (°C),
and z = the temperature range over which the D-value decreases by a factor of 10 (°C).
From the lethal rate, the lethality (or equivalent time) of the process can be cal-
culated, using the following integration:

( ) dt
t t
F = òLdt = ò 10(
(q -q ref ) / z )
(10.2)
0 0

where F = lethality (F0 = lethality using a reference temperature of 121.11 °C and

z = 10 °C). L = lethal rate. So, for a 12D process:

F0 = Dr ( log C0 - log C ) = 12 Dr ,

where F0 = integrated lethal value of heating using a reference temperature of

121.11 °C and z = 10 °C. Dr = value of D determined at 121.1 °C, C0 = initial concen-
tration of spores, and C = final concentration of spores.
A local processor of canned corn recommended an F0 of 9 min, which, taking Dr
as 0.21 min and z as 10 °C would result in a 42 decimal reduction in spores, ensur-
ing the safety of the finished product. The SHP was found to lie between 60 and
80 mm from the base of the pouch and the final process design was a processing
time of 100 min at 115 °C.

10.7 Thermal Processing of Kaanga Wai

The Kaanga wai was prepared for processing according to the following flow dia-
gram (Fig. 10.6).
The appearance of the minced product was quite different from the traditional
product, which is made by pounding the whole kernels with the bottom of a strong
glass bottle. Mincing of the kernels resulted in a smaller particle size, with more of
the kernel contents released, increasing the starch content of the liquid fraction and
giving a drier appearance.
Traditional preparation of the Kaanga wai involves mixing the mashed kernels
with water in the ratio 1:4 (Kaanga wai:water). For this reason, various ratios of
water to corn were processed and compared. Where higher ratios of water were
used, there was a tendency for the product to separate before thermal processing.
This problem was resolved by pre-gelatinising the product in water at a ratio of
Kaanga wai:water of 1:2 before filling into pouches. The finished product was
homogeneous, though slightly too thick. The final process could therefore include a
pre-gelatinisation step, or the pouches could be processed in an agitating retort.
110 J.D. Brooks et al.

Mince kernels using commercial mincer with 8mm diameter holes in mincing plate

Weigh out appropriate amount of Kaanga wai and Water

Mix Kaanga wai and water together in a bowl using a large spoon

Measure pH of Kaanga wai/Water mix

Fill pouches and thermally process in retort

Fig. 10.6 Kaanga wai preparation

The large amount of water required to produce a product of the required consis-
tency suggests that there is a large amount of starch still present in the fermented
corn and implies that little starch is hydrolysed during the fermentation.

10.8 Comparison of Traditional Kaanga Wai with Model

Cream Style Corn during Thermal Processing

When the lethality curves for commercially minced Kaanga wai were compared
with the Cream Style Corn model, it was found that heat transfer occurred much
more rapidly into the Kaanga wai. This is almost certainly because the Cream Style
Corn had already been gelatinised by its earlier processing and was thus more vis-
cous, whereas the Kaanga wai thickened only during the heating process. The use
of the model is therefore not valid, though the product would be over-processed,
rather than potentially dangerously underprocessed.

10.8.1 Sensory Evaluation

Preliminary sensory evaluation of the new product was undertaken with a consumer
panel drawn from local Maori familiar with the traditional product. This in itself
presented difficulties: there has been little production of Kaanga wai for many years
and finding sufficient Maori who knew the product was challenging. The retorted
product was compared with a sample of the traditional Kaanga wai, which was pre-
pared by adding two cups of the fermented corn to four cups of boiling water and
simmering for 1 h. The retorted product was slightly too thick, so a small amount of
water was mixed into the product before it was heated to boiling point. Both products
were kept at 65 °C in a Bain-Marie prior to being served to the panellists.
10 Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern Preservation Process for a Traditional… 111

The products were compared with a difference test designed to detect whether
there is an overall difference between the products rather than a difference in a specific
characteristic. The test used was a two-out-of-five test. The number of panellists
required to take part in this panel in order to give statistically significant results is
between 10 and 15 people.
A nine-point hedonic scale test was used for acceptance testing. Panellists were
asked to rate two samples presented (one of each product). The number of panellists
required to take part in this panel in order to give statistically significant results is
between 60 and 100 people.
The numbers of panellists available fell below these minima, so the results are
not statistically significant, but do give an indication of consumer response to the
product. In the difference test, only one out of seven panellists correctly identified
the two samples that were the same. There was no difference in acceptance between
the two samples; both had a mean acceptance rating of “Like slightly”. This may,
however, be misleading, as panellists generally fell into two groups—either they
liked the product very much (5/7) or they disliked the product (2/7).

10.8.2 Shelf Life Testing

It is impossible to conduct accelerated shelf life testing of the retorted Kaanga wai as
there are no substantially similar products on the market with which to compare results.
Shelf life testing must therefore take place over a full year, with appropriate tests being
conducted every month. Suitable trials would involve two sets of samples, one set
being frozen to provide a reference and the other stored at constant temperature and
humidity (20 °C and 75 % RH). These constraints are critical, as moisture and gas
exchange with the product through the laminate of the pouch is possible. So far, such
trials have not been conducted. Ideally, appearance, texture and flavour of the product
should be tested by a trained panel, using difference and acceptance tests. If resources
are limited, a larger consumer panel could be used. This presents some problems for
Tahuri Whenua, as in order to ensure accuracy and repeatability of results; at least 40
consumers will be needed each month to test the samples. Other analyses that should
be made at the monthly intervals are colour, viscosity and texture measurements.
If the sensory panel results are shown to be correlated with instrumental mea-
surements, then quality standards can be developed that will allow instrumental
tests to be used to determine acceptability of the product to consumers.

10.9 Legal Issues

Because of the implications of the New Zealand Food Act (1981) and the unique
position of Maori as partners in the Treaty of Waitangi, there are a number of issues
that may have to be resolved if this process is developed further, especially those
relating to intellectual property.
112 J.D. Brooks et al.

The product is partially processed at an unlicensed premise, i.e. the corn is fermented
in a stream. This will become important if the product is sold to consumers outside the
Iwi (tribe), as the product would then be considered to be commercial and would there-
fore be required to meet the Food (Safety) Regulations 2002 (New Zealand Government
2002). This specific issue might be addressed through the application of HACCP
principles and effectively regarding the fermentation phase as “harvesting”. Perhaps the
aspect of most concern during the fermentation phase is the potential for chemical
contamination of the product from farm run-off and industrial discharge. Proper applica-
tion of HACCP would require that the water be tested for presence of industrial and
agrichemicals on a regular basis.
Care must also be exercised in the handling of the raw fermented corn. The fer-
mentation occurs under essentially uncontrolled conditions, so whatever microor-
ganisms present in the water and on the corn may take part in the fermentation
process. Some of these microorganisms may be harmful to the workers or may
produce toxins in the raw material.
During the development of the process described above, the pH of the fermented
product was found to lie between 3.67 and 3.75. Further testing will be required on
many batches of Kaanga wai to determine whether it is a low acid food (i.e. has a
pH greater than 4.5). If it is found that the pH is occasionally greater than 4.5, then
the product will either require acidification or be processed as a low acid food. In
either case, a scheduled thermal process will have to be filed and the product will
have to be processed according to the schedule at an approved food processing
premises, in accordance with Regulation 14 of the Food Safety Regulations 2002
(NZFSA 2011).
The second issue is that of intellectual property. The fermentation process is a
traditional method employed by the New Zealand Maori (and incidentally, in the
production of “tocos” by the Ancash Indians of Peru) and should probably be
regarded as public property. However, under the Treaty of Waitangi, the rights of
Maori must be carefully considered in relation to traditional plants, medicines and
foods. A problem could arise if any individual or group were to try to patent the pro-
cess or to develop the process commercially and then patent it. Ownership and use of
traditional knowledge is a major issue for both Maori and Pakeha (non-Maori) and
has been the subject of the WAI262 claim to the Waitangi Tribunal. The report of the
Tribunal was released in July, 2011 and will influence future law and policy affecting
Māori culture and identity, native flora and fauna (Waitangi Tribunal 2011).
Further investigation of all these issues will be essential if the process is to be
fully commercialised and the product sold to the general public.

10.10 The Future

The best option for the Tahuri Whenua at this stage of development of the product
would be to prepare the raw material to the processing stage and then contract a
suitable food manufacturer to package the product and apply a heat treatment, pos-
sibly in accordance with a scheduled process.
10 Kaanga Wai: Development of a Modern Preservation Process for a Traditional… 113

References

Asmundson RV, Boland MJ, Moore DWG, Davis W, Winiata W (1990) Kaanga Wai, a New Zealand
Maori corn fermentation. In: Yu P (ed) Fermentation technologies: industrial applications.
Elsevier, London
Byrne MP, Smith TJ, Montgomery VA, Smith LA (1998) Purification, potency, and efficacy of the
Botulinum Neurotoxin type A binding domain from Pichia pastoris as a recombinant vaccine
candidate. Infect Immun 66:4817–4822
Downing DL (1996) A complete course in canning and related processes. Book II: microbiology,
packaging, HACCP and ingredients. CTI, Baltimore
Jay JM, Losesner MJ, Golden DA (2005) Modern food microbiology. Springer, New York
Montville TJ (2008) Food microbiology. McGraw-Hill, New York. http://www.accessscience.com.
Accessed 13 Sept 2011
New Zealand Food Safety Authority (2011) Food Safety Regulations 2002
New Zealand Government (1981) Food Act 1981
New Zealand Government (2002) Food (Safety) Regulations 2002 (SR 2002/396). New Zealand
Government, Wellington
Roskruge N (2007) Hokia ki te whenua, Ph.D. thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North
Taanehopuwai Trust (2003) Kaanga Wai production
Timings R, Twigg P (2001) Dictionary of engineering terms. Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston
Waitangi Tribunal (2011) Ko Aotearoa tēnei: a report into claims concerning New Zealand law and
policy affecting Māori culture and identity. Te taumata tuatahi. Government of New Zealand
Weddig LM, Balestrini CG, Shafer BD (2007) Canned foods: principles of thermal process control,
acidification and container closure evaluation. Science Education Foundation, Washington, DC
Whyte R, Hudson JA, Hasell S, Gray M, O’Reilly R (2001) Traditional Maori food preparation
methods and food safety. Int J Food Microbiol 69:183–190
Chapter 11
Thai Fish Sauce: A Traditional
Fermented Sauce

Wunwiboon Garnjanagoonchorn

Contents
11.1 Introduction 115
11.2 Fish Sauce 116
11.3 Manufacturing Process 117
11.4 Research and Development of Thai Fish Sauce 117
11.4.1 Microbiology and Chemistry of Fish Sauce 118
11.4.2 Methods to Improve Fish Sauce Processing and Its Quality 119
11.5 Nutritional Values of Thai Fish Sauce 121
References 122

11.1 Introduction

Thai fermented fish product—fish sauce is known locally as “Nam Pla.” Fish fer-
mentation is widely practiced in Thailand and fish sauce is widely consumed in the
country and is also the most important exported fish fermented product.
The process of fermentation for fish sauce starts when the raw material and salt
are left to stand. During the fermentation process of fish sauce, some organic sub-
stances break down into smaller molecules which contribute to the typical odor,
flavor, and color to the products. Similar products are also processed and consumed
in other countries in the Southeast Asia, i.e., Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Myanmar, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

W. Garnjanagoonchorn (*)
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry,
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 115

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_11
116 W. Garnjanagoonchorn

11.2 Fish Sauce

Fish sauce or “Nam Pla” in Thai is the clear aqueous product of prolonged salting
fish fermentation. It is made from either freshwater or saltwater fish. Anchovies
(small saltwater fish) are traditionally used in good quality fish sauce; however, fish
and parts of fish can be used in fish sauce fermentation (Phithakpol et al. 1995;
Lopetcharat 1999) Natural fish sauce requires 9–12 months fermentation. Fish
sauce is used as a flavoring ingredient in Thai cooking as well as other Southeast
Asian cooking; it is called differently such as Nuoc-nam (Vietnam), Gua-ca
(Myanmar), Kecap ikan (Indonesia), Patis (Philippines), and Nam-pa (Laos). Good
quality fish sauce imparts good aroma and flavor, contains essential amino acids, is
rich in vitamin B especially vitamin B12, and also supplies minerals that include
calcium, phosphorous, iodine, and iron (Areekul et al. 1974; Garby and Areekul
1974; Suwanik 1977). Thai fish sauces (Fig. 11.1) are produced for local consump-
tion and for export to nearby countries and others such as the European Union, the
USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.
In Thailand, fish sauce is classified as “standardized food” where quality stan-
dards are defined by regulation authorized by Food and Drug Administration, under
the Ministry of Public Health (FDA 2000). Genuine fish sauce shall be clear and
free of sediment, has color, odor, and flavor inherent of that specific characteristics
of genuine fish sauce, if only sodium chloride salt is used it shall be not less than
200 g in 1 L of fish sauce, total nitrogen not less than 9 g/L of fish sauce, amino acid
nitrogen not less than 40 % and not more than 60 % of total nitrogen, and ratio of
glutamic acid to total nitrogen not less than 0.4 and not more than 0.6 (Ministry of
Public Health 2000). Histamine, a toxic biogenic amine derived from enzymatic
decarboxylation of amino acid histidine, has a maximum permitted level of 400 mg/
kg food (Codex Std 302-2011). Using spectrofluorometry technique, Muangthai
and Nakthong (2014) analyzed ten fish sauces bought from supermarkets in Bangkok
and found histamine content in the range of 7.5–15.11 mg/kg fish sauce. The low
level of histamine indicates the good quality of fish raw material used in fish sauce
manufacturing.

Fig. 11.1 Example of the

Thai commercial fish sauce
11 Thai Fish Sauce: A Traditional Fermented Sauce 117

11.3 Manufacturing Process

Natural fish sauce is made from the very fresh whole fish mostly small fish, often
salting on board after catch. Fish are mixed with salt at a variable ratio from 4:1 to
1:1 (w/w); the ratio of fish to salt depends on size of fish and traditional recipe of
each manufacturer. Either solar (sea) salt or rock salt can be used in the process. The
fish and salt mixture is placed in large earthen or concrete containers lined with a
layer of salt on the bottom, and topped with a layer of salt. Figure 11.2a shows the
fermentation of fish sauce in concrete containers exposed to sunshine during the
day. Figure 11.2b, c showed the fermentation in glass tanks that permitted observa-
tion of the changes of the mixture during fermentation. During the first few months,
a woven bamboo mat with heavy rocks is placed on the top layer to prevent the fish
in the mixture from floating during fermentation. Approximately after a period of 6
months, the light brown colored liquid is removed from the fish mixture through an
outlet at the bottom of the container that facilitates separation of the sediment from
the liquid. This liquid is then allowed to ferment in the sun until good aroma and
flavors are developed. This top grade fish sauce is corrected to meet quality stan-
dards and is then ready for bottling. The high quality fish sauce requires about 9–12
months fermentation; therefore, it is quite challenging for researchers to find means
of reducing fermentation time and still produce good aroma and flavors fish sauce.
The remaining sediment from the fermentation process is mixed with brine solution,
and retained for a period of 2–3 months to extract fish flavors; it is then filtered and
bottled as second- and third-grade fish sauce. In commercial fish sauce, sugar, caramel
color, and monosodium glutamate may be added to adjust color and flavor.

11.4 Research and Development of Thai Fish Sauce

Thai fish sauce has been traditionally processed in households and small-scale
industries where research and development have been carried out by processors and
kept secret within the families. Over the past 40 years, many scientific studies had
been carried on Thai fish sauce and published for public information. The topics of
these studies involved microbiology and chemistry of fish sauce, also methods to
improve fish sauce processing and quality.

Fig. 11.2 Fish sauce fermentation, (a) fermentation tank, (b, c) the changes of fish and salt mixture
during fermentation
118 W. Garnjanagoonchorn

11.4.1 Microbiology and Chemistry of Fish Sauce

During the 1–2 month of fish sauce fermentation, the concentration of soluble nitrogen
compounds in fish and salts mixture increases which involve endogenous enzyme in
fish muscle and viscera. The activity of trypsin-like proteinase has been reported by
Gildberg and Shi (1994) and Sirighan et al. (2006), also cathepsin (Lopetcharat and
Park 2002) during the first period of fermentation. However, high salt concentration
(15–20 %) and low pH (5.5) condition do not favor these proteinase activities.
The changes of microorganism during the beginning of fish sauce fermentation
were studied by Thongthai and Siriwongpairat (1978) who demonstrated that after
the first month of fermentation the number of aerobic bacteria that tolerate 5–10 %
salt that present in a small number will decrease and the aerobic halo-tolerant bac-
teria will increase from 107 to 7 × 108 cells/mL after 3 weeks of fermentation. More
specific bacteria that involved in the first stage of fermentation have been identified
by Saengjindawong and Winitnuntarat (1984) who found microorganisms to be
Micrococcus roseus, M.varians, Pediococcus cerevisiae, P. halophilus, Bacillus
pumilus, B. megaterium, B. firmus, B. alvei, and B. laterosporus. Halophilic bacteria
that showed high proteinase activity are also found during fish sauce fermentation
(Thongthai et al. 1992; Chaiyanan et al. 1999; Hiraga et al. 2005). In the late stage
of fermentation, many groups of bacteria have been isolated by researchers. Saisithi
et al. (1966) reported that Staphylococcus sp., Bacillus sp., coryneforms,
Streptococcus sp., and Micrococcus sp., isolated from Thai fish sauce after 9 months
fermentation were responsible for producing volatile acids that impart good odor in
Thai fish sauce. Among these isolates, Staphylococcus sp. produced the highest
volume of volatile acids. Saisithi (1967) pointed out that five volatile organic acids
namely formic, acetic, propionic, isobutyric, and one unknown acid provide Thai
fish sauce aroma, and water soluble nitrogen compounds, histidine, proline, and
glutamic acid provide fish sauce flavor. There were 20–22 amino acids identified in
the first few months of fish sauce fermentation and reduced to 13 amino acids in the
final stage of fermentation. This is due to the involvement of amino acids in nonen-
zymatic browning reactions which resulted in an amber color development in fish
sauce (Saisithi 1967, 1968; Raksakulthai and Haard 1992). Most studies (Saisithi
et al. 1966; Liptasiri 1975; Suntinanalert 1979; Chaiyanan and Chaiyanan 1983;
Thongthai et al. 1992; Chaiyanan 2000) showed that halophilic and halo-tolerant
bacteria were involved through the whole process of fish sauce fermentation.
Liptasiri (1975) isolated seven halo-tolerant bacteria namely Bacillus sp.,
Staphylococcus sp., Micrococcus sp., coryneforms, Streptococcus sp., Lactobacillus
sp., and Sarcina sp. from Thai fish sauce. She pointed out that the first four species
provide protease enzyme during fermentation where the product of enzyme reaction
may involve in fish sauce flavors and color development. These groups of bacteria
were similar to the reports of Saisithi et al. (1966) and Suntinanalert (1979). Parts of
bacteria come from salts used in fermentation, as Suntinanalert (1979) found
Halobacterium sp., and Halococcus sp., in most solar salt samples sampling from
different suppliers in Thailand; however, Bacillus sp., Micrococcus sp., and
11 Thai Fish Sauce: A Traditional Fermented Sauce 119

Staphylococcus sp. were found in some of the sea salt samples. She also investigated
bacteria in rock salt samples in Thailand and found Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp.,
and coryneforms. The high salt content (more than 20 %) in fish and salt mixture
during fish sauce fermentation help eliminating spoilage bacteria and promoting
growth of halophilic and halo-tolerant bacteria. Pediococcus halophilus is important
in providing good odor in Thai fish sauce (Chaiyanan and Chaiyanan 1983). Saisithi
(1987) recommended that the optimal salt concentration for fish sauce fermentation
is 20 % by weight. Samittasiri (1986) isolated halophilic bacteria from fish sauce
and found that Halobacterium salinarium is the bacteria that provide good odor of
fish sauce. Later, Klomklang (1995) isolated bacteria that can produce acid, enzyme
protease, lipase and amylase from fish sauce collected from different fermentation
time; among these isolates she identified and reported that Staphylococcus sapro-
phyticus 0113 can hydrolyze lipids and provide acid; Bacillus pantothenticus 0118
can hydrolyze starch and protein; Halobacterium salinarium 0509 was able to grow
in the presence of 25–30 % sodium chloride; and an unknown Gram-negative rod-
shaped bacteria 0406 can hydrolyze starch. Proteolytic bacteria, which can grow
well in a medium containing high salt, have been isolated from fish sauce (Chaiyanan
and Chaychotcharoen 1987; Chaiyanan 2000). Saisithi (1994) concluded in his
book that excess salt addition is costly and will slow down the fermentation rate.
Salt could retard protein digestion if its concentration is higher than 15 %. Most
traditional fermentation took 9–12 months or more; the long fermentation time may
be the result of high salt concentration which retards fish muscle digestion at the
beginning of fermentation and also slows down bacterial activities.
Although halophilic bacteria that involved in Thai fish sauce fermentation can be
isolated, commercially provided pure culture that can help reducing fermentation
time and providing good fish sauce odor and flavor has not been successfully
accomplished.

11.4.2 Methods to Improve Fish Sauce Processing

and Its Quality

Fish sauce is the product of fish hydrolysis where the solid fish is liquefied; this
involves the activities of bacteria and fish enzymes under high salt and micro-
aerobic conditions. Among the different methods attempting to reduce fish sauce
fermentation time that have been investigated by Thai researchers, the addition of
enzymes, either crude or pure, obtained from plants, animals, and bacteria, to fish
and salts mixture has been favored (Suwunnasart 1966; Mittranond 1983; Poosaran
1986b; Raksakulthai et al. 1986). Suwunnasart (1966) compared the effect of com-
mercial protease obtained from microorganism (B. amyloliquefaciens) and papain.
Crude enzyme at concentration of 0.4 % of fish weight was added to minced fish
and salt liquid mixture and left to ferment at 37 °C for 68 days. The quality of the
enzyme-added fish sauce was reported to be better than the non-enzyme-added
120 W. Garnjanagoonchorn

sample, where papain-added fish sauce showed the highest amino acid nitrogen
content. Gongtip (1965) added bromelain during fermentation and also obtained a
good quality fish sauce with shorter fermentation time. Mittranond (1983) produced
fish sauce by adding proteinase T (commercial enzyme) and crude pyloric enzyme
(prepared from saltwater fish) to hydrolyze fish protein during fermentation. The
resulting fish sauce exhibited unsatisfied quality due to the lack of good fish sauce
odor. However, the addition of enzyme plus Halobacterium (isolated from fish
sauce sample) gave good odor liquid fish sauce (Mittranond 1983). It has been
shown that addition of crude or pure enzyme can help accelerate fermentation rates;
however, extra process time would be needed to help promote the production of
volatile compounds that are responsible for good fish sauce odor.
The reduction of fermentation time is also carried by means of the addition of
koji (the common name of the fungus Aspergillus oryzae). Jongsereejit (1990)
screened 12 strains of Aspergillus oryzae isolated from the soy sauce koji and
sake of Japan, the soy sauce koji of Thailand, and the fish sauce koji of Philippines
for protease and amylase activities. Only Aspergillus oryzae F and Aspergillus
oryzae W 215 have the highest protease and amylase activities. In this study,
12.5 % koji from selected strains and 5 % salt were added to anchovy fish and left
to ferment for 1 day at 50 °C then added salt to 25 % and incubated at 40 °C for
7 days. The resultant hydrolysate had a good odor, flavor, and reddish brown color
fish sauce with 28.93 % sodium chloride and amino acid nitrogen of 11.84 mg/mL.
The incorporation of koji appeared to accelerate protein hydrolysis, color devel-
opment as well as flavor and aroma development. It should also be emphasize that
protease activity is inhibited by the increase in salt concentration. In 1995,
Klomklang studied the fermentation of fish sauce by using halophilic bacteria with
koji. In this study, 12.5 % koji from Aspergillus oryzae W 215 plus Halobacterium
salinarium, added to fish and 25 % salt mixture, then left to ferment for 42 days,
showed good odor and flavor fish sauce. The result also indicated that Halobacterium
salinarium was responsible for good color, flavor, and odor fish sauce. It should be
noted that these studies did not compare the experimented fish sauce with commer-
cial fish sauce.
The production of fish sauce by means of acid hydrolysis has been studied by
Department of Science (1961) and Poosaran (1986a). The hydrolysate was obtained
within 7 days with high degree of protein hydrolysis. However, the color and odor
of fish sauce is not good when compared to commercial fish sauce.
Boonpan (2002) produced crude and purified ribonuclease from a halo-tolerant
Pseudomonas sp. No. 3241 isolated from Thai fish sauce. This enzyme requires an
optimum salt concentration of 18.0 %, and shows ability to digest RNA into 5′-GMP
(an important flavor enhancer). Application of 0.5 % (w/w) crude enzyme during
fermentation enhances good flavor and odor production in fish sauce. Bovornreungroj
(2005) produce halophilic protease (HP) from Halobacterium salinarum PB407
isolated from fish sauce, then apply to fish sauce fermentation. Ribonuclease from a
halo-tolerant Pseudomonas sp. No. 3241 (HR) was also applied during fermentation.
The conclusion was that fish sauce with added 1.5 % HP or 0.5 % HR at the first
11 Thai Fish Sauce: A Traditional Fermented Sauce 121

period of fermentation showed a potential to compete with conventional fish sauce

as it took only 6 months to ferment and showed good sensory scores.
The reviewed studies showed the potential of the addition of selected enzyme as
well as koji to accelerate fish protein digestion in the first period of fish sauce fer-
mentation, then halo-tolerant bacteria promote good odor and flavor formation in
the last period; this will reduce the fermentation time compared to the conventional
fermentation. However, all of the experiments were carried on laboratory scale. No
report has been published as for a commercial trial.

11.5 Nutritional Values of Thai Fish Sauce

Thai fish sauce Nutrition Facts per serving size of 15 mL obtained from two differ-
ent commercial brands are shown in Table 11.1. The sauce contained of 2 g protein,
no fat and low carbohydrate (indicated as sugar), high sodium content (1620–
1190 mg), and small amount of calcium and iron. Small amounts of vitamins, i.e.,
niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic acid are declared in some fish sauce nutri-
tion fact tables. Vitamin B12 is actually produced by microorganisms during fish
fermentation. Although fish sauce contains high protein, it is not promoted as a
good protein source because it contains a high salt content which is not considered
to be desirable in healthy diets.

Table 11.1 Nutrition Facts for Thai fish sauce (15 mL amount per serving)
Nutrition facts Nutrition facts
Brand A fish sauce Brand B fish sauce
Serving size 15 mL Serving size 15 mL
Amount per serving Amount per serving
Calories 10 Calories Calories 10 Calories
from fat 0 from fat 0
% Daily valuea % Daily valuea
Total fat 0 g 0% Total fat 0 g 0%
Saturated fat 0 g 0% Saturated fat 0 g 0%
Cholesterol 0 mg 0% Cholesterol 0 mg 0%
Sodium 1620 mg 68 % Sodium 1190 mg 50 %
Carbohydrate 1% Carbohydrate 1%
as sugar 1 g as sugar 1 g
Dietary fiber 0 g 0% Dietary fiber 0 g 0%
Protein 2 g 4% Protein 2 g 4%
Vitamin A 0 % Vitamin C 0 % Vitamin A 0 % Vitamin C 0 %
Calcium 0 % Iron 2 % Calcium 1 % Iron 2 %
a
Percent daily values are based on a 2000 cal diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower
depending on your calorie needs
122 W. Garnjanagoonchorn

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Thongthai C, Siriwongpairat M (1978) Changes in the viable bacterial population, pH and chloride
concentration during the first month of nam pla (fish sauce) fermentation. J Sci Soc Thailand
4:73–78
Thongthai C, Mcgenity TJ, Suntinanalert P, Grant WD (1992) Isolation and characterization of an
extremely halophilic archaeobacterium from traditionally fermented Thai fish sauce (nam pla).
Lett Appl Microbiol 14:111–114
Chapter 12
Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds:
Furu (Lufu)

Qi Lin*, Sarote Sirisansaneeyakul*, Qiuping Wang, and Anna McElhatton

Contents
12.1 Introduction 126
12.1.1 Classification of Furu 127
12.1.2 Nutritive Value of Furu 128
12.2 Fermentation Processes 129
12.2.1 Raw Materials and Supplements of Furu Production 129
12.2.2 Techniques of Furu Production 134
12.3 Research and Development 140
12.3.1 Research on Microflora of Furu Fermentation 140
12.3.2 Research on Mechanisms of Post-fermentation 141
12.3.3 Problems Existing and Development 142
References 144

*Author contributed equally with all other contributors.

Q. Lin (*)
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University,
Kunming 650201, P.R. China
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Sirisansaneeyakul
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University,
50 Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
Q. Wang
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University,
Kunming 650201, P.R. China
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok 10900, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
A. McElhatton
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 125

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_12
126 Q. Lin et al.

12.1 Introduction

Historical records regarding early agriculture in China report that the Emperor
Xuanyuan Huangdi observed the climatic variation of the seasons and cultivated
five kinds of crops: panicgrass (Panicum antidotale), broomcorn millet (P. milia-
ceum), beans, wheat (Triticum aestivum), and rice (Oryza sativa). This early agri-
cultural activity was first described some 4500 years ago.
Scholars generally agree that the cultivation of soybean (Glycine max (L.)
Merrill) first started in China with first domestication traced to the eastern half of
North China in the eleventh century B.C. or there abouts. Soybean has been one of
the five main plant foods of China along with rice, soybeans, wheat, barley, and mil-
let. The word “Shu,” as soybean is called in Chinese, can be found in many ancient
Chinese books. The character meaning soybean actually was found in inscriptions
on unearthed bones and tortoise shells of the Yin and Shang Dynasties some 3700
years ago.
The soybean forms an integral part of the Chinese people’s diet and traditional
soybean products such as bean curd (Tofu), soybean milk, dried rolls of bean milk
cream, soy sauce, and so on are very popular ingredients favored by the Chinese
people (Singh 2010). Fermented bean curd called “furu” is a traditional Chinese
fermented product made of high quality soybean, and is highly valued due to its
smooth texture, high nutritive value, sweet and fragrant taste, and reasonable price.
Furu dates back to ancient times in China. In the term “furu,” the word “fu” means
both fermenting or brewing, and bean curd (Tofu) which is the raw material for
making furu. The word “ru” means soft or tender (Zhang 2002a, b). Therefore, “furu”
represents a fermented soybean curd of soft appearance as a finished product.
As early as the fifth century, in Wei Dynasty descriptions of furu production have
been found. The records include a description of how the bean curd was cut into
small pieces, salted for 3–4 days, then dried for 2 days, steamed and then dried fur-
ther for another day. Finally, bean curd was placed in a pot together with some
liquor, fennel, and other spices, sealed and stored. In the JiaJing period (1507 C.E.–
1567 C.E.) of the Ming Dynasty, Shaoxing Furu of Zhejiang province was well
known and sold to many Asian countries such as Singapore, India, Myanmar, and
further afield.
Furu is a cheese-like product that contains proteins and fats that are hydrolyzed
by microorganisms during fermentation and turned into peptides, amino acids, glyc-
erols, and fatty acids that are easier to digest. This product is known as Chinese
cheese (Han et al. 2001a, b) or oriental cheese because its nutritional profile is simi-
lar to that of cheese. Traditions and life habits vary in China, and similarly the types
and tastes of furu differ in various parts of China and have their own descriptions
and names such as Shaoxing furu in Zhejiang, Guilin furu, Shilin furu (or “lufu”) in
Yunnan, Tangchang furu in Sichuan to name a few.
It is said that the production of furu in Shilin has a long history dating back to
Qin and Han Dynasty (221 B.C.–220 C.E.). In Tang Dynasty (618 C.E.–907 C.E.),
furu products made in Shilin were often given as tribute to royal court. Such quality
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 127

products have a yellow-red color, spicy taste, fragrant smell, and smooth texture.
Furu is usually processed in winter, stored in spring, and sold in summer. In Yunnan
people commonly eat this product with rice and often use it as a seasoning when
cooking with other foods such as meat.

12.1.1 Classification of Furu

There are various types of furu on the market that are produced by various processing
methods. In addition, in the fermentation process of bean curds, types of furu are
also classified by their color, taste, odor, and appearance (Table 12.1).

12.1.1.1 Cured Type

Bean curd does not mold, or undergo pre-fermentation by microorganisms as com-

pared to other types, but goes directly into the post-fermentation stage. Additional
components such as mian gao qu (starter cultured flour prepared with Aspergillus
oryzae), hong qu mi (red rice, starter culture and pigments made from rice inocu-
lated with Monascus van Tieghem) and rice white liquor or yellow liquor are added
to promote the biochemical reactions of curing type furu. Such a process is rela-
tively simple; it is not labor intensive and does not require complicated equipment.
However, because of low levels of proteinase, the fermentation time needed to pro-
duce this type of furu is long with the final product having a rough texture and
containing low levels and limited profiles of particular amino acids.

Table 12.1 Classification of furu with tastes and types

Furu types Descriptive characteristics
Red Bean curds are treated with Hong Qu Mi before putting into jar for post-
fermentation, end product appears with dark red color on surface and yellow
inside. It tastes sweet, fresh, and alcoholic aroma as well
White The color of products is creamy yellow, light yellow, or pale. It tastes rich ester
fragrance, fresh, and smooth texture
Various Paste bean sauce is as the main supplement material added in the post-fermentation
tastes stage
Sauce Paste bean sauce is used as the main supplement material in the post-fermentation
stage
Green It is also called “strong-smelling furu” with cyan or green bean color. Smells
odorous but eats fragrant. It is fresh with a small cake shape and exquisite character
128 Q. Lin et al.

12.1.1.2 Natural Inoculation Type

Bean curd is naturally fermented by those microorganisms that are naturally found
in the local environment. It is usually incubated at temperature less than 15 °C for
7–15 days until a grey-white mycelium grows on the surface of fermented bean
curds, during which period various enzymes are secreted extracellularly. These
enzymes give furu a smooth texture and render it rich in amino acids. The process
does not require specialized equipment, but has a relatively long production period;
consequently mass production throughout the year is difficult to achieve as optimal
process conditions are seasonally limited by climate conditions.

12.1.1.3 Mucor Type

During pre-fermentation, soybean curds are inoculated with Mucor culture in

suspension or in powder form. After 48–72 h of incubation time, the surfaces of
small cakes are covered with a mass of white mycelium. These mycelial cultures
not only infiltrate the bean curds, but also secrete considerable enzymes to
degrade soy proteins to produce the characteristic quality and nutrition profile.

12.1.1.4 Rhizopus Type

The production of this type of furu involves the use of thermo-tolerant Rhizopus
culture to ferment the bean curd. The Rhizopus starter culture functions like the
Mucor culture, but at a temperature of 37 °C.

12.1.1.5 Bacterial Type

Furu is also produced through bacterial fermentation. The finished product would
have undergone a high degree of protein hydrolysis that results in a smooth texture,
but with poorer shape retention characteristics.

12.1.2 Nutritive Value of Furu

Furu is a fermented soybean product. It is well known that soybean is rich in protein
(36–40 % protein), and fat (8 % fat; 7 % saturated, 41 % unsaturated). Soybean
contains various vitamins such as thiamine, niacin, and vitamin A and numerous
minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron, all of which are food components
needed for a healthy diet. As a kind of fermented soybean product, furu not only
possesses the nutritive values of soybean with high quality protein, abundant unsat-
urated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid without cholesterol, but also it is
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 129

Table 12.2 Composition of furu and yellow liquor

General nutrients of furu (in 100 g furu, dry basis)
Composition Content Composition Content
Moisture (g) 56.3 Calcium (mg) 231.6
Protein (g) 15.6 Phosphorous (mg) 301.0
Fat (g) 10.1 Iron (mg) 7.5
Sugar (g) 7.1 Zinc (mg) 6.89
Crude fiber (g) 0.1 Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.04
Ash (g) 1.12 Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.13
Cholesterol (g) ND Niacin (mg) 0.5
Amino acids content in furu (g/100 g protein, dry basis) and yellow liquor (mg/kg)
Amino acids Furu Yellow liquor Amino acids Furu Yellow liquor
Alanine 10.0 340 Serine 2.3 200
Glutamic acid 0.6 420 Valine 0.3 320
Leucine 8.8 310 Asparagine 5.1 ND
Proline 2.4 400 Histidine 1.4 80
Tyrosine 2.2 230 Methionine 0.7 40
Arginine 2.1 390 Threonine 2.0 130
Glycine 4.4 290 Cystine 0.4 120
Lysine 7.0 180 Isoleucine 4.8 210
Phenylalanine 4.6 230 Tryptophan 0.6 10
Aspartic acid ND 290
Based on Zhang and Liu (2002a, b), and Dong and Xu (2003)

characterized by high content of calcium and easy ingestion and digestion. In the
furu making, process, water is used as solvent to extract soybean protein. Brine
solution or a salty liquor and gypsum which contains abundant calcium are used as
coagulating agents; furu therefore contains added calcium. In addition, the amino
acids content of product increases due to fermentation catalyzed by enzymes
secreted from microorganisms to hydrolyze soybean protein to amino acids and
peptides. The typical compositions of furu are shown in Table 12.2.

12.2 Fermentation Processes

12.2.1 Raw Materials and Supplements of Furu Production

The main raw material of furu production is soybean. Defatted soybean is tradition-
ally also used in some regions. The other ingredients needed include salt, yellow
distilled liquor, Hong qu (red rice, starter culture and pigments made from rice
inoculated with Monascus van Tieghem), Mian qu (starter cultured flour prepared
with Aspergillus oryzae), sugar, and various spicy substances.
130 Q. Lin et al.

12.2.1.1 Main Raw Materials

There are three main raw materials for making furu as follows.

Soybean

Soybean is the preferred raw material for the production of furu. When processed
this resultant furu has a particular soft, glutinous, fine texture, and good taste.
China is one of the main soybean production countries with at least 10,000 vari-
eties characterized and known to have different attributes and requisites such as
planting season, growth and development, color of seed capsules, degree of evolu-
tion, shape and size of seeds, and different uses and application of the soybeans. For
quality attributes furu should be made from soybeans that are high in protein. In
China the main soybean varieties are known to have a typical composition of over
36 % protein and 18 % fat. Chemical compositions of four main varieties of soy-
beans are summarized as follows: (1) Yellow bean, 9.4–10.2 % moisture, 14.22–
19.88 % crude fats, 36.06–41.96 % crude protein, 18.70–30.09 % carbohydrate,
3.10–6.81 % crude fiber, and 3.77–5.67 % ash, (2) Cyan bean, 9.16–12.64 % mois-
ture, 15.98–18.30 % crude fats, 35.58–39.81 % crude protein, 19.31–25.68 % car-
bohydrate, 4.98–11.67 % crude fiber, and 4.28–4.89 % ash, (3) Black bean, 13.96 %
moisture, 19.85 % crude fats, 36.59 % crude protein, 21.33 % carbohydrate, 4.05 %
crude fiber, and 4.23 % ash, and (4) Brown bean, 11.36–13.80 % moisture, 19.10 %
crude fats, 33.44–37.55 % crude protein, 20.55 % carbohydrate, 4.16 % crude fiber,
and 4.12 % ash (Dong and Xu 2003). The yellow and cyan beans are often selected
because the soybean to furu yield ratio is considered to be good and is, therefore, the
preferred bean for the production of furu. Black or brown beans on the other hand
produces poor quality black furu that has a hard texture and lower production yield.

Defatted Soybean

Defatted soybean is the by-product obtained after the removal of the soybean’s oil.
Due to different methods of oil extraction, there are two types of soybean residues
produced, namely bean cake and bean draff.

Bean Cakes
Oil extraction using hot or cold conditions can be used. Heat extraction carried out
at relatively high temperature produces a higher oil yield, but is associated with
thermal damage to soybean proteins. While cold extraction at ambient temperature
yields less oil and causes less damage to soybean proteins. Different extraction
methods not only result in different quality of bean cakes as raw materials for the
production of furu, but also lead to a different chemical composition of resulted
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 131

bean cakes. Cool squeezing cake generally has 12.00 % moisture, 46.45 % crude
protein, 6.12 % crude fat, 20.64 % carbohydrate, and 5.49 % ash. While heat squeezing
cake typically has 11.00 % moisture, 47.94 % crude protein, 3.14 % crude fat,
22.84 % carbohydrate, and 6.31 % ash (Dong and Xu 2003).

Bean Draff
Soybeans are primarily heated to regulate the water content and then pressed to a
flat shape. Organic solvent extraction is applied to remove oil from the aforemen-
tioned pretreated soybeans. Defatted soybean, known as bean draff, is a by-product
of oil extraction. The bean draff is exposed to vacuum and low temperature to
remove organic solvent. In China this draff is considered to be a good quality raw
material for furu production. It contains less fat and moisture, and therefore has
higher protein content. The composition of defatted soybean after solvent extraction
is shown as follows: 7–10 % moisture, 46–51 % crude protein, 0.5–1.5 % crude fat,
19–22 % carbohydrate, and 5.00 % ash (Dong and Xu 2003).

12.2.1.2 Supplement Materials

Water

Water used in furu production has to meet drinking water quality standards.
Table 12.3 summarizes the effects of water hardness on tofu quality and yield.

Coagulating Agents

The main component of furu is soybean protein. Coagulatants are substances which
cause aggregation of the soy protein. There are two types of coagulating agents used
in Tofu making which are salts and organic acids. The former gives a higher produc-
tion yield than the latter, while organic acids as coagulatants make tofu taste remark-
ably smooth. Two types of coagulating agents can be used together to compensate
from the other strong points to offset one’s weakness.

Table 12.3 Effects of water hardness on tofu quality and yield

Types of water Protein in bean milk (%) Yield of tofu (%)
Soft water 3.71 45.0
Pure water 47.5
Well water 3.40 30.0
300 mg calcium/L water 2.40 26.5
300 mg magnesium/L water 2.00 21.5
Based on Dong and Xu (2003)
132 Q. Lin et al.

Brine Solution
Brine solution is bitter water solution of bromide, magnesium, and calcium salts
that remain after sodium chloride is crystallized out of seawater. Usually the con-
centration of brine solution is 25–27 °Bé (as soluble solids). It should be diluted to
16 °Bé when added to bean milk as a coagulatant. The main components of the
brine solution include MgCl2 (~30–40 %), NaCl (<2 %), MgSO4 (<3 %), and KBr.
It is widely used in Tofu production because Tofu coagulated by a brine solution
possesses good fragrance and taste.

Gypsum
Gypsum is a widespread white or yellowish mineral. It is sparingly soluble in water,
so it reacts with protein slowly. Tofu made by gypsum is smooth, fine, and retains
water well with moisture levels in Tofu being about 88–90 %. There are different
types of gypsums, with the hydrated type (CaSO4∙2H2O) considered to be the best
for Tofu making because of its tendency to cause a quicker coagulation of the soya
milk. Plaster of Paris (CaSO4∙0.5H2O) has a slower action, while its dehydrated type
(CaSO2) has almost no function at all.
Gypsum should be heated then mashed to break it down into a powder and finally
added to water to make solution. Tofu made with gypsum does not have the specific
characteristics of that made using a brine solution.

Gluconolactone
Gluconolactone is easily mixed with bean milk. At 66 °C, gluconolactone converts
to gluconic acid which coagulates bean milk while retaining/binding water, the
resultant Tofu is smooth and tender. It should be noted that the yield obtained by this
process is high. At pH and high temperature, the coagulation is rapid, when the
temperature is 100 °C and pH between 6 and 7, the recovery yield of Tofu reach
80 % and 100 %, respectively. In practice, dosage of gluconolactone is usually
0.01 mol/L, which results in a Tofu that is described as having a good flavor.
Gluconolactone tastes sweet and dissolves in water easily. However after conver-
sion to gluconic acid, it becomes sour which also may make the Tofu taste sour.
Mixed coagulatants may therefore be considered as follows: gluconolactone
20–30 % mixed with gypsum 70–80 %, or a mixture of gluconolactone and magne-
sium chloride. These mixtures will improve the flavors of Tofu, but have to be
applied quickly due to their tendency to quickly cause coagulation.
Besides the brine solution, gypsum, and gluconolactone mentioned above, calcium ace-
tate, calcium lactate, and calcium gluconate are also alternatively used as coagulating agents.

Salt

Salt is one of the main and indispensable supplement materials in furu production,
which has a crucial function during all the process of fermentation. It has various
functions, it gives a desirable salty taste to the product, it combines with amino
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 133

acids to develop the taste, it inhibits some microorganisms and prevents deteriora-
tion of LUFU. The salt used in furu production has to be dry and of good quality and
free of impurities.

Seasonings

Seasonings are essentially used to improve flavors and increase the number of various
furu products. Distilled spirits or liquors and some spices are particularly used as
seasonings in furu production.

Alcoholic Seasonings
Yellow liquor: This is a special local Chinese product made using a unique brewing
method and flavoring. It is one of the oldest known liquors not only in China but
also in the world. It is mostly produced in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Shanghai, Jiangxi, and
Taiwan. Yellow liquor, namely Huang Jiu, is made from glutinous rice by fermenta-
tion involving Rhizopus and other yeasts. It is characterized by a low alcoholic
content (16 %vol.), mellow taste, and strong aroma. Furu’s fragrance, specific fla-
vor, and grade are enhanced by adding proper amounts of yellow liquor to furu
during fermentation of the bean curd. A typical yellow liquor (Huang Jiu) has 16 %
alcohol, 7 % soluble substances, and 5 kJ/L calorie (Dong and Xu 2003). Amino
acids content of yellow liquor is shown in Table 12.2.
Distilled spirit: This product is made from cereals by yeast fermentation and
distillation. It has a 50–60 % alcohol content and is colorless. It can be drunk
directly or diluted to use in the production of furu as a replacement of yellow liquor
or added to laochao, which is an alcoholic rice paste.

Spices
Spices are usually added in the post-fermentation stage of furu production. Kinds
and quantities added vary depending on type of furu, and may also include Chinese
pepper, fennel, cinnamon, dry orange peel, ginger, hot pepper, and other traditional
ingredients. These spices have components which develop different aromas and fla-
vors when mixed into the furu. Some of components in spices have antimicrobial
activity and contribute to the preservation of the product.

Starter Cultures

Hong Qu (Red Rice)

Red rice is made from rice fermented by Monascus and is an important supplement
material used in the post-fermentation stage. It provides the product with pigmenta-
tion, flavors, and fragrances. It enhances the amino acids and peptides profiles and
is described as having antiseptic properties. It is reported to promote appetite due to
the high content of amylase, which can efficiently digest starch. The red pigments
134 Q. Lin et al.

consist of monascorubrin (CH22H24O5) and monascoflavin (C17H22O4) which are

sparingly soluble in water but easily soluble in organic solvents. It should be noted
that the red color will be fade when exposed to sunlight.

Mian Qu
It is semi-finished soy sauce made from flour fermented by Aspergillus oryzae.
Because Aspergillus oryzae and other organisms secrete plenty of proteinase and
amylase, addition of Mian qu to the post-fermentation stage will not only improve
flavors and fragrances, but will also speed up the ripening of furu.

12.2.2 Techniques of Furu Production

The traditional production of furu is through bean processing and fermentation utilizing
soybeans as the starting material. Classification of furu production with processing
methods is summarized in Fig. 12.1. The finished product is a unique oriental fermented
food that is a good source of amino acids. The processing of bean curd from soybeans
and fermentation of bean curd for furu production are summarized in Fig. 12.2.

12.2.2.1 Processing Stages of Tofu Production

Soaking

Soybean proteins are located within bean tissue as colloids. Soybean has a hard
shell and dense tissue which prevents release of proteins. Soaking therefore causes
beans to absorb water, to increase the hydration of protein, loosen the tissue struc-
ture, which then causes cell walls to swell and break down. The softened shells then
easily disintegrate causing proteins to dissolve in the water to form a “milk.” When
soaking, attention must be given to:

Mucor type
Curing type

Furu production Artificial inoculation Rhizopus type

Mildewed type
Bacterial type

Natural inoculation

Fig. 12.1 Classification of furu production with processing methods

12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 135

Water Coagulants

Soybeans Soaking Milling Cooking Coagulation Squeezing

Sieving Cutting

Soybean Waste

Mucor or Rhizopus Food

Salt
cultures ingredients

Bean curd Inoculation Incubation Curing Filling Ripening

Fermented bean curd

Fig. 12.2 Flow diagram of furu production from soybeans

Water Quantity Added

The volume added has to be controlled in relation to the composition of the bean.
The appropriate proportion between water and bean is (3–4):1 for soaking.

Quality of Water
Water has to meet drinking water quality standards.

Soaking Time
Soaking time is closely associated with water temperature. While water temperature
is 5–10, 15–20, and 25–30 °C, appropriate soaking time is 18–22, 10–15, and 5–8 h,
respectively (Dong and Xu 2003). Excessive soaking time causes protein loss by
enzymatic hydrolysis and growth of microorganisms which lower the pH of water
and influence proteins recovery. While insufficient soaking results in underhydrated
beans which also influences the recovery of proteins.

Milling

Soaked beans are mechanically milled to break down the cell tissues to promote the
formation of the bean milk. Factors affecting the protein yield include the extent of
grinding, water quantity, and water temperature and pH value.

Grinding
Diameter of the soybean globin is about 5–l5 μm, grinding should be sufficient to
promote dissolution of soybean proteins in water.
136 Q. Lin et al.

Water Quantity Added

Addition of water lowers the temperature during grinding to prevent protein dena-
turation caused by the heat produced, and promotes the hydration of protein which
aids protein recovery. Water quantity added during milling and grinding is usually
six times the quantity of the bean.

Water Temperature and pH

To avoid thermal protein denaturation, the water temperature used during grinding
is less than 10 °C. While the pH value of the bean milk is maintained at seven or
slightly above seven which promotes protein recovery.

Choice of Milling Machines

Stone milling machine were traditionally used. These are simple in structure, easy
to maintain, and small in size. These mills produce significant heat which degrades
protein thus decreasing the production yield of soybean curd. Currently, grinding
wheels that are used by bean production factories generate much less heat than the
stone milling machines.

Soybean Milk Sieving

Soy bean milk sieving separates residues from water soluble substances which are a
good basis to manufacture high quality Tofu. The separation equipment used gener-
ally consists of a sieving machine and centrifuge. Water should be added three to
four times during grinding. 100 kg bean so processed should yield 1100 kg bean
milk at a concentration of 5.5–6.0 °Bé.

Cooking of Bean Milk

Bean milk cooking causes denaturation of protein and promotes further coagulation
of protein. The Tofu formed is white, elastic, tender, and shiny and has good water
retention. When the milk is cooked some denaturation will occur, otherwise even
when coagulants are added the protein will not curdle.
Cooking eliminates factors harmful to body such as agglutinins, trypsin inhibitor
and saponin inhibitor, and sterilizes the bean milk. The favored condition of this
thermal treatment is l00 °C for 5 min.

Dian Jiang (Addition of Coagulants)

Addition of coagulants to bean milk to cause curdling is called dian jiang. It is one
of the key steps used to manufacture high quality bean curd. Factors during manipu-
lation such as density of soybean milk and brine solution, temperature and milk pH
value are monitored.
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 137

The density of soybean milk should be strictly controlled to a level of 4–5 °Bé. Yield
and quality of Tofu will be greatly affected if the milk is too low or too high density.
The density of brine solution directly affects the yield and quality of Tofu. The
appropriate concentration is 14–16 °Bé.
Temperature affects the curdling effects of protein. High temperature causes
faster curdling which results in a loose/open structure of bean curd, while low tem-
perature causes slower curdling which results in incomplete curdling and significant
loss of protein. The temperature is usually controlled within 85–90 °C.
Bean milk pH value also affects the curdling of protein. The appropriate value is
pH 6.7–6.8.
When brine solution is used as coagulatant, it should be added to hot milk slowly
while stirring the milk. The stirring speed should be lower when it is on the point of
coagulation. Stirring should be maintained until complete coagulation is reached. The
whole dian jiang process usually takes 5 min. To form perfect curd, another 15–20 min
is needed for bean curd to complete the protein and coagulatant interaction.

Squeezing

After the dian jiang process, the curd sinks and squeezing is performed. This pro-
cess firms the curds and removes excessive yellow water from curd. To produce
quality dispersed protein three factors during squeezing are monitored, namely
pressure, temperature, and duration. If temperature of curd is very low, even if the
applied pressure is high enough, the combination between protein gelatins is still
not compact, and the curd flans formed tend to be fragile and will break. Squeezing
needs some time; if squeezing time is not sufficient, the typical shape will not form.
If on the other hand the squeezing time is too long, too much water inside curd will
be squeezed out. Squeezing pressure is also important. Without sufficient pressure,
water cannot be squeezed out from the bean curd and the matrix produced is loose.
While if pressure is too high the gelatinous protein tissues will break down. The
squeezing appropriate temperature, pressure, and duration are therefore applied as
follows: temperature above 65 °C, 15–20 kPa pressure, and a duration of 15–20 min,
respectively. Water content in curd after squeezing is 66–71 %, protein content
should be above 14 %.

Cutting

After squeezing, the curd is cut into smaller pieces according to the product stan-
dard. This is the last step of manufacturing bean curd flans.

12.2.2.2 Furu Fermentation

Furu fermentation includes two stages namely pre-fermentation and post-

fermentation. The former refers to inoculating and incubating Mucor or Rhizopus on
bean curd flans and promoting the growth of organisms sufficiently which form a
138 Q. Lin et al.

layer of tough and slender mycelium on the surface of soybean curds. Because of the
mycelial growth, large amount of enzymes are produced such as proteinases, amy-
lases, and lipases to hydrolyze proteins and other substances in post-fermentation. In
pre-fermentation some proteins are already hydrolyzed. Post-fermentation is an
anaerobic process as is the maturation process. In this period, due to the contribution
of molds, yeasts, bacteria, and supplement materials, many biochemical reactions
would have taken place such as protein hydration, starch decomposition to sugars,
organic acids fermentation and formation of esters. These biochemical reactions pro-
duce desirable substances which form the specific color, texture, flavors, and fra-
grances of furu.

Pre-fermentation

Pre-fermentation is the process of growth of mycelium. Natural fermentation and

artificial inoculation are both possibly used in the production of furu. Pre-fermentation
with mold inoculation is introduced as shown in Fig. 12.3.

Inoculation
Two types of starter cultures are used in production. The starters are either applied
as a suspension or in solid form. When a spore suspension is used, the starter culture
is diluted and spread onto the surface of bean curd. When the solid starter culture is
used, it is mixed with carriers such as rice powder or corn power, then scattered
uniformly onto the surface of bean curds.

Fig. 12.3 Flow diagram of Bean curd flans

pre-fermentation for furu
production

Temperature lowering

Inoculation with mold cultures

Incubation

Polishing
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 139

Incubation
Every piece of bean curd cakes is put standing against cage drawers. Spaces between
cakes should be maintained to ensure good ventilation and temperature regulation.
Cage drawers on which bean curds stand are piled up one by one and upper ones are
covered. Appropriate room temperature for incubation ranges between 20 and
25 °C, and should not exceed 28 °C. During incubation, to regulate temperature
between cage drawers and keep organism growth uniform, drawers should be moved
up and down two to three times. The first moving is usually carried out 22 h after
incubation when the growth of mycelium has started and goes on for the next 6 h to
about 28 h, at this point the mycelium promotes ripeness and a second moving of
drawers of curs starts. The third moving depends on the temperature and mycelial
growth situation. After 44–68 h (depending on temperature) incubation, when the
bean curds are covered with white or light yellow-white mycelium, the pre-fermen-
tation finishes and goes quickly into the following steps.

Mycelium Rubbering or Polishing

This process refers to the manual flattening of the blooming active mycelium and
the separation of curd cakes from each other. It is an important operation required to
keep the shape of the cakes.

Post-fermentation

After pre-fermentation, mao-tofu which is the pre-fermented soybean curds covered

with a sheet of white mycelium, is ready for further fermentation. Curing with salt
and addition of food ingredients are applied at this stage of production. Mixed cul-
tures of yeasts and bacteria rather than molds play their important role for ripening
the pre-fermented bean curds. Figure 12.4 shows final steps of post-fermentation for
ripening furu.

Curing
Curing begins immediately after pre-fermentation finishes. With curing water from
both mycelium and mao-tofu is separated out, which makes mao-tofu become tough.
Salt has anti-spoilage and preservation properties. High concentration of salt will
inhibit the enzyme activity of proteinase which results in delaying various hydroly-
sis reactions that keep the furu’s matrix integrated and therefore prevents it breaking
down. Salt has organoleptic properties and acts as seasoning.
The amount of salt used ranges from 57.5 to 65 kg per 10,000 pieces of cakes
(4.1 × 4.1 × 1.6 cm) depending on seasons and curing temperature. Duration of cur-
ing ranges from 6 to 13 days depending on different regions and seasons. When
curing finishes the final salt content of the cakes is 11–14 %. Finished cured prod-
ucts should be laid for a night to let the cakes dry.
140 Q. Lin et al.

Fig. 12.4 Flow diagram of Mao tofu

post-fermentation for furu
production

Curing by salt addition

Filling with addition of food ingredients

Sealing

Post-fermentation

Furu

Filling, Sealing, and Post-fermentation

Salted cakes are put into jars or bottles while supplement materials are prepared
together with the cakes. Different types and varieties of furu have different combi-
nations of supplement ingredients added. The most important ingredients are liquors
and salt. Hong qu mi is indispensable in the production of red furu. Other season-
ings and spices such as Chinese pepper, fennel, cinnamon, dry orange peel, ginger,
and hot pepper are added according to the products’ specifications. After jar loading
finishes, the jars should be sealed tightly and goes into post-fermentation. It takes
about 6 months at ambient temperature until furu ripens.

12.3 Research and Development

12.3.1 Research on Microflora of Furu Fermentation

Microorganisms are important in the production of furu. Without the involvement of

microorganisms furu cannot be produced. Traditional natural inoculation and
fermentation were used in furu production. The isolation, screening, identification,
and structured research of furu fermentation microorganisms started in the 1940s
when a microbiologist by the name of Fan Xinfang isolated Mucor from the
Wutongqiao furu of Sichuan. Since then, research on furu fermenting microorgan-
isms began. So far, microorganisms isolated from furu are summarized in Table 12.4.
Among these microorganisms, Mucor is predominant and widely applied due to
its good performance in the furu production. Frequently used species include M.
wutung kiao and Actinomucor elegans. Rhizopus is also used because they withstand
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 141

Table 12.4 Potential Microorganism Production region

microorganisms isolated from
Mucor sufu Saoxin, Zhejiang; Suzhou, Jiangsu
furu products
M. rouvanus Jiangsu
M. wutung kiao Wutongqiao, Sichuan
Mucor so Taiwan, Guangdong, Guilin
M. racemosus Taiwan, Sichuan
Actinomucor elegans Beijing, Taiwan, Hong Kong
M. hiemalis Taiwan
M. feavus Wutongqiao, Sichuan
Monascus purpureus
Rhizopus liquefaciens Jiangsu
Aspergillus oryzae Jiangsu; Wutongqiao, Sichuan
Penicillium sp. Jiangsu
Alternaria sp. Jiangsu
Cladosporium sp. Jiangsu
Bacillus sp. Wuhan
Micrococcus luteus Heilongjiang
Saccharomyces Jiangsu; Wutongqiao, Sichuan
Bacterium sp.
Streptococcus sp.
Based on Dong and Xu (2003)

high temperature. Han et al. (2003) compared the properties of the usual starter
Actinomucor elegans and the potential alternative starter Rhizopus oligosporus. The
effects of temperature and relative humidity on growth rate of Actinomucor elegans
and Rhizopus oligosporus were optimized at 25 °C, 95–97 % RH, and 35 °C,
95–97 % RH, respectively. Yields of protease (108 U/g pehtze or mao-tofu, fresh
bean curd overgrown with mold mycelia), lipase (172 U/g), and glutaminase
(176 U/g) by A. elegans were maximized after 48 h at 25 °C and 95–97 % RH, and
for α-amylase (279 U/g pehtze) and α-galactosidase (227 U/g) at 30 °C and 95–97 %
RH after 48 and 60 h of incubation. Highest protease (104 U/g pehtze) and lipase
(187 U/g) activities of R. oligosporus were observed after 48 h at 35 °C and 95–97 %
RH, while maximum α-amylase (288 U/g pehtze) and glutaminase (187 U/g) activi-
ties were obtained after 36 h at 35 °C and 95–97 % RH. Maximal α-galactosidase
activity (226 U/g) by R. oligosporus was found after 36 h at 30 °C and 95–97 %
RH. It is thought that R. oligosporus is a potential alternative to A. elegans as furu
pehtze starter during hot seasons.

12.3.2 Research on Mechanisms of Post-fermentation

Post-fermentation of furu is the main stage in which typical flavor forms and
protein degradation takes places. In recent years, research on biochemical
changes during post-fermentation of furu has been given more attention. Yu and
142 Q. Lin et al.

Chen (2001) revealed that content changes of soluble proteins and amino acids
during the post-fermentation reflected directly the ripening situation of furu.
When soluble proteins reach 18–20 % (dry basis) and amino acids exceed 0.5 %,
furu is considered to be ripe. The research of Lu and Sun (2003) demonstrated
that texture, structure, acidity, and chemical composition of furu changed as the
post-fermentation progressed. Furthermore, these changes mainly happened
within the last 40 days of fermentation. During this fermentation period, viscos-
ity of the cakes decreased rapidly, acidity increased gradually, free amino acids
content raised as fermentation went on, amylase activity was stable while pro-
teinase and lipase activities varied. Ma and Han (2003) studied the effects of
NaCl on textural changes and protein and lipid hydrolysis during the post-fer-
mentation stage of furu. The results showed that elasticity and hardness of prod-
uct with high content salt (14 %) increased while viscosity decreased. The
amount of free amino acids quickly increased as a consequence of rapid hydro-
lysis of protein of product with low salt content. In contrast, hydrolysis pro-
gressed slowly for high salt content product. Subsequently, furu production with
8 % salt or below was suggested which provided a basis for low salt content
production. The content and state of soybean isoflavones during the ripening
stage of furu were studied by Yin et al. (2004). It was shown that the loss of iso-
flavones was mainly attributed to the preparation of Tofu and salting of pehtze
(fresh bean curd overgrown with mold mycelia). Soybean isoflavones existed in
four states during the ripening stage and their composition and amount changed
during the progression of the process. The levels of aglycones increased, while
the corresponding levels of glucosides decreased. The isoflavones in furu, in the
form of aglycones and in the form of glucosides, accounted for 99.7 % and 0.3 %
of the total, respectively. The changes in the isoflavone composition were signifi-
cantly related to the activity of β-glucosidase during furu fermentation, which
was affected by the NaCl content. It was also known that on both the 30th and
90th days the content of soybean isoflavone reached the maximum. All these
works above provided a better understanding on the biochemical changes and
mechanism during ripening stage of furu and to some extent, established a theo-
retic basis for the development of good practice needed to control or regulate the
ripening process of furu.

12.3.3 Problems Existing and Development

In the production of furu, problematic processing and inadequate knowledge are

issues that furu manufacturers of SME scale, food scientists, and technologists are
currently facing. Research and development for hygienic production of furu with
mixed starter cultures are needed to establish a novel clean industry of mass
production.
12 Yunnan Fermented Bean Curds: Furu (Lufu) 143

12.3.3.1 Existing Issues

1. Production period is too long. It usually takes about 6 months to finish the ripen-
ing stage, which results in a lower productivity and affecting the better use of
factory facilities, equipment, and finance (Zhang 2002a, b).
2. Most of the enterprises use the single organism Mucor, for example, to the furu
production which does not tolerate high temperature, so that production has to be
stopped during hot summer (Zhao and Zheng 1999). Furthermore, strain varia-
tion and deterioration is a reality that has to be mitigated (Li 1999).
3. Very old traditional ways of production are still being used in some enterprises
resulting in inefficient manufacture that remains complex and very labor inten-
sive (Lin 2000). Issues with quality, consistency, and hygiene of the product are
difficult to maintain in such traditional environments.
4. Most furu products have high content of salt which limits their wide consump-
tion in a health conscious society, especially for those hypertension (Zhang
2002a, b).

12.3.3.2 Future Research and Development

After years of working on furu fermentation, useful microorganisms predominant in

furu production, as well as some knowledge of biochemical changes during ripen-
ing stage, have been produced. However, other issues that still need to be investi-
gated include:
1. Single organism inoculation and fermentation and natural fermentation are char-
acterized by their limitations (Zhang and Pu 2005). Multi-strains fermentation
could complement each other with benefits to all year round production, shorter
post-fermentation period and protein hydrolysis. Research on this area should be
conducted.
2. Salt content directly affects the flavor and quality of furu. Products with low
content of salt (5 %) deteriorate in the ripening stage of furu, while high salt
content of furu hardens the product and lessens the organoleptic quality, 8 % salt
is considered appropriate content for furu (Ma and Han 2003).
3. Traditional technology of furu production uses the two-stage fermentation by
microbes which is lengthy and complex. The fermentation is actually an enzy-
matic process in which organic substances such as protein, lipid, and starch are
hydrolyzed and aromas produced. Further work on the enzyme technology of
furu fermenting microbes is needed (Song and Ju 2002). Purification of enzymes
secreted from microbes and application to furu production will greatly enhance
the production process and shorten the reduction period, as well as decrease the
chance of contamination.
4. For a long time, furu has been sold in the market in the shape of a cake. This
process has a lot of limitations such as rough package design which is not attrac-
tive to consumers, it is inconvenient to eat and discolors easily when the cakes
144 Q. Lin et al.

are exposed to air. The development of paste furu could be complementary to or

an alternative of the traditional cake furu. Furu paste, which needs less operation
by hand and has higher productivity, is characterized by uniformity and fluidity
which lends itself well to various forms of packaging including packaging in
bottles, soft packaging, or other forms of packaging. Products so packed would
be more hygienic and competitive (Lin 2000).

References

Dong SL, Xu KS (2003) Production technology of brewing seasonings. Chemical Industry Press,
Beijing
Han BZ, Beumer RR, Rombouts FM, Nout M Jr (2001a) Microbiological safety and quality of
commercial sufu—a Chinese fermented soybean food. Food Control 12(8):541–547
Han BZ, Ma Y, Rombouts FM, Nout M Jr (2003) Effects of temperature and relative humidity on
growth and enzyme production by Actinomucor elegans and Rhizopus oligosporus during sufu
pehtze preparation. Food Chem 81(1):27–34
Han BZ, Rombouts FM, Nout M Jr (2001b) A Chinese fermented soybean food. Int J Food
Microbiol 65:1–10
Li YJ (1999) Studies on Mucor property and the new way of furu technology seeking. J China
Condiment 10:5–9, In Chinese
Lin ZH (2000) Debate on paste furu development. J China Condiment 8:27, In Chinese
Lu F, Sun SJ (2003) Studies on some components changes during furu fermentation. J China
Brewing 6:14–17, In Chinese
Ma Y, Han BZ (2003) Effect of NaCl on proteins and lipids hydrolysis during furu production.
J China Brewing 6:14–17, In Chinese
Singh G (2010) The soybean: botany, production and uses. CABI, Oxfordshire
Song JM, Ju HR (2002) New edition of soybean food processing technology. Shandong University
Press, P.R. China
Yin LJ, Li LT, Li ZG, Tatsumi E, Saito M (2004) Changes in isoflavone contents and composition
of sufu (fermented tofu) during manufacturing. Food Chem 87(4):587–592
Yu RQ, Chen WM (2001) Chemical changes during post-fermentation stage of furu production.
J South China Univ Technol 5:697–67, In Chinese
Zhang Q (2002a) The present status of the production of preserved bean curd in China. J China
Condiment 6:9–13, In Chinese
Zhang XM, Pu B (2005) Development and prospects of fermented soybean curd. J Food Ferment
Ind 31(5):94–97, In Chinese
Zhang ZP (2002b) Study and explain of name of furu. J China Brewing 2:41–42, In Chinese
Zhao XL, Zheng XX (1999) Furu production microorganisms. J China Condiment 2:12–15, In
Chinese
Chapter 13
Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices

Hadi K. Purwadaria, Dedi Fardiaz, Leonardus Broto Sugeng Kardono,

and Anna McElhatton

Contents
13.1 Introduction 146
13.1.1 Historical and Cultural Development of Tempe 146
13.1.2 From Home Industry Toward Modern Industry 147
13.2 The Traditional Tempe Process 147
13.2.1 Tempe Processing in Cottage Industry 147
13.2.2 Traditional Process of Tempe Starter Culture 148
13.2.3 Traditional Foods Made from Tempe 149
13.3 Industrialized Process of Tempe 149
13.3.1 Modern Processing of Tempe Industry 149
13.3.2 The Commercial Tempe Inoculants 151
13.3.3 Tempe Snack Industry and Tempe Canning Industry 152
13.4 Nutritional Value and Functional Properties of Tempe 153
13.4.1 Nutritional Value of Tempe 153
13.4.2 Functional Properties of Tempe 155

H.K. Purwadaria
Department of Food Technology, Swiss German University—SGU, Serpong, Indonesia
D. Fardiaz
Department of Food Science and Technology, Bogor Agricultural University—IPB,
Bogor, Indonesia
L.B.S. Kardono
Research Centre for Chemistry, Indonesian Institute of Sciences—LIPI, Serpong, Indonesia
A. McElhatton (*)
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 145

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_13
146 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

13.5 Present Development of Tempe Derived Products 155

13.5.1 Tempe Powder and Tempe Weaning Food 155
13.5.2 Tempe Milk, Tempe Ice Cream, and Tempe Probiotic Drink 156
13.5.3 Tempe Sausage 157
13.6 Research and Commercial Development in Other Countries 157
References 158

13.1 Introduction

13.1.1 Historical and Cultural Development of Tempe

Tempe or tempeh is a soybean fermented solid food product originally and

traditionally made in households and cottage industries in Indonesia. Even though
the word “Tempe” is thought to be originated from “tumpi” a word from old
Javanese language, “Tempe” has been mentioned as it is in the old Javanese litera-
ture, Serat Centhini, circa 1814 (Astuti 1996). Serat Centhini, volume 3, docu-
mented a trip of the royal family of Sunan Giri at Central Java in the end of the
seventeenth century, and cited that at one location they were served foods which
were described in detail like as follows: “Jangan menir ulur-pitik, brambang kunci
sambel sinantenan, brambang jae santen Tempe, ….” (Chicken eggs sauteed with
spinach, hot sauce with coconut milk, shallot and ginger root, Tempe in coconut
milk with shallot and ginger …). In the volume 12, Serat Centhini described that
Tempe was made from soybean, in Bahasa Indonesia “kedelai,” or in the Javanese
language “kadhele”: “Kadhele Tempe srundengan, lombok kenceng lawan petis,
gadhon rempah yem manjangan ….” (Soybean Tempe with fried shredded coconut,
shrimp paste with a lot of chili, spicy black eyed peas with string bean ….). Tempe
has been a daily menu in Indonesian homes as a source of low-cost protein alterna-
tive to meat.
In 2010, more than three million tons of soybean have been consumed in a coun-
try of 237 million people, 975 thousand tons produced domestically, while the rest
has been imported mostly from the USA and Argentina (Ministry of Trade 2011).
Soybean is mainly used as raw material for producing Tempe and tofu with a pro-
duction volume ratio of 50:50.
Tempe has bland taste and aroma, and high content of protein. It therefore is a
flexible component in the diet and may be used as a simple meal or as ingredients to
homemade recipes that home cooks could devise. For a quick daily meal, Tempe
can be simply deep fried with a very low additional cost of frying palm oil, or trans-
formed into crispy Tempe when fried in thin slices of 1 mm after being dipped into
a light flour batter, or added to a vegetable coconut milk soup called lodeh Tempe.
When Tempe was introduced to the western countries, it was easily incorporated
into western cuisine in the form of products such as Tempe burgers, Tempe pizza,
and Tempe sandwiches. In Japan, Tempe was incorporated into sushi which was
appropriately called sushi Tempe.
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices 147

13.1.2 From Home Industry Toward Modern Industry

Tempe, fermented by Rhizopus sp., was traditionally originally made manually at

home and in cottage industries, using dried old Tempe as a starter, and banana leaves
as the wrapper. To form Tempe, a threshold level of starter had to be present to reach
such needed levels of Rhizopus sp., and the process in cottage industries had to go
through several periods of fermentation cycles (3–4 cycles) before sufficient fermen-
tation would have occurred to transform the soybean mix into Tempe. This occurred
because the atmosphere in the facility had to provide a threshold level of mold spores
for the process to progress well. Commercially available Ragi Tempe made from
Rhizopus spp. spores is now used as the Tempe starter, and is widely available in
Indonesia supplying hundreds of thousands Tempe cottage industries. When Tempe
found its way to Europe, the USA, Japan, and Australia, the industry there became
much more hygienic, with designated and specific designed fermentation rooms.
The last 15 years has seen rapid growth in the production of Tempe. In Indonesia,
this snack food is manufactured and sold as Tempe chips, canned Tempe curry, and
as Tempe powder used to manufacture various products such as weaning food and
ice cream.

13.2 The Traditional Tempe Process

13.2.1 Tempe Processing in Cottage Industry

Various authors have described the highly varied Tempe processing methods in cottage
industry in Indonesia (Hermana and Karmini 1996; Syarief et al. 1999; Shurtleff and
Aoyagi 2001; Nouts 2001; Fung and Crozier-Dodson 2008). There are yet further prac-
tices in West Java that produce variants to what could be considered as mainstream
Tempe production but are actually the norm in these particular localities (Fig. 13.1).

Soaking Soybean
Clean soybean
15-17 h Dehulling husk
14 % Boiling
5-10 min and
separating
Inoculation
of clean, Dehulled
dehulled soybean
soybean
Tempe Washing
Fermentation
& drain
35-37 h

Fig. 13.1 Tempe processing in a traditional home industry

148 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

The manufacture of Tempe involves the use of dry and clean soybean with a
moisture content around 14 % wet basis which is heated to boiling temperature and
kept at so for about 5–10 min, and the whole process may last for 2–3 h depending
on the capacity of the soybean cooking container. The boiled soybean is then soaked
in cold water for about 15–17 h, drained, and dehulled using a burr mill. The soy-
bean coat is removed, and the dehulled bean is washed, drained, and inoculated with
commercial ragi Tempe (Tempe starter) with a ratio of 10 kg bean to 1–3 table-
spoons of ragi depending on the room temperature. The higher room temperature,
the smaller the quantity of ragi Tempe required for the inoculation. In a tropical
country such as Indonesia, temperature in lowland areas is most suitable for the
growth of Rhizopus oligosporus, i.e., 25–35 °C. After the ragi Tempe and the soy-
beans are mixed well, the mixture is transferred to a punctured plastic film bag to
allow sufficient oxygen to enter. The mix is left to ferment for 35–37 h. The Tempe
produced could be sent to market and presented inside the same bag. On the other
hand, commercial Tempe from cottage industries may either be presented wrapped
in banana leaves or in plastic film (Fig. 13.2).

13.2.2 Traditional Process of Tempe Starter Culture

In cottage industries, Tempe fermentation is commonly initiated by introducing

Tempe starter culture made from the previous batch of Tempe produced. The tradi-
tional starter is available in two major formats: laru in powder form and usar in
solid form. Commercially manufactured Laru Tempe is also known as ragi Tempe.
Laru Tempe is produced from thin sliced Tempe fermented on round bamboo plates
(tampah) under the cover of banana leaves and left for about 30–33 h to let the mold
mycelium grow and produce spores. It is then dried under the sun, pounded with a
stone mortar, and sieved with a bamboo or metal sieve to obtain fine powder. The
fine powder is then mixed with roasted rice flour in a ratio of one laru tempe to ten
rice flour (w/w), and packed in a film bag (Suliantari 1996).
Laru beras is made by inoculating cooked rice as the substrate with laru
Tempe; the mold is left to develop and then the spores of Rhizopus sp. are harvested.
The method is similar to the process used for the production of laru Tempe.

Fig. 13.2 Commercial Tempe from home industry wrapped in banana leaves and in plastic film
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices 149

The introduction of cooked rice as substrate yields a higher volume of end prod-
uct, with a shorter fermentation time to about 24 h. The starter thus produced is
however regarded as having lesser purity. The production of Laru singkong
involves the use of cooked cassava chips or moistened cassava chip powder as
substrate for fermentation that lasts about 36 h.
Usar is produced from inoculated cooked dehulled soybean mixed with laru
Tempe. A small amount of mixture, about one tablespoon, is spread on top of leaves
with suitable surfaces such as waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and teakwood (Tectona
grandis Linn. f.) leaves. The leaf structure of these plants is such that there is suf-
ficient oxygen in the microenvironment for the fermentation process. The leaves are
turned over and piled one on top of the other, and afterwards covered with banana
leaves or cloth and left to undergo the first stage of fermentation that lasts about
24–36 h. In the second stage of fermentation, the leaves—now facing upwards—are
separated individually, and kept so for 3–7 days, partly to let the usar dry at room
temperature. Sun drying may be applied at the end of the second stage of fermenta-
tion to ensure that the usar reaches a sufficiently low moisture content that will
secure a shelf life of about 7 days.
Laru and usar are traditional cottage industry products and as such tend not to be
the product of pure inoculants. Studies on various laru and usar products from vari-
ous locations in Java found out that laru and usar might contain various molds of
Rhizopus sp., such as R. oligosporus, R. oryzae, R. arrhizus, and R. stolonifer,
together with other molds, such as Mucor rouxii, M. javanicus, and Fusarium sp.,
and yeasts such as Trichosporon pullulans (Suliantari 1996).

13.2.3 Traditional Foods Made from Tempe

Traditional home recipes that transform Tempe into various meals are very varied in
their composition and processing. Tempe as a bland raw material with high protein
that lacks taste and its own aroma. It is therefore a good base component that can
easily be blended into whatever meals that people might think of (Table 13.1 and
Fig. 13.3). One is simple fried Tempe with no crust, the second is fried Tempe with
crust, and the third is a vegetable soup with coconut milk and Tempe.

13.3 Industrialized Process of Tempe

13.3.1 Modern Processing of Tempe Industry

Development of tempe cottage industry into small-scale industry is mainly due to

the introduction or upgrade of the dehulling machine, cooking equipment, the use
of commercial ragi tempe as the source of Rhizopus oligosporus, the use of
hygienic fermentation chambers, film packaging, and ceramic floosr and walls in
150 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

Table 13.1 Simple traditional foods made from Tempe

Recipe Description
1. Deep-fried Slice 200 g of tempe into 0.5 cm thickness into rectangular shapes. Dip into a
tempe solution of 100 mL water mixed with one teaspoon of salt and one teaspoon
of tamarind paste. Deep fry in any vegetable frying oil until the color on all
sides is light brown. Drain and serve hot for 1–2 persons
2. Crispy Grind or pound in a stone mortar 1 clove of garlic, 1 candle nut, and 2 leaves
tempe of kafir lime. Put into a mixture of 100 mL water, 40 g of rice flour and 20 g
of tapioca. Add about half tablespoon salt or as required to taste. Slice 200 g
of tempe into very thin slices of 2 mm thickness. Dip the sliced tempe into
the mixture until they are well coated by. Deep fry, serve for 1–2 persons
3. Lodeh tempe Saute 5 shallots, 2 cloves of garlic, 1 chilli, 20 g crushed lengkuas (court case
root), and 3 bay leaves. Add 200 mL milk made from half a coconut. Heat
until the mixture is simmering, add 300 mL water then put in 200 g of cubed
tempe (2 cm × 2 cm), 130 g of sliced carrots, 70 g of string beans cut into
4 cm lengths, 80 g sliced baby corn, 30 g leaves of Gnetum gnemon, 1 corn
cob sliced into 1.5 cm lengths, 100 g sliced gambas (vegetable pear). When
the mixture boils add salt and sugar to taste. Serve hot for 4–5 persons

Fig. 13.3 Simple traditional foods made from Tempe: (a) deep-fried Tempe, (b) fresh sliced
Tempe (c) crispy Tempe, and (d) fresh ingredients for lodeh Tempe, and (e) the soup ready for
serving

the processing area. Modification and variation of the equipment mostly were in
accordance with the needs of local conditions and the availability of technical sup-
port for the maintenance of equipment. Although the Tempe industry in Indonesia
is considered as small-scale and cottage industry, and often regarded as a small
village craft, the sheer number of individual factories however made these practice
an overall huge industry (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2001). Estimated data mentions that
there are about 220 thousand small-scale and home Tempe industries all around
Indonesia (KOPTI 2010). There is significant variation in the production capacity
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices 151

of the various production plants, such that a tempe cooperative might be capable of
processing 2–5 tons soybean/day, while the production average of a home industry
is around 150 kg soybean/day.
In general, the modernization of Tempe industries (Fig. 13.4) has retained the
unique qualities of the traditional and cultural heritage of Tempe which historically
always belonged to the common people. The modernization of the Tempe industry
was more of an expansion process to increase the number and size of the rural factories.
This change was brought about to match consumer needs rather than creating new
generation of tempe products for domestic as well as export markets. Sutrisno (1999)
theorized that the modernization of the Tempe industries had three targets: first, to
increase Tempe consumption equally at all level of the society, and this could be part
of a health strategy program from the government. Secondly, to develop a way to
improve the existing Tempe home industry, so that they fulfil the food and hygienic
standards befitting a modern food industry while raising productivity. Third, to
improve the livelihood and welfare of all those working in Tempe industries. In gen-
eral, the product of small-scale Tempe industry would conform to the Indonesian
National Standards for Tempe that is periodically revised. One such revision was
published in 2009 as SNI Tempe Kedelai (Soybean Tempe) No. 3144:2009.

13.3.2 The Commercial Tempe Inoculants

The preparation of Tempe inoculums in a laboratory scale has been discussed in

details by Tanuwidjaja (1995), and Prawiroharsono (1999). The Modern Tempe
starter industry took off as early as 1976, and contributed significantly to the national
Tempe industry and economic development in general. The distribution of ragi

Soybean
husk
Soaking
15-17h
Clean soybean Dehulling
Boiling Dehulled
5-10 min and
separating soybean

Inoculation
of clean,
dehulled
soybean
Tempe Fermentation
Washing
35-37 h
& drain

Fig. 13.4 Small-scale Tempe industry in Jakarta (Tempe Super Sunoto) using more hygienic
equipment
152 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

tempe (literally translated tempe yeast), the market brand of the starter, has been
long supported by the Indonesian Cooperatives of Tofu and Tempe (KOPTI)
founded in 1977 and which has over than 220 thousand members around Indonesia.
The outline of the processing of tempe starter is steam cooking of rice as the
basic material, cooling, mixing of cooked rice with previous inoculums in a ratio of
1 g inoculums to 1 kg of cooked rice, fermentation for 3 days until the cooked rice
becomes overgrown with mold and spores, mechanical drying at 40 °C, milling into
powder, and packaging into bottle or plastic film bag. The commercial product of
Tempe starter or ragi Tempe made by the modern industry is presented in Fig. 13.5.

13.3.3 Tempe Snack Industry and Tempe Canning Industry

Starting early 1980s, small Tempe chips were developed as a snack and proved to
be highly popular in Indonesia, mainly in Java. Tempe is sliced into various forms
of chips such as rectangular, round, and perpendicular, and either deep fried or
vacuum fried in vegetable oil. The fried Tempe is coated with various kinds of sea-
soning powder with flavor such as cheese, barbeque, shrimp, balado (hot and spicy),
pizza, burger, spaghetti bolognese, sweet roasted corn, hot roasted corn, kebab, sea-
weed, black pepper steak, and meat ball. The packaging can be made from plastic
film and aluminum foil and branded for marketing purposes (Fig. 13.6).
Tempe is also commonly incorporated into Indonesian meals prior to canning.
Thus, the consumer has access to Tempe which is ready to eat when the can is
reheated and opened. Tempe curry is one such favourite (Fig. 13.7) along with a
new innovative product called “tempe qoir” which is a thick and sweet broth made
from Tempe. This latter product was selected as one of the 100 innovations in
Indonesia for 2010.

Fig. 13.5 Commercial

product of ragi Tempe,
powdered Tempe
inoculums, in half kg film
bag made by the modern
industry (Courtesy of
Research Centre for
Chemistry-LIPI)
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices 153

Fig. 13.6 Various kinds of Tempe chips in the market

Fig. 13.7 Tempe curry and qoir in can (Courtesy of Research Centre for Chemistry-LIPI)

13.4 Nutritional Value and Functional Properties of Tempe

13.4.1 Nutritional Value of Tempe

During relatively short fermentation, R. oligosporus is able to convert soybean

nutritional components into various other substances, which gives Tempe specific
new flavors, higher nutritional value, and digestibility. Fresh tempe contains about
64 % moisture, 18 % protein, 4 % fat, and 13 % carbohydrate (Hermana 1972).
Astuti et al. (2000) and Fung and Crozier-Dodson (2008) reviewed various chemi-
cal and biochemical changes during the fermentation process of Tempe. One signifi-
cant finding was that the soybean trypsin inhibitor which was undesirable to human
health was produced by the protease released from the mold Rhizopus oligosporus.
Further heat processing of Tempe would then inactivate the soybean trypsin. Free
fatty acids were also produced through triacylglycerol hydrolysis caused by a
lipase enzyme; however, these fatty acids were used by the mold itself, thus
linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid decreased in concentration during the
life cycle of the mold.
154 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

Although the protein content of tempe does not differ much from that of unfer-
mented soybean at the same moisture content, the water-soluble nitrogen content in
tempe is significantly higher when compared to that of the unfermented soybean,
approximately by a factor of six. Steinkraus et al. (1965) found that the water-solu-
ble nitrogen content of dehydrated tempe was 39.0 %, while unfermented soybean
contained only 6.5 %, at the same 2 % moisture. However, Astuti et al. (2000)
reviewed that the solubility of nitrogen content increased from 3.5 mg/g in unfer-
mented soybean to 8.7 mg/g in Tempe. Proteolytic enzymes in the mold during the
fermentation process were responsible for breaking down higher molecular proteins
in soybean to smaller nitrogen-containing molecules, including water-soluble amino
acids. The pre-hydrolysis process on protein during the fermentation seems to pro-
mote better nutritional utilization by the human body, as a consequence of better
digestibility of the product.
In general, protein quality measured as PER (protein efficiency ratio) of tempe
remained relatively constant throughout the course of fermentation time. Hackler
et al. (1964) reported that the PERs of soybean during 0, 24, 26, and 72 h of tempe
fermentation were 2.63, 2.56, 2.49, and 2.44, respectively. While, Zamora and
Veum (1979) reported an increase in the average of daily weight gain for weanling
rats fed tempe compared with the daily weight gain for rats fed unfermented soy-
beans. It was also reported that tempe had a greater apparent biological value and
net protein utilization compared with unfermented soybean.
Fung and Crozier-Dodson (2008) have stated that the amount of free amino acids
such as tryptophan increased; however, long fermentation over 24 h might cause
losses in threonine, lysine, and arginine. Further changes during Tempe fermentation
were the increased levels of monosaccharides such as glucose that were produced as
a consequence of enzymatic degradation while levels of disaccharides and the oli-
gosaccharides were lowered. Thus, the decreased levels of raffinose and stachyose
that commonly caused flatulence was another beneficial characteristics of Tempe.
In general, studies had agreed that even though the level of trace minerals did not
change, the solubility of the minerals had been increased. This might be due to the
reduction of 22 % phytic acid during fermentation which in turn would improve the
bioavailability of the minerals (Sudarmadji and Markakis 1977). Increased solubil-
ity of iron, zinc, copper, and magnesium had been cited, but there was no clear
indication whether potassium and calcium behaved in either way (Astuti et al. 2000;
Fung and Crozier-Dodson 2008).
The production of vitamin B12 during Tempe fermentation has been long con-
firmed by various scientists. Keuth and Bisping (1994) concluded that Klebsiella
pneumoniae or Citrobacter freundii were responsible in the formation of vitamin B12
in Tempe. The vitamin content of tempe was higher than the unfermented soybean in
certain cases, but lower in others. Steinkraus et al. (1961) reported that riboflavin
content was doubled in 1 g tempe (7 μg) compared with that in 1 g soybean (3 μg),
niacin was approximately seven times in 1 g tempe (60 μg) compared with that in 1 g
soybean (9 μg), and vitamin B12 was approximately increased 33 times in 1 g tempe
(5.0 ng) compared with that in 1 g soybean (0.15 ng). Thiamine decreased from
10 μg in 1 g soybean to 4 μg in 1 g tempe, and also pantothenate decreased from
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices 155

4.6 μg in 1 g soybean compared with 3.3 μg in 1 g tempe. Murata et al. (1970) found
that biotin and total folate compounds in tempe were respectively 2.3 and 4–5 times
higher than in unfermented soybean. The increase in riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B12,
biotin, and folate is very important nutrition changes in tempe fermentation, in par-
ticular vitamin B12, which is usually comes from meat and milk.
Murakami et al. (1984) and Wuryani (1995) had concluded that Tempe contained
isoflavone which was useful for human health, and found that the level of isoflavone
was higher than in tofu and soy beverages.

13.4.2 Functional Properties of Tempe

Reduction in diarrheal symptoms was studied by Karmini (1987) by infecting rab-

bits with E. coli after feeding for 4 weeks. In 14 days observation, afterwards, it was
found that the diarrheal symptom was indicated in 36 % rabbits fed with Tempe, and
in 64 % rabbits not fed with Tempe. This study has supported a report by Dutch
scientists observing the prisoners of war in the Japanese camp in Java during the
Second World War (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2001).
Astuti et al. (2000) reported that a Tempe diet could decrease cholesterol levels.
After 3 month fed with an instant Tempe formula drink, the LDL cholesterol
decreased by 12.0 % in male respondents and 9.7 % in female respondents.
Cholesterol levels subsequently increased again when the feeding was stopped for 2
months.
The possibility of Tempe to help in menopausal symptoms and cancer prevention
had been discussed, but the theory was based only on the lower incidence among
Asian communities consuming high level of soy foods (Karyadi and Lukito 1997;
Astuti et al. 2000). No specific studies have been conducted to confirm reports.

13.5 Present Development of Tempe Derived Products

13.5.1 Tempe Powder and Tempe Weaning Food

Fresh Tempe is a perishable food with a relatively short shelf life, therefore produc-
tion and development of second generation of Tempe products for their versatility
are should be explored. The second generation of Tempe products can be used to
enrich high protein in food alternatives for people who suffer from nutritional defi-
ciencies or to play a role as a main ingredient for a new product altogether. The end
products are usually designed for middle to high income earners who wish to eat for
leisure and convenience and are more sophisticated in their tastes as are the urban
and city communities. Various second generation of Tempe products are commonly
manufactured using innovative technology processing and include products such as
Tempe milk, sausage, hamburger, meat like products, pepperoni, salami, yoghurt,
156 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

ice cream, cheese, jam, noodle, bread, sauce, meal mixed product, snack, savoury
products, vegetable broth, and savoury pasta.
Tempe can be processed into Tempe powder used as raw material for making
other food products such as cake, pastry, extrusion products, instant drink formula,
and weaning food. The process to produce Tempe powder mainly consists of drying
and grinding. Fresh Tempe is cut into small pieces, and subjected to blanching at
104 °C for about 10 min prior to pulverizing and drying. The dried Tempe is then
ground and screened through a 30 mesh sieve (Astuti 1995). Tempe powder can be
utilized for making weaning food formula. The following is an example of a weaning
food formula made from Tempe powder: 42 % roasted rice flour, 40 % precooked
banana flour, and 18 % Tempe powder. Other alternative product for weaning food is
Tempe porridge made from 16 % Tempe powder, added by wheat flour, milk powder,
sugar, and essence. To increase its valuable ingredient, Tempe can be fortified with
other nutritious materials such as seaweed, carrots, unripe papaya pulp, and okara.

13.5.2 Tempe Milk, Tempe Ice Cream, and Tempe

Probiotic Drink

Tempe milk is one alternative used to extend the potential use of Tempe. Fresh
Tempe is cut into cubes of 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm, steamed, and extracted by the
addition of water with 1:2 (w/v) ratio to obtain Tempe milk filtrate. Agar
(0.08 % w/v), skim milk 4 %, and sucrose 7 % (w/v) are added into the Tempe milk
filtrate and heated at 90 °C for 5 min. Filtration and bottling are required before the
mixture is pasteurized (90 °C; 5 min). The Tempe milk is finally ready to be con-
sumed after cooling at 10 °C (Susanto et al. 1997). The process of Tempe ice cream
is similar to the process of ice cream from milk. In this process, part of skim milk is
substituted with Tempe powder, or fresh Tempe which is transformed into Tempe
paste by blanching and grinding. Water and other ingredients such as sucrose, fat,
emulsifier, flavor, and food color are evenly added, mixed, and homogenized before
being pasteurized. Then, the mixture is frozen into ice cream and packed before
distribution.
Tempe is also claimed to have active estrogen like isoflavone compound which is
useful to menopause women. The use of Tempe as basic ingredient for making pro-
biotic drink or yoghurt inoculated by Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus is beneficial to the extent of providing low-cost food supplement for
the menopause women. The Tempe probiotic drink is produced by mixing and
blending fresh milk with Tempe in a ratio of 2:1 (v/w). The mixture is then added
by 50 % whey protein (v/v), pasteurized, and inoculated by the starter culture. The
probiotic drink can also be transformed into powder by the addition of 10 % dextrin,
and dried at 50 °C for 8 h, ground, and sieved. Analysis of the probiotic drink pow-
der indicates the isoflavone content of 75 mg/100 mg, and the number of lactic acid
bacteria of 106 cell/g (Kumalaningsih and Padaga 2005).
13 Tempe from Traditional to Modern Practices 157

13.5.3 Tempe Sausage

Tempe has also been developed to make sausages. The fresh Tempe was cut into
small pieces and ground. A mixture containing egg white, wheat flour (1:1), water,
garlic, and spices is prepared, and the ground Tempe then is poured into the mixture.
Forty gram of vegetable oil is added followed by continuous mixing yielded to the
final mixture. The final mixture then is filled into the sausage casing prior to steaming
at 100 °C (Susanto et al. 1997).

13.6 Research and Commercial Development in Other

Countries

A scientific article about tempe was first published by a Dutch researcher H.C.
Prinsen Geerligs in 1895 (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2001), during the Dutch occupation
era on Indonesia for 300 years from 1642 to 1942. Geerligs and his colleagues fur-
ther studied the microorganism and were of the opinion that Rhizopus oryzae was
the mold grew in tempe. It was thought that there may have been some confusion
with anther Indonesian traditional fermented food called oncom which was made
from peanut cake, the by-product of peanut oil, inoculated with this mold in a simi-
lar pattern as Tempe. The first Japanese scientists to publish report on Tempe were
believed to be Ryoji Nakazawa and his co-worker Yoshito Takeda in 1928 (Shurtleff
and Aoyagi 2004). The research on Tempe in Japan then continued until at present,
driving the development of Tempe industry in the country both by Indonesian
migrants and Japanese community.
In 1935, I.H. Burkill wrote a dictionary about economic products in Malay
Peninsula covering some information about Tempe (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2001).
The first journal article was published by Gerald Stahel in 1946, as a result of study
in Suriname (a Dutch colony) where many Javanese migrants had settled. In 1954,
American scientists took up research on Tempe that had been started by Paul
György, and Kiku Murata. They were followed by Keith Steinkrauss an American
scientist assisted by Yap Bwee Hwa from Indonesia, who published a journal article
in 1960 that was regarded as a milestone in Tempe research history. A significant
contribution was made by C.W. Hesseltine and Ko Swan Djien from Indonesia in
1963 who found that Rhizopus oligosporus was the mold growing on tempe, and
later on recommended the use of film packaging for tempe as an alternative to
banana leaves wrapping and which eventually became widely used together with
the traditionally banana leaves. Many Indonesian researchers continued to study
tempe abroad such as Slamet Sudarmadji with Pericles Markakis from the USA
who investigated the chemical and nutritional aspects of tempe in 1973–1977
(Sudarmadji and Markakis 1977), and Ko Swan Djien with research scientists from
the Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands who characterized the
158 H.K. Purwadaria et al.

production of tempe inoculums (Rusmin and Ko 1974). In 1996, many Indonesian

researchers together with the worldwide scientists have written scientific articles
about Tempe in a handbook of indigenous fermented foods (Andersson et al. 1996).
Commercially manufactured Tempe has been produced and sold widely around
the world from Europe, Asia, the USA, to Australia, and later to Africa, Asia Pacific,
and Latin America. The Tempe burger and Tempe made from five different grains
were originally produced in the USA in 1980s (Tibbott 2004). The latter develop-
ment has indicated that organic Tempe has increasingly attracted consumers such as
Yakso Tempeh made in the Netherlands (Healthy Supplies 2015) and Natursoy
Tempeh made in Spain (Natursoy 2015) which are packed in glass bottles, Marusa
Tempeh made in Japan and packed in vacuum film packaging (Marusa Tempeh
2015), and Rhapsody Organic Tempeh made in the USA packed in film (Rhapsody
Natural Foods 2015).
Tempe has found its way into western food recipes in the form of Tempe pizza,
Tempe burger, Tempe sandwiches, Tempe barbeque, and to Japanese cuisine as well
as sushi Tempe. In 1980s, a Californian snack industry manufactured freeze-dried
Tempe in a cardboard tubular packaging. Compared to the Indonesian Tempe indus-
try, Tempe industries in developed countries have been significantly modernized to
include fully mechanized equipment, separate fermentation rooms with other process-
ing areas, and improved hygienic design of the facilities that included appropriate
drainage, sanitary floors and walls, and waste treatment.
Shurtleff and Aoyagi (2001) listed eight major tempe industries with a capacity
from 2 to 7 tons soybean per week, one located in the Netherlands, three in Japan, and
four in the USA. Listing of Tempe manufacturers worldwide is available in the web-
site (Tempe Manufacturers 2015). The list shows that the availability of this product
is constantly increasing globally; this augers well for the consumption of what started
as a homemade soya bean product which has now become a global industry.

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Chapter 14
Modernization of Manufacturing Process
for Traditional Indian Dairy Products

P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

Contents
14.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 161
14.2 The Products ................................................................................................................ 162
14.2.1 Khoa ............................................................................................................... 162
14.2.2 Chhana ............................................................................................................ 164
14.2.3 Paneer ............................................................................................................. 166
14.2.4 Shrikhand........................................................................................................ 168
14.2.5 Ghee................................................................................................................ 170
References ............................................................................................................................... 173

14.1 Introduction

A wide variety of traditional dairy delicacies, drawn from different regions of the
country, are produced in India using processes such as heat and/or acid coagulation,
desiccation and fermentation. These products play a significant role in the eco-
nomic, social, religious and nutritional functions of the Indian masses. The total
milk production in India for 2013–2014 was 137.7 million tonnes (DAHDF 2015).
It is estimated that about 50–55 % of milk produced is converted by the traditional
sector into variety of Indian milk products (Patil 2005). The increased availability

P.S. Minz
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 132 001, India
R.R.B. Singh (*)
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 132 001, India
Sanjay Gandhi Institute of Dairy Technology,
BVC Campus, Jagdeo Path, Patna, Bihar 800 014, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 161

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_14
162 P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

of milk during the flush season coupled with the need to preserve it for long-distance
transportation and marketing makes conversion of milk into traditional products
particularly an attractive commercial proposition and great employment opportuni-
ties in the countryside. These traditional dairy products are classified based on the
principles involved in their manufacture and could be an intermediate base for sub-
sequent conversion into a wide varieties of delicacies or could be consumed as such
in the form of the finished products (Table 14.1). The traditional methods of manu-
facture of these products have evolved over a long period and quality often depends
on the skills of homemakers or local confectioners (Halwais). They generally use
the batch methods for product preparation which results in higher processing cost
and reduced energy efficiency. Due to production in small quantities, the local con-
fectioners are limited to localized marketing. The chemical composition and organ-
oleptic properties of traditional milk products also vary significantly depending on
the skills of the workforce involved in its manufacture. With globalization of dairy
trade and focus of the local industry on quality and consumer satisfaction, many
large industries have taken to mechanized manufacture of these products on large
scale. However, mechanization of the manufacturing process of these traditional
dairy products is a very challenging task as the traditional processes involved in
their manufacture are tailored to facilitate development of unique flavour and tex-
ture attributes in the product. Simulating these quality attributes in a product deliv-
ered by the mechanized process requires unique design considerations and
manipulation of technological parameters and residence times. Systematic efforts
have been made through novel approaches to either develop new mechanized equip-
ment or adapt existing equipments for developing a continuous line for the manu-
facture of many traditional Indian milk products (Sharma et al. 2003).

14.2 The Products

14.2.1 Khoa

Khoa refers to an intermediate milk product traditionally obtained by desiccating

milk over gentle heat until a thick viscous concentrate is formed. It serves as a base
material for some of the most popular varieties of sweetmeats such as burfi, peda,
gulab jamun, milk cake and kalakand. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
(PFA) recommends that a good quality khoa must confirm to not less than 30 %
milk fat on dry weight basis. To meet this regulatory norm, the minimum level of fat
desired in buffalo milk should be 5.5 % while in cow milk it should be 4 % (Pal and
Raju 2007). Generally, buffalo milk is preferred for the manufacture of khoa as it
has larger proportion of butyric acid-containing triglycerides, and there is more
release of free fat responsible for smooth and mellow texture which are desirable
attributes in khoa (Sindhu 1996). Khoa made from cow milk lacks these character-
istics and has moist surface, salty taste and sticky and sandy texture which are
considered undesirable for the preparation of sweetmeats.
 14 Modernization of Manufacturing Process for Traditional Indian Dairy Products
Table 14.1 Overview of classification of major Indian dairy products
Process Product Product type Similar western product Description
Heat desiccation Khoa Intermediate Evaporated milk Khoa has a dough like consistency and is prepared by
continuous boiling of milk until desired concentration of solids
(65–72 % TS) and texture are attained. It is used as a base
material for a variety of popular sweetmeats, such as burfi, peda,
and gulab jamun
Heat acid Chhana Intermediate Lactic coagulated cheese Channa is obtained by heating milk followed by cooling and
coagulation acidifying it with suitable organic acid. It is the base material for the
preparation of rasogulla, sandesh, rasomalai, etc. Channa with
50–60 % moisture content is preferred for sweetmeat preparation
Paneer Intermediate Soft cheese Paneer refers to an indigenous variety of acid coagulated soft
and Final cheese. It forms base for a variety of culinary dishes, stuffing
material for various vegetable dishes, snacks and sweetmeats
Fermentation Shrikhand Final Sweetened quarg Traditional fermented and sweetened milk product of Indian
origin. It is prepared from solids (Chakka) recovered by draining
the whey from lactic fermented curd. Sugar, cream and other
ingredients like fruit pulp, flavour and colour are blended with
Chakka to get semi-solid consistency
Heat clarification Ghee Final Butter oil Ghee is heat clarified butter fat for table use or as a frying
medium. Apart from dietary usage, ghee is also used for
performing religious rites

163
164 P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

(a) Traditional Method: Buffalo milk (4–6 L) is boiled over direct fire in a shallow
pan (mild steel) with vigorous stirring and scrapping. Within 5–10 min, a semi-
solid mass having dough consistency is formed (Punjrath 1991).
(b) Improved Methods: Khoa manufactured by traditional method suffers from
poor and inconsistent quality of the product. Attempts have been made to mech-
anize the production process of khoa using both the batch and continuous type
plants (Aneja et al. 2002). These advances for commercial production of Khoa
have been summarized in Table 14.2. Rajorhia et al. (1991) made a comparative
study of quality of khoa prepared from different mechanical systems such as
inclined scraped surface heat exchanger (ISSHE), conical vat, convap–con-
therm and roller dryer. Quality score was highest for ISSHE followed by roller
dryer, conical vat and convap–contherm process.
Khoa has a great market demand but due to its short shelf life (5 days at 30 °C)
it cannot be marketed over long distances. In the absence of proper packaging, the
loss of moisture from the product adversely influences the texture and enhances the
rate of chemical deterioration such as oxidation and browning. With the use of four-
ply laminated pouches and tin containers, the shelf life of khoa can be increased up
to 13 days at 30 °C and 75 days under refrigerated storage. Sterilization of packag-
ing such as Polypack™ (Pitram Pura, Delhi, India) with gamma radiation using
CO60 prior to product filling proved to be beneficial. Addition of 0.3 % potassium
sorbate at the last stage of khoa-making increased the shelf life of khoa by another
10 days. Vacuum packaging of khoa could enhance the shelf life up to 120 days
under refrigerated storage (Rajorhia et al. 1984).

14.2.2 Chhana

Chhana is a heat acid coagulated product having marble white colour, spongy texture
with mild acidic flavour. It is used as a base material for manufacturing a large vari-
ety of sweets such as Rasogolla, Sandesh, Rasomalai, chum chum and chhana
murki. Cow milk is preferred for manufacturing chhana as the product obtained is
soft with smooth texture and velvety body which are highly desirable attributes for
making chhana-based sweetmeats particularly rasogolla. Buffalo milk channa is
generally hard and greasy because of inherent differences in qualitative and quanti-
tative aspects of buffalo milk. However, technological interventions have been suc-
cessfully employed to overcome these defects.
1. Traditional Method: Traditionally, cow milk is taken in a pan (2–40 L/batch)
and is coagulated at high temperature (70 °C) using sour whey, but some
organic acids such as citric acid, lactic acid and calcium lactate may also be
used (Mathur 1991; Das 2000). Whey is then drained by straining through a
muslin cloth. But in this method the yield is low due to draining of whey pro-
tein along with whey.
Table 14.2 Developments in mechanization of process for khoa-making in chronological order
Work done/ Type of
Sl. No reported by Description operation
1. Banerjee The pilot plant has a scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE) and two open semi-jacketed pans with reciprocating Semi-
et al. (1968) spring loaded scraper (Fig. 14.3). Milk with 12–13 % total solids (TS) is pumped into SSHE for concentration to continuous
30–35 % TS. The first stage of the open semi-jacketed pan further concentrates the milk to 50–55 % TS. The final
concentration to 70–75 % TS is achieved in the second pan. The equipment has a capacity of 50 L of milk per hour
2. More (1985) SSHE consists of a semi-jacketed drum with vapour exhaust. The scraper assembly comprises of central shaft and Semi-
spring loaded blades with rubber boots (Fig. 14.4) continuous
3. Agrawala Conical process vat consists of stainless steel conical vat with cone angle of 60° with steam jacket partitioned into Batch
et al. (1987) four segments for efficient use of thermal energy and less heat loss (Fig. 14.5). The mechanism consists of
3-equidistant arms supported at two points in the shaft and each arm having three independent spring loaded
blades for scraping. A positive displacement screw pump is connected at the outlet of the vat for recirculation and
spreading of the product over heat transfer surface
4. Christie and It consists of a single stage SSHE, with silts on the top with hopper to collect foam during khoa manufacturing Batch
Shah (1990) (Fig. 14.6). The steam jacket is provided at the lower part of the SSHE. Spring loaded scraper blades help in
uniform milk heating and spreading. The equipment has a capacity of 50 L of milk per hour
5. Punjrath Inclined scraped surface heat exchanger (ISSHE): In this machine, concentrated milk of 42–45 % total solids is Continuous
et al. (1990) used as feed. The inclination of ISSHE permits formation of a pool of boiling milk critical to formation of Khoa
(Fig. 14.7). By varying the total solids, temperature and flow rate of feed, scraper speed and angle of inclination,
product characteristics can be varied to meet the functional requirements
6. Patel (1991) Double jacketed kettles. Heating is done through steam Batch
7. Verma and Two SSHEs are arranged in a cascade fashion (Fig. 14.8). Milk is concentrated into first SSHE to about 40–45 % Continuous
Dodeja (2000) TS and finally to Khoa in the second SSHE
8. Rajorhia (1995) Roller drier can be used for preparing khoa by adjusting process variables such as steam pressure, roller speed, Continuous
concentration and flow rate of milk and by changing the distance between the rollers and scrapper blades. Vacuum
concentrated milk with 50 % total solids preheated to 74 °C for 10 min was found suitable for khoa-making on
roller driers at 25–30 psi. A kneader is placed at the outlet of roller drier to make homogenous mass of khoa
9. Alfa laval Convap– Concentrated milk from SSHE is pumped through a holding tube to impart desirable texture and flavour Continuous
contherm process
(Aneja et al. 2002)
166 P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

2. Improved Methods:
(a) Ultrafiltration Process: Application of Ultrafiltration (UF) process for
Chhana manufacture resulted in 18–19 % extra yield due to higher recovery
of whey proteins. In this process, heat-treated (92 °C for 5 min) skim milk is
subjected to ultrafiltration followed by diafiltration (23 % TS) and the
resultant retentate is mixed with plastic cream. The mixture is heated to
90 °C for 5 min and coagulated with lactic acid to develop soft coagulum.
The granular mass is pressed to remove free moisture, yielding Chhana
(Sharma and Reuter 1991).
(b) Continuous Method: It involves following steps (Singh 1994):
• Indirect heating of milk in a tubular heat exchanger to 95 °C
• Cooling to 70 °C
• Continuous coagulation with hot citric acid (70 °C) in a vertical tube
• Holding milk–acid mixture to permit complete coagulation
• Separation of whey in a continuous flow employing double wall basket
centrifuge
• Chilling to 4 °C by directly spraying chilled water on the layer of Chhana
(c) Casein Process: Continuous casein making equipment can be adopted for
large-scale production of chhana (Rajorhia 1995). Certain modifications of
equipment required are:
• Intake of milk at 70 °C instead of 35 °C
• Strength of coagulant and milk to obtain a pH of 5.1
• Adequate residence time to effect co-precipitation of casein and whey
proteins together with fat
• Mechanical removal of whey using a basket centrifuge or provision of
additional vibrating screen as chhana drains too slowly
• Washing of coagulum once with potable water followed by pressing to
retain about 60 % moisture in the finished product
• Arrangement for bulk packaging to synchronize with product delivery

14.2.3 Paneer

Paneer represents one of the semisoft varieties of the Queso-blanco type of cheese
having a high moisture content of 50–60 % (Pal 2002). It is obtained by heat and
acid coagulation of milk. It is consumed either in raw form or used in preparation of
several varieties of culinary dishes and snacks. Good quality paneer has a character-
istic white colour, sweetish, mildly acidic, nutty flavour, spongy body and close knit
texture. Buffalo milk is considered more desirable for paneer manufacture as the
product obtained has all these attributes. Buffalo milk also offers higher paneer
yield due to higher total solids in it. Higher concentration of casein in the micelle
14 Modernization of Manufacturing Process for Traditional Indian Dairy Products 167

state with bigger size, harder milk fat due to larger proportion of high melting
triglycerides in it and higher content of total and colloidal calcium are responsible
for producing desired quality of paneer. On the contrary, cow milk paneer has very
compact and fragile body and its pieces may get disintegrated and loose their iden-
tity during cooking. The yield of paneer made from cow milk is also low as com-
pared with buffalo milk (Pal and Raju 2007).
1. Traditional Method: Buffalo milk is standardized to 5.5 % fat and heated to
around 90 °C. After coagulation with citric acid at 70–85 °C, a coagulum of
casein–whey protein complex with entrapped fat is formed. Free whey is drained
and coagulated mass is pressed in cloth-lined hoops. The coagulum knits together
into a compact spongy mass under pressure. After removing from the hoops,
blocks are placed in chilled water for firming. Blocks are cut into smaller pieces
and are loosely placed in polythene bags for retail sale (Mathur 1991).
2. Improved Methods:
(a) Ultrafiltration Process: Ultrafiltration (UF) when employed for paneer man-
ufacture offers advantages of mechanization, uniform quality, improved
shelf life, increased yield and a nutritionally better product. The process
involves standardization and heating of milk followed by UF whereby lac-
tose, water and some minerals are removed (Sachdeva et al. 1993). UF of
milk and the removal of permeate are synonymous to removal of whey by
coagulation in conventional method. The concentrated mass, which has
about 40 % total solids, is cold acidified to get the desired pH. Texturization
is achieved in a continuous process by using microwave tunnels. Such tun-
nels comprise of a series of magnetrons under which the product moves
continuously on the conveyor belts. The resulting product has typical char-
acteristics of normal paneer (Pal 2005).
(b) Nanofiltration Technique: Paneer prepared from normal cow milk has hard,
compact and dry characteristics. Nanofiltration of cow’s milk helped to min-
imize these defects and produced better quality paneer, but imparted exces-
sive brittleness. Paneer prepared from nanofiltered milk has higher moisture
retention resulting in higher yield (Pal et al. 2002).
(c) Centrifugal Method: After coagulation of milk (at 70 °C) using citric acid,
primary whey is drained using gravity separation through muslin cloth. The
coagulum is subjected to centrifugal pressing by double wall basket centri-
fuge at 30–60 °C to remove the residual whey. The pressed coagulum is
chilled inside the basket centrifuge by chilled water at 4 °C for better body
and textural characteristics. Pressing and chilling of coagulum by centrifugal
method considerably reduces time for production of paneer (Agarwal 1996;
Das 2000).
(d) Continuous Method: Impact type device can compress blocks of coagulum
to form paneer which could be taken out at regular intervals. For the press-
ing, coagulum is kept in cages made from a special type of screen and the
cages are subjected to impact forces (Das and Das 2009).
168 P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

(e) Processed Paneer: Processed paneer production is an attempt primarily aimed

at evolving a product, which in its physico-chemical, sensory and functional
characteristics has as close a resemblance as possible with the processed
cheese. It has a lower cost relative to the western processed natural cheeses
and can offer a variety in flavour, consistency and functionality. For manufac-
turing processed paneer, NaCl 0.5 %, emulsifying salt and flavour is mixed
with shredded or comminuted paneer at 80 °C for 5 min. The mix is filled into
moulds and cooled. Depending upon the type and intensity of the flavour
desired, various dairy and non-dairy additives can be added (Pal 2002).

14.2.4 Shrikhand

1. Shrikhand is a very popular traditional fermented and sweetened milk product of

India. It is prepared by lactic acid coagulation of milk and expulsion of whey
from the curd followed by blending with cream, sugar, flavour and spices.
Shrikhand has a typical semi-solid consistency showing characteristics firmness
and pliability contributing to its suitability for consumption with “Puree” or
“Chapati”. The consistency is influenced to a great extent by the moisture, fat
and sugar levels. Its colour varies from yellowish white to marble white depend-
ing on the type of milk used. Shrikhand has been traditionally prepared by home-
makers or on small scale by the confectioners (Halwais). According to Prevention
of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) of India, shrikhand shall contain not less than
8.5 % milk fat (on dry basis), not less than 9.0 % protein (on dry basis), and
should not contain more than 72.5 % sugar (on dry basis). Same PFA standards
imply to fruit shrikhand as for plain shrikhand except that the fat content in it
shall not be less than 7.0 %. Buffalo milk is the preferred raw material for
shrikhand as it has a high fat, SNF and Ca++ content. Fermentation of milk is
accomplished by back-slopping, which contains mixed type of lactic acid bacte-
ria. Higher fat content in milk is preferred as it produces a balanced delicate and
pleasant flavour as well as desirable body and texture. Chakka (Quarg-like prod-
uct) which serves as the base material is obtained by removal of whey from dahi
(Yoghurt-like product). The quality of shrikhand depends significantly on the
physical and chemical properties of chakka. Yield of chakka depends upon the
heat treatment and total solids content of skim milk and starter culture (Aneja
et al. 2002). The heating of milk to 85–90 °C for 16 s reportedly resulted in 24 %
and 25 % yield of chakka, respectively. Chakka made from whole milk gives
smooth body but leads to higher fat loss in whey, whereas skim milk chakka
tends to be rough and dry.
2. Traditional Method: In the traditional method, buffalo or mixed cow milk is
boiled and after cooling to room temperature (30–35 °C), it is inoculated with
lactic culture and incubated for 6–8 h. When the curd is firmly set (acidity 0.9–
1.0 %), it is placed in a muslin cloth bag and hung on a peg for drainage of whey
for 6–8 h. The intermediate product (chakka) is used for the preparation of
14 Modernization of Manufacturing Process for Traditional Indian Dairy Products 169

shrikhand. The chakka thus obtained is mixed with sugar, kneaded well and
rubbed through a muslin cloth to give a smooth product. Colours, flavours
and fruits are added to provide variety (Sharma 1998; Punjrath 1991).
3. Improved Methods:
(a) Industrial Process: In this process, skim milk curd is centrifuged in a con-
tinuous quarg separator to produce chakka. It is mixed with cream, sugar and
flavourings in a scraped surface heat exchanger for manufacture and pas-
teurization of shrikhand. The product is filled in preformed cups under semi-
aseptic environment before retail trade. The process line developed by
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) for shrikhand production is
shown in Fig. 14.1.
(b) Ultrafiltration Technique: Skim milk is heated in a double jacketed vat with
slow agitation. It is cooled to 21–22 °C and inoculated with mixed starter cul-
ture (i.e. Streptococcus lactic, S. cremoris and S. diacetylactis) at the rate of
0.1–0.15 %. Incubation time varies from 16 to 18 h at 21–22 °C so as to get
curd pH of 4.6–4.5 and a pleasant diacetyl aroma. Rapid fermentation may
alternatively be done with the help of yoghurt culture (Streptococcus ther-
mophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus) requiring 4 h of incubation. After
ultrafiltration, the retentate is pressed to get chakka. Chakka, cream (70 % fat)
and sugar are mixed in a planetary mixer (30–35 rpm) for half an hour to get a
product with smooth texture, plastic body and a sweet-acidic flavour (Sharma
and Reuter 1992; Sharma 1998). Addition of colour and flavour is optional.
The process flow of shrikhand manufacture using ultrafiltration (UF) is shown
in Fig. 14.2. The yield is 23.16 % higher in UF process as compared to tradi-
tional process because of better recovery of whey proteins.
(c) Reverse Osmosis (RO) Process: This process involves heating of milk (90 °C
for 5 min), application of RO, cooling to 22 °C, inoculation with 20 % mixed
lactic culture, incubation for 18 h and then removal of whey by filtration to
get chakka (Sachdeva et al. 1994). Increased yield, higher solid recovery,
reduced processing time, access to mechanization and alleviation of whey
disposal problem are the major advantages of the process.

Fig. 14.1 Industrial method for Shrikhand production

170 P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

Skim Milk

Heating

Cooled to 21-22ºC and

inoculated with starter culture

Incubated for 16-18

hrs at 21-22ºC

Slow agitation of
coagulum

Heated to 60-62ºC for 5 min.

and then cooled to 50ºC

Ultrafiltration at 50ºC Permeate

Pressing of retentate

Chakka

Addition of Planetary mixture 30-

cream (70% fat) 35 rpm for 30 min.
and sugar
Filling in cups

Cooling to 10-12ºC

Shrikhand

Fig. 14.2 Ultrafiltration process for Shrikhand production

14.2.5 Ghee

Ghee is clarified butter fat prepared from cow or buffalo milk. It has the largest
share in trade of traditional Indian milk products. Ghee has an important place in
Indian diets because of its characteristics flavour and pleasant aroma, besides
being a source of fat-soluble vitamins. It is produced by heat desiccation and
clarification of makkhan, butter or cream at 105–110 °C. Makkhan here refers to
14 Modernization of Manufacturing Process for Traditional Indian Dairy Products 171

2 1
4 3 1 Milk inlet
5 2 Rotary scrapper
3 SSHE
4 Reciprocating scraper
5 Driving mechanism
6 Steam jacketed open pan 1
7 Steam jacketed open pan 2
6 8 Khoa outlet
8 7

Fig. 14.3 Pilot plant for Khoa-making

3 2 1 1 Steam inlet
2 Milk inlet
3 Pressure gauge
4 Scraper
5 Driving mechanism

Fig. 14.4 Semi-continuous Khoa-making plant

3 2

1 Recirculation pump
2 Motor
3 Scraper
4 Steam inlet
4 5 Steam jacketed vat
5 6 Product outlet

6 1

Fig. 14.5 Conical process vat

the country butter normally obtained by churning whole milk curd with crude
indigenous devices. Heat-induced changes in milk protein/lactose during the
clarification process impart a distinctive, pleasant cooked flavour to ghee (Aneja
et al. 2002).
172 P.S. Minz and R.R.B. Singh

3 2 1 1 1 Hopper
2 Slits
3 Drive mechanism
4 Steam jacket
6 5 Product outlet
6 Scraper

4 5 4

Fig. 14.6 Khoa making machine

4 3 1 1 Inclined scraped surface

2
heat exchanger
2 Steam jacket
3 Scraper
5 4 Milk inlet
5 Milk tank
6 Feed pump
6 7 7 Drive mechanism

Fig. 14.7 Inclined scraped surface heat exchanger (ISSHE)

5 4
3 2
1
1 Drive mechanism
6 2 Steam jacket
3 Scraper
4 Pressure gauge
5 Milk inlet
7 6 1st stage SSHE
7 2nd stage SSHE
8 Product outlet
8

Fig. 14.8 Two-stage scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE)

1. Traditional Method: Traditionally, ghee is produced at household level by

fermenting the whole milk into curd and churning the curd to recover fat (indig-
enous butter) followed by heat clarification at 105–145 °C.
2. Industrial Process: In the industrial sector, ghee is manufactured by batch pro-
cesses directly from cream or via cream-butter route or by the prestratification
(Punjrath 1991; Mathur 1991).
(a) Direct Cream: A steam jacketed kettle of 500–1000 L capacity is generally
employed. Heat clarification is done at 105–120 °C until entire moisture is
removed. The curd particles become brown and characteristic ghee flavour is
developed. After cooling and sedimentation, ghee is filtered to remove the
sediment before packing in tin containers. Centrifugal ghee clarifier can also
14 Modernization of Manufacturing Process for Traditional Indian Dairy Products 173

be used for removal of sediments and residues. Direct cream method yields
a higher quantity of ghee residue and takes a much longer time. Cream is at
times washed to reduce solids not fat (SNF) also known as ghee residue and
to improve yield of ghee.
(b) Cream-Butter Method: This process involves churning of cream to obtain
butter and heat clarification is done at 105–110 °C. Rest of the process is
same as direct cream method.
(c) Prestratification: In the prestratification method, butter is melted at 80 °C
and held for 30 min. Three layers are formed. The top layer being scum,
middle layer of fat and bottom layer of butter milk serum. Removal of bot-
tom aqueous layer helps in reduction of 70–95 % of the moisture, and also
brings economy in steam consumption.
(d) Continuous Ghee Making Machine: Abhichandani et al. (1995) designed
continuous ghee making machine by integrating continuous butter melter
with scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE). Butter (80–85 % fat) at 10 °C
was fed into the butter melter and ghee was manufactured at 115–
118 °C. Steam consumption was 35 kg per 100 kg of ghee which was 50 %
lower compared to 68 kg per 100 kg of ghee required in jacketed steam ket-
tle. Further modification was made and a ghee clarifier/bag filter system was
used to remove ghee residues (Abhichandani 1997).
3. Butter Oil Method: Ghee can be manufactured from butter oil by incorporating
curd/skim milk powder. The flavour quality of ghee and shelf life are comparable
to dairy ghee. Curdy flavour can be simulated by employing low temperature
clarification (105 °C) and by addition of cultured milk or curd powder at the time
of heating (Rajorhia 1995). Cooked flavour can be simulated by clarification at
115 °C for 10 min or 120 °C for 5 min or 125 °C without any holding time.

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Chapter 15
Yunnan Pu-erh Tea

Jiashun Gong, Qiuping Wang, Sarote Sirisansaneeyakul,

and Anna McElhatton

Contents
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 176
15.1.1 History of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea in China.......................................................... 176
15.1.2 Definition of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea and Its Types .............................................. 178
15.1.3 Pu-erh Tea as a Functional Food .................................................................... 180
15.2 Processing Techniques of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea ............................................................. 180
15.2.1 Traditional Techniques for Pu-erh Tea Processing ......................................... 180
15.2.2 Modern Techniques for Pu-erh Tea Processing .............................................. 181
15.3 Research Progress in Chemical Composition of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea .......................... 184
15.3.1 Chemistry of Raw Materials ........................................................................... 185
15.3.2 The Changes of Chemical Components of Pu-erh Tea during
Solid State Fermentation .................................................................................... 186
15.3.3 The Changes of Chemical Composition of Pu-erh Tea during Storage ......... 192

J. Gong (*)
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University,
Kunming 650201, P.R. China
e-mail: [email protected]
Q. Wang
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University,
Kunming 650201, P.R. China
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University,
50 Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Sirisansaneeyakul
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University,
50 Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
A. McElhatton
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 175

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0_15
176 J. Gong et al.

15.4 Profiles of Microorganisms on the Quality of Pu-erh Tea ........................................... 192

15.4.1 Aspergillus niger ............................................................................................. 194
15.4.2 Penicillium ...................................................................................................... 194
15.4.3 Rhizopus.......................................................................................................... 195
15.4.4 Saccharomyces Yeast ...................................................................................... 195
15.4.5 Bacteria ........................................................................................................... 195
15.5 Research on Safety of Pu-erh Tea ................................................................................ 196
References ............................................................................................................................... 196

15.1 Introduction

15.1.1 History of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea in China

During Ming Dynasty (1368 C.E.–1644 C.E.), Kunming Taihua tea, Dali Gantong
temple tea and Wanding (Changning country) tea were the most known teas of the
period. Pu-erh tea has a much longer history that can be traced back to the Eastern
Han Dynasty (25 C.E.–220 C.E.). In those times, tea was processed close to where
it was cultivated and shipped directly to markets. There were various varieties such
as “scissors crude tea” from Yongning (now known as Ninglang county) which got
its name because it was actually harvested using scissors, “Pu-erh tea” from Cheli
(presently known by the names of Pu-erh county and Xishuangbanna) and “Wumeng
tea” from Wumeng (presently Zhaotong city).
“Pu-erh tea” was the dominant variety and was widely distributed in Yunnan
province. “DianhaiYu Hengzhi”, a book written in the 4th-year Jiajing (1525 C.E.)
of Ming Dynasty, describes the prosperity that the tea trade brought and provides a
description of the trade:
The six Tea Mountains for producing Pu-erh tea are Youle, Gedeng, Yibang, Mangzhi,
Manzhuan and Mansa. Hundreds of thousands people work on the Tea Mountains to harvest
and process Pu-erh tea. Then the Pu-erh tea is bought and transported to the other places by
the tea merchants on the horsebacks. All of the roads are full of caravans, and the tea mer-
chants make a tidy profit from the Pu-erh tea business.

In the 13th year (1748 C.E.) of Qianlong emperor during Qing Dynasty, the
Tibetan people consumed large quantities of Yunnan tea, and the Yunnan tea sales
to Tibet were so significant that the tea so traded was given its own identity and
called Chitsu Pingcha. The Chitsu Pingcha was a unit of tea that consisted of a case
of seven circles or cakes, with a weight of 49 Liang (equivalent to approximately
1.83 kg). According to the historical records, the annual sales volume of Chitsu
Pingcha was said to reach 3000 picul (approximately 150 t) at that time. By 1825,
Ruan Fu, a writer of Qing Dynasty, wrote in his book on Puerh tea that “this tea was
well known globally”. At the end of the nineteenth century (1894), the Yunnan
province tea sales reached 1500 t. At that time, a fine variety of Camellia sinensis
Kuntze. var. assamica Kitamura was initially introduced to many other areas of
western Yunnan for plantation. In 1937, new tea-growing regions were extensively
developed in Yunnan province. As a result, the entire province produced Pu-erh tea
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 177

with harvests reaching some 9800 t annually. In 1940, the Yunnan tea sold to Tibet
reached its peak of 40,000 packages (about 1.5 × 106 kg).
The history of Yunnan Pu-erh tea, also has ties with the well-known “Tea Horse
Road” (Cha Ma Gu Dao) and The “Silk Road” that are both networks of land trading
routes. The “Silk Road” connected north western China to Europe from the times of
the Han dynasty (25 C.E.–220 C.E.), while the “Tea Horse Road” connected China
to various parts of Asia and Europe before seafaring became. It should be noted that
the “Tea Horse Road” is sometimes referred to as the “Silk Road of the south”.
The “Tea Horse Road” got its name as Chinese tea and horses were the main
products traded along the route (together with medicine, salt, cloth, and skins,
mostly carried by mules). Historians have traced the origins of the “Tea Horse
Road” back to the Tang dynasty (618 C.E.–907 C.E.), when tea was transported out
of Yunnan to Beijing, Tibet, and other Southeast Asian countries. The “Tea Horse
Road” was further developed during the Song (960 C.E.–1279 C.E.) and Ming
dynasty (1368 C.E.–1644 C.E.), and remained a key trading route for Pu-erh tea and
other commodities until the Qing dynasty (1644 C.E.–1911 C.E.). There were five
routes of the “Tea Horse Road”, they were specifically depicted as follows:
Guan Ma route, which ran from Pu’er to Kunming, and further to other provinces
within mainland China. It was used for transporting imperial tea to Beijing.
Guan Zang route, which ran from Pu’er to Xiaguan, Lijiang, Shangri-la, and into
Tibet; and from Tibet to Nepal and other countries.
Jiang Lai route, which ran from Pu’er to Jiangcheng, into Lai Chau of Vietnam, and
onto Tibet and Europe.
Dry Season route, which ran from Pu’er to Simao in Yunnan, and onto the Lancang
River, Menglian, and Burma.
Meng La route, which ran from Pu’er to Mengla in Yunnan, and onto northern Laos
and Southeast Asia.
At that time, sun-dried green tea leaves were packed and shaped into cake, brick,
mushroom, square and bowl shapes to be convenient for transportation. Transportation
times lasted weeks if not months, as an example the transportation on the Guan Zang
from Pu’er to Tibet, took some 100 days during which time the colour of the tea
became darker, and flavour no longer astringent. This occurred because the packed
green tea leaves underwent oxidation and fermentation during the trade journey; both
processes occurred because of the interaction of the tea with moisture and due to tem-
perature fluctuations. This caused the tea’s organoleptic properties to gradually change
such that they became highly desirable and therefore also so valued.
In the 1930s due to improved transportation, many new tea roads were opened
into Myanmar, Laos and India. Meanwhile packaging and the storage conditions in
warehouses improved significantly.
Due to the fact that improved transportation processes significantly reduced the
time to reach Tibet had reduced from 100 days to 40 days natural fermentation that
required longer process times was incomplete. As a consequence of this processing
issue various tea processing factories began to artificially ferment Pu-erh tea. This
led to the development of the modern manufacturing technique of Pu-erh tea by
solid state fermentation (SSF).
178 J. Gong et al.

15.1.2 Definition of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea and Its Types

Historically various kinds of tea handled by the Pu-erh local government were
called the Pu-erh tea. Pu-erh tea had been originally produced in the Diannan
Lanchan River basin, using crude sun-dried green tea prepared from the fresh leaves
of Camellia sinensis var. assamica, through a process of “enzyme(s) inactivation of
rolling-sun drying” technology to form raw sun-dried green tea and further to
shaped and compressed each kind of compressed tea by heating with steam.
In 1973, the Yunnan tea import–export company first developed a new technique
for processing modern Pu-erh tea in the Kunming Tea Factory and Menghai Tea
Factory. The Chinese Classic Book of Tea stated that Pu-erh tea was produced from
sun-dried green tea that then underwent SSF, and then shaped into tea bricks.
In 2008, Pu-erh tea was declared “a product with geographical indications”, and
the production areas clearly defined and confined to certain regions in Yunnan
province specifically, between parallels 21°10′ and 26°22′ north latitude, 97°31′
and 105°38′ east longitude these designated areas included the fields, towns, cities
and counties.
Broadly speaking, the Pu-erh tea products on the market can be categorized into
several types according to different standards, as shown in Fig. 15.1. Firstly, Pu-erh
tea can be divided into Pu-erh raw tea and Pu-erh ripened tea according to the pro-
cessing technology and the quality characteristics (Fig. 15.1a). The raw tea, a kind
of green tea, is made directly from the sun-dried green tea by further autoclaving
and a compression process. Its chemical constituents and quality are very similar to
those of the sun-dried green tea. Pu-erh ripen tea is normally made from the sun-
dried green tea by microbial post-fermentation at higher temperature (about 50 °C)
and higher humidity conditions. In addition, the compressed Pu-erh raw tea can be
turned into Pu-erh ripened tea after natural ageing during long-term storage which
is generally known as Pu-erh aged tea. Secondly, Pu-erh tea can be divided into
loose tea and compressed tea according to shape. After the autoclaving and drying
processes, the compressed tea can be made by compressing the loose tea into differ-
ent moulds to make different shapes (Fig. 15.1). Among the types of Pu-erh com-
pressed tea, cake tea is the most common. Other desired shapes of compressed tea
can be made as required, e.g., melon-shaped, tuocha-shaped, mushroom-shaped,
brick-shaped and column-shaped (Fig. 15.1b). Currently, the dominant type of
Pu-erh tea produced and consumed of is the microbial fermented Pu-erh ripe tea.
Microbial solid state fermentation is known to change the composition of the
tea. Tea polyphenols, catechins, thearubigins and theaflavins decreased, while
amino acids and the carbohydrates content are somewhat reduced. There is a devel-
opment of fragrance compounds, many of which have mellow fragrance such as
nonanal, linalool, oxidized linalool, 1-ethyl-2-formacyl pyrrole and phenylacetal-
dehyde are obviously high. In addition, gallic acid, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-methyl ben-
zene, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-ethyl benzene and 1,2,3-trimethoxy-4-ethyl benzene
noticeably increase. These characteristic profiles demonstrate that, Pu-erh tea
should not belong to the block or brick tea, but should have its own tea variety
designation because of the uniqueness of its characteristics.
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 179

Autoclaved,
compressed and dried

Sun-dried green tea Pu-erh raw tea

(Compressed tea, cake tea)
Microbial Post-
fermentation Natural aging

Autoclaved,
compressed and dried

Pu-erh ripen tea Pu-erh ripen tea

(Loose tea) (Compressed tea, cake tea)
b

1 Melon tea 2 Melon tea 3 Tuocha

4 Mushroom-shaped tea 5 Brick tea 6 Column tea

Fig. 15.1 Different types and shapes of Pu-erh tea. ((a) Different types and their processing rela-
tions; (b) various shapes of Pu-erh tea). Source: Lv et al. (2013)
180 J. Gong et al.

15.1.3 Pu-erh Tea as a Functional Food

Zhao Xueming, a writer during the Qing Dynasty, was cited in the Ben Cao Gang
Mu (a Chinese herb pharmacopoeia), as describing Pu-erh tea as “mild and fra-
grant… it has incomparable perfume, which is very good for drinkers, helping in
digestion and eliminating expectoration” (Chen et al. 2010).
A review by Zhang et al. (2005) has reported that Pu-erh tea has the potential to
produce various physiological changes that include reduction of blood lipids, cho-
lesterol and control of body weight, lowering of blood pressure and the control of
arthrosclerosis.

15.1.3.1 Avoiding Cancer and Improving Anticancer Conditions

In addition studied the potential for Pu-erh tea effects on cancer cells. The tea poly-
phenols together with their oxidation and degeneration of resulting complex prod-
ucts in Pu-erh tea are all important components with anticancer potential.
In addition, Pu-erh tea prepared from fresh leaves of Camellia sinensis var. assa-
mica is rich contains, like beta-carrot elements, vitamin B1, B2, C, E and so on. All
are important compounds responsible for anticancer.
It is also reported to settle the stomach and to have antiageing effects.

15.2 Processing Techniques of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea

15.2.1 Traditional Techniques for Pu-erh Tea Processing

Although Pu-erh tea has a long cultural history technical information about Pu-erh
tea related literature is limited. It is known that based on the picking or harvesting
time and fresh leaf quality and type, Pu-erh tea can be divided into four main types,
“the wool point”, “the tender tea-leaves”, “the Xiaomang tea” and “the valley
flower-scented green tea”. The processing of these teas are different, subsequently
they also differ. The finished products are described as tight round tea, female tea,
Jin Yuetian and lump tea. A comprehensive description of the predecessors of all
forms of Pu-erh tea processing is as shown in Fig. 15.2.
The Pu-erh tea produced in the traditional way acquires its shape due to the dif-
ferent types of basket used to transport and export it to places such as Tibet, Hong
Kong and Myanmar. This traditional processing method keeps is still in use. Sun-
dried green tea is used as raw materials; hence it is classified as green tea. The tea’s
characteristics are developed through steam rubs, in which the temperature affects
tea quality.
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 181

Fig. 15.2 The traditional Fresh leaves

procedure of processing
(Camellia sinensis var. assamica)
Pu-erh tea

Fixing

Hand rolling

Sun drying

Sun-dried green tea

(Starting raw materials)

Steaming and pressing

Variety of Pu-erh tea

Slow oxidation

Pu-erh tea

It is well accepted that the quality attributes were traditionally formed during the
long transportation times. Therefore, Pu-erh tea quality is undoubtedly the product
of the specific historical conditions.

15.2.2 Modern Techniques for Pu-erh Tea Processing

Economic change has motivated the development of the modern technique for the
Pu-erh tea production. In the twentieth century, at the beginning of 1970s, the con-
sumers’ request for quality Pu-erh tea increased. The Yunnan Province tea compa-
nies began to ferment and reprocess Pu-erh tea such as had been done in the
182 J. Gong et al.

Kunming tea factory and Menhai tea factory. Pu-erh tea processing entered the new
development era. The whole process of studying Pu-erh tea, from raw materials,
processing methods, chemical composition, quality testing, were developed and the
scientific idea of modern Pu-erh tea was finally established.
The modern Pu-erh tea, using sun-dried green tea as raw materials, through
splashing water, solid state fermentation, mellow stage and drying and so on, made
Pu-erh tea a special kind of tea. The traditional characteristics of Pu-erh tea namely
its mellow taste and Chen fragrant characteristic were retained in modern
processing.
Pu-erh tea became widely available especially in Hong-Kong, Macao and
Taiwan, and further afield in Southeast Asia and the volume of exports continue to
increase. The microbial involvement in the process is complex and is the source of
the characteristic tea quality that has been associated with its cultural history.
Figure 15.3 describes the modern technical process of manufacturing Pu-erh tea. In
this modern processing method, there are four stages that have evolved from the
traditional craft link:
1. Pu-erh tea’s raw materials, which are typically prepared from Camellia sinensis
var. assamica of Yunnan Province. After enzymes inactivation of fresh tea leaves
by hot steam, the steps of rolling tea leaves and drying them by sunlight are
essential to obtain the sun-dried green tea.
2. Solid state fermentation (SSF), the SSF facilitates the slow oxidation of Pu-erh
tea. The fermentation involving beneficial microorganisms which through their
growth and metabolism induce characteristic biotransformation, forming the
unique quality characteristics of Pu-erh tea.
3. Special climatic conditions, in Yunnan Province, naturally provide the optimal
conditions for the requisite microbial secondary metabolism that facilitates the
production of quality Yunnan Pu-erh tea. The sunshine in Yunnan appropriate for
the production of Pu-erh tea, where the yearly average temperature ranges from
12 to 23 °C providing the solar energy to sun-dry green tea leaves.
4. Pressing and shaping, the hot and damp material is also thought to influence
the quality of Pu-erh tea. The pressing and shaping may influence chemical
transformation of ingredients to remove astringency and render the tea
mellow in taste.
5. Storage and ageing, under controlled evidence based storage conditions, indi-
cate that the longer the Pu-erh tea is aged the mellower in taste it becomes. The
long storage time may cause changes in the chemical composition of Pu-erh
tea through oxidation. Due to the fact that there is significant variability in the
raw materials, the finished Pu-erh tea typically also varies and are given names
such as the raw cake, “shengpu series” and the modern craft of the ripe cake,
“shupu series”, as well as “dry store Pu-erh tea” and “wet store Pu-erh tea” that
are formed by different storage conditions. As a result, there are many kinds of
Pu-erh tea.
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 183

Large fresh leaves in Yunnan Province

(Camellia sinensis var. assamica)

Fixing

Rolling

Sun drying

Sun-dried green tea

Water spraying

Inoculation with microorganisms

Solid state Fermentation (SSF)

(i) Unpacked Pu-erh tea, and/or (ii) Shaped Pu-erh tea (by pressing and shaping)

Packaging

Storage and aging

Yunnan Pu-erh tea

Fig. 15.3 Modern procedure for producing Pu-erh tea

184 J. Gong et al.

15.3 Research Progress in Chemical Composition

of Yunnan Pu-erh Tea

The chemical composition of tea is the foundation of tea quality. So far, there are
about 600 known compounds in tea of which more than 450 are organic compounds
kinds. With the exception of carbohydrate, fat and lipid, found in the raw materials,
the other compounds are all the secondary metabolites. Among tea’s secondary
metabolites, there are polyphenols and purines that account for 20–38 % and 3–5 %
of the tea’s composition, respectively. In general, tea colour, its smell taste, and the
quantity and profile of the secondary metabolites are all factors affecting the deci-
sion regarding quality. The tea infusion quality is therefore an association of various
attributes that include the taste of the tea infusion that is influenced by chemical
components and the processing itself which gives the tea its full-bodied taste, its
colouration (as shown in Fig. 15.4), and its Chen (aged) or mellow fragrance.

Fig. 15.4 Comparison between sun-dried green tea and Pu-erh tea after solid state fermentation,
(a) sun-dried green tea, (b) Pu-erh tea after solid state fermentation, (c) Yunnan Chitsu Pingcha, as
a kind of Pu-erh tea, (d) a water extract colour from sun-dried green tea and (e) a water extract
colour from Pu-erh tea after solid state fermentation
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 185

15.3.1 Chemistry of Raw Materials

Pu-erh tea is prepared from sun-dried green tea as starting raw materials. After sun-
drying the fresh leaves of Camellia sinensis var. assamica, a step of special solid
state fermentation is required, then pressing and shaping is particular to produce a
variety of Pu-erh tea. For sun-dried green tea, its production is mainly from the area
of Yunnan national minority. The fresh leaves of Camellia sinensis var. assamica
are collected by labour picking, inactivation of enzymes, rolled and cooled, and then
dried with solar energy.
The moisture content of sun-dried tea leaves is approximately 10–12 %, which is
much higher than that of fried green tea (approximately 6–8 %). The modern Pu-erh
tea is basically evolved from the traditional Pu-erh tea. The typical characteristics
are mellow taste and remarkable Chen fragrant. However, both are commonly
so-called Pu-erh tea, neither traditional nor artificial Pu-erh tea is of necessity iden-
tified. With using big leaf planting tea as material and fermenting step result in the
characteristic quality of brown colour and Chen fragrant. Since the natural fermen-
tation is quite slow process for traditional Pu-erh tea, the fermentation time of
modern Pu-erh tea is fast under artificially controlled conditions. Nevertheless, both
the techniques form similarity of Pu-erh tea characteristic quality.
Pu-erh tea is well-known worldwide at the present time. The production and
exporting volume of Pu-erh tea are increasing of great concern. The unique quality
characteristics of Pu-erh tea are essentially formed, because particular chemical
substances present in bud leaf and tender stem are typical, additionally the
biochemical changes after the solid state fermentation process are of great
importance.
Table 15.1 summarizes chemical components of various Chinese sun-dried green
teas (Gong et al. 2005). They are especially rich in polyphenols and a number of
different oxidized products depending upon the source of the leaves. The raw mate-
rials from platform (mesa) plantation area tea show higher contents of polyphenol,
total catechins, oligosaccharides and total carbohydrates than those from old tea,
except those of flavanones, where the theaflavins and thearubigins are actually
lower. This has laid the foundation for the unique quality formation of Pu-erh tea.
Zhou and Yang (2000)) reported that 20 phenolic compounds together with caffeine
were isolated from crude materials of Pu-erh tea produced in Yunnan Province,
China. They were identified by spectroscopic method as follows: (−)epicatechin,
(−)epigallocatechin, (−)epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, (−)epicatechin-3-O-gallate,
(−)epiafzelechin-3-O-gallate, (+)catechin, (±)gallocatechin, quercetin, quercetin-3-
O-β-D-glucopyranoside, rutin, kaempferol, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside,
kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, strictinin, 1,6-O-digalloyl-β-D-glucopyranose, theo-
gallin, chlorogenic acid, 3-α,5-α-dihydroxy-4-α-cafeoyl-quinic acid, coniferin, gal-
lic acid. Their chemical structures are shown in Fig. 15.5.
186 J. Gong et al.

Table 15.1 Chemical components of various Chinese sun-dried green teas

Sun-dried Chemical components (%)
green tea TP TC FL TF TR TB TS TPS TOS TE Ash
Mangjing 35.11 12.03 1.69 0.14 8.68 2.09 11.00 0.11 7.02 39.60 5.05
Nannuo 37.23 11.26 1.26 0.17 6.93 2.20 10.30 0.36 8.55 38.40 4.75
old tea
Manggeng 37.80 12.58 1.60 0.14 6.54 2.11 9.50 0.35 6.55 40.00 5.05
old tea
Manggeng 36.05 13.09 1.61 0.15 6.88 1.75 10.42 0.90 7.77 40.40 4.75
old tea
Manggeng 30.97 11.07 1.84 0.23 9.83 2.66 9.26 0.10 6.50 40.20 5.20
mesa tea
Bangwei 29.90 10.21 1.84 0.18 7.61 2.34 9.32 0.15 8.70 37.60 5.25
old tea
Bangwei 30.62 10.52 1.83 0.21 8.11 2.37 9.21 0.27 5.94 38.60 5.30
mesa tea
Jingmai 35.98 12.80 1.55 0.13 7.92 1.87 9.48 0.21 7.12 39.00 4.75
old tea
Jingmai 32.36 11.58 1.75 0.18 9.37 3.06 9.22 0.19 8.66 40.00 5.10
mesa tea
Note: TP tea polyphenols, TC total catechins, FL flavone, TF theaflavins, TR thearubigins, TB
theabrownins, TS total sugar, TPS tea polysaccharide, TOS tea oligosaccharide, TE tea extracts
Source: Gong et al. (2005)

15.3.2 The Changes of Chemical Components of Pu-erh Tea

during Solid State Fermentation

15.3.2.1 The Polyphenols

The polyphenols are important active components in tea leaf and account for the
60–80 %, of active ingredients in tea that are responsible for the expression of tea
colour, taste and fragrance. The fermentation process of Pu-erh tea with Aspergillus
niger changes the chemical profile polyphenols (Table 15.2), caffeine, flavone,
thearubigins and soluble oligosaccharides decreased during SSF. The theabrownins
and soluble tea polysaccharides increase significantly. While the teaflavins, total
soluble carbohydrates and ash were not remarkably changed (Tables 15.2 and
15.4). It is thought that these variations during the fermentation process could be
considered as being quality characteristics of Pu-erh tea.
Guo et al. (2001) also reported that the catechins ester decreased markedly more
than the other catechins. While, gallic acid also increased significantly (Table 15.3)
as did the insoluble tea polyphenols by up to 70–80 % which contribute to the
reduction of the bitterness of the tea infusion.
Pu-erh tea infusion characteristically has a red to red-brown colour that persists
as a consequence of its chemical profile. The theaflavins are responsible for the
bright infusion colour while the thearubigins are associated with both colour and
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 187

Fig. 15.5 The chemical structures of compounds 1–21. Source: Modified from Zhou and Yang
(2000)

taste intensity of the infusion. Theabrownins is associated with the darkening of the
infusion; when at levels of 6–8 %, the infusion colour appears a bright red-brown,
at lower levels (5 %), the infusion colour tends to a bright red-orange colour
associated with insufficient fermentation.
In the SSF process, theabrownins levels remain stable while in the other the main
chemical constituents of tea are significantly altered (Table 15.2). Moreover, this
theabrownins content is considerably high, and considered to be a significant qual-
ity attribute of the tea.
Luo et al. (1998) thought that the interactions between polyphenols and produc-
tion of insoluble protein-polyphenols complex persist and increase as in the tea leaf
residues as SSF progresses. Hot and damp conditions that persist inside batches of
fermenting tea facilitate the oxidation of tea polyphenols and formation of complex
protein-polyphenols complex.
188 J. Gong et al.

Table 15.2 Chemical components of different upturned tea in the solid state fermentation of
Pu-erh tea
Chemical components (%)
Samples and fermentation time TP TC FL TF TR TB
Central tea of first pile (10 days) 31.05 9.07 1.46 0.16 4.00 2.35
Mixed tea of first pile (10 days) 33.3 9.84 1.60 0.17 6.41 2.25
Surface tea of second pile (20 days) 24.19 8.12 1.39 0.17 4.61 3.75
Central tea of second pile (20 days) 30.13 7.23 1.58 0.15 6.06 3.23
Lower tea of second pile (20 days) 26.85 7.44 1.42 0.16 5.30 4.14
Cankered bottom tea of second pile (20 days) 26.45 6.64 1.56 0.16 4.8 4.37
Surface tea of third pile (30 days) 18.6 7.73 1.13 0.13 2.34 5.71
Central tea of third pile (30 days) 26.91 5.91 1.42 0.15 4.54 1.93
Bottom tea of third pile (30 days) 26.52 6.4 1.36 0.16 4.76 4.14
Mixed tea of third pile (30 days) 26.52 5.88 1.36 0.16 4.97 4.74
Surface tea of fourth pile (40 days) 12.45 1.97 0.59 0.10 0.28 13.74
Central tea of fourth pile (40 days) 11.18 1.04 0.79 0.11 0.01 11.63
Lower tea of fourth pile (40 days) 13.92 1.90 0.64 0.12 0.26 12.45
Note: TP tea polyphenols, TC total catechins, FL flavone, TF theaflavins, TR thearubigins,
TB theabrownins
Source: Gong et al. (2005)

Table 15.3 Content of catechins in different Pu-erh tea (Unit: %)

Pu-erh tea L-EGCG L-ECG L-EC Total catechins Caffeine Gallic acid
Yunnan Tuocha 4.65 4.37 trace 9.48 3.82 0.34
Yunnan Pu-erh tea 0.03 0.01 0.21 0.27 3.93 1.72
Yunnan Chitsu Pingcha 0.14 0.19 0.40 0.78 2.82 1.12
Note: EC epicatechin, EGC epigallocatechin, EGCG epigallocatechin gallate
Source: Guo et al. (2001)

The irreversible protein-polyphenols complex is therefore the main reason for the
increase of insoluble tea polyphenol content during the SSF process. This is gener-
ally caused by quinine (formed from the oxidation of catechins) and the insoluble
thearubigins and theabrownins combining with protein. The catechins too, under
certain conditions, can also interact with proteins to produce the insoluble complex.
These insoluble protein complexes are reported to be responsible for the reduc-
tion of tea extracts from 35.6 to 27 % (Fig. 15.6).
In addition, peroxidase may also promote the oxidation of theaflavins to form
insoluble protein complexes. Because the fermentation temperature is quite high
approximately 40–60 °C, peroxidase activity reaches optimal levels; as a result, the
quantity of theaflavins diminish while that of insoluble thearubigins increase.
In conclusion, the production of insoluble protein-polyphenols complex improves
the characteristic taste of Pu-erh tea.
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 189

5.0 5.0

4.5 4.5

4.0 4.0

Soluble protein (%)

3.5 3.5

3.0 3.0

2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40
Solid state fermentation time (days)

Fig. 15.6 Changing of soluble protein of sun-dried green tea during SSF fermentation. Source:
Gong et al. (2005)

Table 15.4 Carbohydrates content of different upturned tea during solid state fermentation of Pu-erh tea
Components (%)
Tea samples during SSF TS TPS TOS TE Ash
Central tea of first pile (10 days) 8.88 0.60 6.51 35.60 5.53
Mixed tea of first pile (10 days) 9.12 0.37 6.51 34.60 5.60
Surface tea of second pile (20 days) 8.31 0.94 6.43 35.53 5.99
Central tea of second pile (20 days) 8.79 1.27 5.49 34.39 5.44
Lower tea of second pile (20 days) 8.39 1.28 4.87 31.40 5.34
Cankered bottom tea of second pile (20 days) 8.79 1.49 4.53 36.67 5.64
Surface tea of third pile (30 days) 9.19 2.25 4.57 33.40 5.53
Central tea of third pile (30 days) 10.02 2.43 5.18 32.89 5.30
Bottom tea of third pile (30 days) 8.72 1.37 4.42 31.82 5.22
Mixed tea of third pile (30 days) 10.24 2.14 4.27 34.93 5.39
Surface tea of fourth pile (40 days) 8.62 3.19 2.18 26.00 5.90
Central tea of fourth pile (40 days) 7.78 3.09 1.66 24.53 5.70
Lower tea of fourth pile (40 days) 8.48 3.79 2.97 27.00 6.12
Note: TS total sugar, TPS tea polysaccharide, TOS tea oligosaccharide, TE tea extract
Source: Gong et al. (2005)

15.3.2.2 The Carbohydrates

The tea contains approximately 10–20 % carbohydrates with a profile that is consid-
ered to be related to quality. Table 15.4 shows that unfermented Pu-erh tea contains
between 9 and 11 % soluble carbohydrates, when fermented by SSF the soluble
polysaccharides and oligosaccharides content change.
190 J. Gong et al.

2.50 2.50

2.25 2.25

Soluble PS-linked protein (%)

Soluble polysaccharides (%)
Soluble polysaccgarides (PS)
2.00 2.00
Soluble PS-linked protein
1.75 1.75

1.50 1.50

1.25 1.25

1.00 1.00

0.75 0.75

0.50 0.50

0.25 0.25

0.00 0.00
0 10 20 30 40
Solid state fermentation time (days)

Fig. 15.7 Changing of soluble polysaccharides and polysaccharides-linked protein of sun-dried

green tea during SSF fermentation. Source: Gong et al. (2005)

The soluble polysaccharides levels change significantly during SSF with the
polysaccharide content increasing more than fivefold during SSF (Gong et al. 2005).
Moreover, the crude extracts of polysaccharides also contain partially soluble pro-
tein (Fig. 15.7) also increase which is consistent with the premise that there is a
connection between tea polysaccharides and protein levels.
Luo et al. (1998) indicated the change of soluble carbohydrates content of Pu-erh
tea varied during SSF fermentation, after initially falling in concentration the gen-
eral tendency is for an overall increase in soluble carbohydrate concentration. It has
been reported that carbohydrates content decreased because of tea fermentation and
storage in a storehouse. For the Yunnan green tea, the content of soluble sugars is
71.10 %, but the soluble sugars in loose Pu-erh tea is 20.3 %, and approximately
36.1 % in Pu-erh Tuocha. The content of soluble sugars being attributed to the
growth of microorganisms as soluble sugars can partially serve as the good carbon
source for microorganisms’ growth.

15.3.2.3 The Changes of Nitrogen Compounds

At the beginning of processing Pu-erh tea, the taste quality is formed by the oxida-
tive degradation of the precursors of the material that will ultimately develop the
taste. Caffeine, theabrownins and theine do not vary significantly. Other amino
acids such as threonine, glutamic acid and aspartic acid found in fresh leaf tea
decreased gradually during SSF, but others such as lysine, phenylalanine, methio-
nine and isoleucine increased during solid state fermentation.
The amino acid profile in the teas are the key factors that determine quality and
taste of the infusion. The combination of amino acids and polyphenols provide the
characteristics of the tea. Japanese scientists have investigated the composition and
contents of amino acids in Pu-erh tea and have shown that every 100 g of Pu-erh tea
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 191

contained some 16 mg of amino acids. The hydrolysis of protein increased the

content of soluble amino acids at the beginning of fermentation time; however, due
to microbial growth facilitated by long periods of processing in hot and damp envi-
ronments, total amino acids decreased. The chemistry involved is thought to involve
the partial decomposition of amino acids, oxidation, hydrolysis and deaminizing,
and use by microorganisms as nitrogen sources. The SSF process therefore causes
shifts in the amino acid profile.

15.3.2.4 Variation of Aromatic Substances

The formation of the characteristic fragrance is especially complicated. It is known

that the content of aromatic substances in fresh leaf tea is 0.03–0.05 % that does
change during the manufacturing process of Pu-erh tea.
During SSF of Pu-erh tea, many factors such as enzyme catalysis, oxidation and
reduction of catechins, moisture and acidic conditions all have the potential to cre-
ate aromas. From studying Chinese brick tea, Kawakami (1987) identified 132
kinds of fragrance ingredients from brick tea samples. It was thought that this pro-
cess could be manipulated by controlling microbial fermentation and oxidation to
produce desirable aromas.
Chen fragrance components in different raw materials of Pu-erh tea are totally
different (Gong et al. 2005). According to Liu and Ina (1987), the main Chen
fragrance of Yunnan Pu-erh tea were mainly caused by oxidized linalool (I), oxi-
dized linalool (II), oxidized linalool (IV), linalool, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-ethyl benzene,
1,2-dimethoxy-4-methyl benzene, 1-ethyl-2-formacyl pyrrole, α-terpineol, benzal-
dehyde, trans-2-trans-4-heptadienal, n-nonanal, n-decanal and other unknown com-
pounds. It is also indicated that the increased contents of octadiene alkone,
heptadiene alkone and pentenol were the components that produced Chen fragrance.
In addition, the increased fragrant components of 1,2-dimethoxy-4-methyl benzene,
1,2-dimethoxy-4-ethyl benzene and 1,2,3-trimethoxy-4-ethyl benzene of Pu-erh tea
resulted from the hydroxylation of gallic acid and the methylation of acyl gallnut.

15.3.2.5 Variation of Tea Extracts

Tea extract is obtained when tea leaves are soaked in hot water; it is the major source
of taste and aroma in tea infusions. The high content of tea extract reflects high
soluble matter containing tea that to a certain extent is a determinant of the tea
quality.
Traditionally processed Pu-erh tea has its unique style. Pu-erh tea is classified as
a post-fermented tea and contains soluble carbohydrates and pectin and hydrolysed
products that are formed during the fermentation process, which enhance the taste
of tea infusion. Shao et al. (1994) reported that the content of tea extracts is very
much related to the quality of Yunnan Pu-erh tea. As shown in Table 15.5, the con-
tent of tea extracts of Pu-erh tea depends on the solid state fermentation time.
192 J. Gong et al.

Table 15.5 Variation of tea Tea samples during SSF fermentation Tea extracts (%)
extracts during solid state
Central tea of first pile (10 days) 35.60
fermentation of Pu-erh tea
Mixed tea of first pile (10 days) 34.60
Surface tea of second pile (20 days) 35.53
Central tea of second pile (20 days) 34.39
Lower tea of second pile (20 days) 31.40
Cankered bottom tea of second pile 36.67
(20 days)
Surface tea of third pile (30 days) 33.40
Central tea of third pile (30 days) 32.89
Bottom tea of third pile (30 days) 31.82
Mixed tea of third pile (30 days) 34.93
Surface tea of fourth pile (40 days) 26.00
Central tea of fourth pile (40 days) 24.53
Lower tea of fourth pile (40 days) 27.00
Source: Gong et al. (2005)

The longer fermentation time shows the less content of tea extracts of Pu-erh tea.
Therefore, during solid state fermentation, the fermentation time is practically a key
factor controlling the tea extracts.

15.3.3 The Changes of Chemical Composition of Pu-erh Tea

during Storage

Through the analysis of Pu-erh tea that had different storing times and which had
been sourced from different producer sources, it was possible to establish that stor-
ing time does not play particularly for the physicochemical changes of tea compo-
nents (Table 15.6). It is clear that the changing components of Pu-erh tea have no
significant correlation with the longer storing time; therefore, any changes may be
caused by differences in processing methods, raw materials used and storage condi-
tions (Gong et al. 2005). It is therefore quite difficult to determine the age of Pu-erh
tea through the changes of chemical components. The means to characterize the age
of Pu-erh tea based on scientific means is therefore a challenge.

15.4 Profiles of Microorganisms on the Quality of Pu-erh Tea

Chen et al. (1985) and Hu (1979) independently identified a number of microor-

ganisms, namely Aspergillus niger, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Aspergillus glaucus,
Saccharomyces and Cladosporium involved in the processing Pu-erh tea. Among
them, Aspergillus niger was found in approximately 80 % of the sources tested.
 15
Yunnan Pu-erh Tea
Table 15.6 Chemical components of crusted Pu-erh tea
Content of component (%)
Yunnan Pu-erh tea samples TP TC FL TF TR TB TS TPS TOS TE Ash TP
Pu-erh tea (8-class) (1984) 14.34 1.98 3.77 0.27 4.52 9.21 11.15 3.39 3.49 30.51 5.10 14.34
Pu-erh tea 79072 (1989) 12.92 2.04 3.31 0.23 3.44 8.27 9.51 2.64 2.59 24.19 5.80 12.92
Chitsu Pingcha (1997) 12.11 1.35 2.49 0.17 1.98 9.75 8.65 2.63 2.31 36.62 7.16 12.11
Brick tea (1998) 8.31 1.11 1.79 0.18 1.21 11.42 7.74 nil 2.50 31.15 7.58 8.31
Chitsu Pingcha (1999) 12.34 1.48 3.52 0.16 2.42 8.93 8.67 2.61 2.29 36.66 7.09 12.34
Tuocha (2000) 10.62 1.10 1.98 0.15 2.24 10.85 8.21 3.23 1.36 34.50 6.87 10.62
Tuocha (2002) 12.25 1.35 2.52 0.19 2.81 9.53 9.36 3.13 1.49 37.15 6.98 12.25
Pu-erh tea (2003) 12.51 1.10 2.04 0.16 2.24 9.81 9.33 2.38 2.74 32.84 7.10 12.51
Pu-erh tea (2-class) (2003) 10.36 1.07 1.58 0.34 2.24 9.90 8.80 2.59 1.98 22.00 6.25 10.36
Pu-erh tea (4-class) (2003) 10.74 1.51 1.4 0.262 1.71 12.76 9.08 2.77 2.48 25.20 6.40 10.74
Pu-erh tea (7-class) (2003) 13.76 2.21 2.39 0.29 3.36 10.56 10.16 3.39 3.11 27.87 5.40 13.76
Pu-erh tea (8-class) (2003) 16.14 2.81 2.22 0.32 4.55 9.13 11.32 3.47 3.91 30.13 5.45 16.14
Old Tuocha (2004) 15.54 3.52 3.87 0.16 1.37 12.25 10.78 0.31 3.26 35.20 5.95 15.54
Note: TP tea polyphenols, TC total catechins, FL flavone, TF theaflavins, TR thearubigins, TB theabrownins, TS total sugar, TPS tea polysaccharide, TOS tea
oligosaccharide, TE tea extract
Source: Gong et al. (2005)

193
194 J. Gong et al.

Observations of SSF revealed that in the early phases of SSF rapid growth and
propagation of mesophilic moulds such as Aspergillus niger was observed.
However, later the SSF process, under dry environments psychrophiles such as
Aspergillus glaucus started to grow. At the same time, various enzymes under-
went reactivation that then caused further chemical changes in the tea composi-
tion profiles (Hu 1957, 1979).
Other recent studies by Zhou and Zhao on microbes during the solid state
fermentation process of Yunnan Pu-erh tea showed that in addition to the
Microorganisms identified independently by Hu and Chen other Aspergilli namely
Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus candidus and other bacteria were also significant
microbes of Pu-erh tea. By far Aspergillus niger was the largest contributor. Another
significant microorganism identified was Saccharomyces sp. These microbes all
play direct and indirect roles more or less on quality formation of Pu-erh tea (Zhou
et al. 2004; Zhao and Zhuo 2005).

15.4.1 Aspergillus niger

Aspergillus niger is a generally significant industrial microorganism and spe-

cifically has been identified as a key organism in the production of Pu-erh tea.
Its growth is beneficial to the quality improvement of Pu-erh tea. Aspergillus
niger belongs to Deuteromycotina, Hyphomycetes, Moniliales, Moniliaceae and
Aspergillus. During solid state fermentation of Pu-erh tea, Aspergillus niger
may secrete some twenty (20) types of hydrolytic enzymes (Zhao and Zhou
2003). Among them, glucoamylase, cellulases and pectinase decompose many
insoluble organic compounds such as polysaccharides, fat, protein, natural fibre
and pectin.
After hydrolysis of macromolecular compounds, the micromolecular com-
pounds produced are monosaccharides, amino acids, hydrated pectin and soluble
carbohydrates. The organic acids produced by enzymatic activity may promote
the development of the desired taste such as the mellow quality characteristics of
tea infusion.

15.4.2 Penicillium

Penicillium belongs to Deuteromycotina, Hyphomycetes, Moniliales and

Moniliaceae. Penicillium, isolated from Pu-erh tea, can produce a number of
enzymes such as glucose oxidase and secrete organic acids including gluconic acid,
citric acid and antiscorbutic acid. It also may produce penicillin to eliminate and
suppress the growth of putrefactive bacteria; therefore, Penicillium is considered to
improve the tea quality.
15 Yunnan Pu-erh Tea 195

15.4.3 Rhizopus

Rhizopus belongs to Rhizopus, Zygomycotina, Zygomycetes, Mucorales and

Mucoraceae. It can be used to ferment Pu-erh tea (Liu and Ina 1987). It can also
produce a number of enzymes such as amylase, sugar forming enzymes, pectinase,
proteinase and zymase. These enzymes are active at temperatures ranging from 32
to 40 °C and pH 4.5–6. Among them, the activity of amylase is higher than those of
other enzymes. Amylase secreted by Rhizopus can catalyse starch in the Pu-erh tea
and produce organic acids such as fumaric acid, lactic acid and succinic acid.
Rhizopus can also produce fragrant ester matters, by transforming sterol race com-
pounds to their derivatives. So, Rhizopus is an important organism for Pu-erh tea. In
addition, because of its pectinase activity, Rhizopus can break down tea leaves dur-
ing solid state fermentation. Therefore, during solid state fermentation, by control-
ling suitable temperature and humidity for the growth of Rhizopus, this will be
beneficial to form the sweet and mellow taste of Pu-erh tea.

15.4.4 Saccharomyces Yeast

The Saccharomyces yeast belongs to the Ascomycetes, Hemiascomycetes,

Endonycetales and Saccharomyces. It is an important strain which is also responsi-
ble for forming the quality of Pu-erh tea. In the fermentation process of Pu-erh tea,
the function of hot and damp provides suitable environment for Saccharomyces
growth and its metabolic activity. This also strengthens the activities of enzymes
which result in the changes of tea composition.
In addition, many of the monosaccharides and soluble oligosaccharides pro-
duced by Aspergillus niger also can be supplied as carbon source for the growth of
this yeast. It was indicated that provision of suitable conditions for rapid
Saccharomyces growth improved the quality of Pu-erh tea with sweet and mellow
characteristics (Gong et al. 2005).
Interestingly, Pu-erh tea with the quality characteristic of Chen fragrance (mellow
and sweet) is related to the rapid growth of Saccharomyces in solid state fermentation
of Pu-erh tea. Therefore, appropriate control in the quantity of Saccharomyces in
processing Pu-erh tea may result in the increasing of those effective nutrients and
healthy components of Pu-erh tea, which provide the unique qualities and style of
Pu-erh tea. On the other hand, if such control is not appropriate, there could be dete-
rioration of taste and therefore quality of Pu-erh tea.

15.4.5 Bacteria

In a mixed matrix, bacterial growth dominates in conditions of higher temperature

and humidity together with a rich source of organic material. Such conditions will
produce off-odours and or a rancid taste. However, during the processing of Pu-erh
196 J. Gong et al.

tea, bacterial populations are particularly low and so far the presence of pathogenic
bacteria has not been reported. This scenario might be due to growth competition
among microorganisms and repression of bacteria by the tea polyphenols.

15.5 Research on Safety of Pu-erh Tea

Pu-erh tea, as a traditional beverage of China, has a long history of culture. They
have been drinking Pu-erh tea without particular known risk. However, in a view of
the fact that the processing of Pu-erh tea deals with a number of microorganisms a
significant number of microbial metabolites and complex compounds are produced.
The potential for health hazards is not entirely unfounded; therefore, the chemical
toxicity of Pu-erh tea has been evaluated and reports show that in brick format there
is ample proof of safety (Liu et al. 1996; Chou et al. 1999; Cao et al. 1998, 2001,
2003; Wong et al. 2003).
Liu et al. (2003), at Southwest Agricultural University, studied on acute toxicity
of three typical Pu-erh teas and one baked green tea from Yunnan Province and
concluded that all four kinds of tea are highly safe for drinking.
Sun and Liu (2002), from Taiwan University reported that Aspergillus aflatoxin
was not separated from Pu-erh tea inoculated with aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus
during simulated production; it seemed that aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus could
not survive under microflora system of Pu-erh tea fermentation, where Aspergillus
niger and Saccharomyces, the dominant microorganisms, suppressed the growth of
harmful microorganisms.

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Index

A Coagulating agents
Alcoholic seasonings brine solution, 132
distilled spirit, 133 gluconolactone, 132
yellow liquor, 129, 133 gypsum, 132
Almonds, 99 Cob method, 105
Aspergillus niger, 194 Combined acid/rennet coagulation process, 24
Aspergillus oryzae, 120 Commercial Ayran technology, 57, 58
Ayran home production, Cottage industry, 146–148
56–57 Craft bakeries, 64, 65, 70, 71
Crude enzyme, 119, 120
“Curd-drainage car”, 16
B
Baked goods, 64, 68, 70, 72
Baking, 64, 68–70 D
Bean cakes, 130, 131 Defatted soybean
Bean curds. See also Furu bean cakes, 130, 131
cultivation of soybean, 126 bean draff, 131
soybean forms, 126 Dian jiang (addition of coagulants), 136–137
Bean draff, 131 Distilled spirit, 32, 133
Beans, 126 Double cream, 33, 35
Brine solution, 117, 129, 132, 137 Durum wheat, 76, 77
Broomcorn millet (P. miliaceum), 126

E
C Edible coatings. See Nuts
Chhana Electrical double layers, 36
casein process, 168 Electrostatic repulsion, 36
continuous method, 168
cow milk, 166
heat acid coagulated product, 166 F
manufacturing, 166 Fermentation
UF process, 168 bean curds (see Bean curds)
Chinese cheese, 126 fish sauce (see Fish sauce)
Clostridium botulinum, 106 furu, 126

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 199

A. McElhatton, M.M. El Idrissi (eds.), Modernization of Traditional Food
Processes and Products, Integrating Food Science and Engineering Knowledge
Into the Food Chain 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-7671-0
200 Index

Fermentation (cont.) kneading and production, 66, 67

harvesting, 112 village inhabitants, 63
proteolytic enzymes, 154 wheat, 64
Fish sauce Ghee, 172–175
anchovies (small saltwater fish), 116 Gluconolactone, 132
aqueous product, 116 Gua-ca (Myanmar), 116
classification, 116 Gypsum, 132
commercial, 116 Gzik Wielkopolski (cheese product), 9
fermentation, 115
flavoring ingredient, 116
manufacturing process, 117 H
nutritional values, 121 High temperature short time (HTST), 5, 15, 17
research and development (see Research Homogenization parameters
and development, fish sauce) critical diameter/bimodal distribution, 40
spectrofluorometry technique, 116 description, 37
Free fatty acids, 153 droplet size distribution, emulsion, 40
Furu formulation, 38
bacterial type, 128 premix quality, 39
cheese-like product, 126 temperature, 40
Chinese cheese, 126 troubleshooting protocol, 42
classification, 127, 134 turbulence, 37
composition, 129 typical total pressure, 40
cured type, 127 valve technology, 40
dates, 126 Hong Qu (red rice), 133–134
definition, 126 HTST. See High temperature short time (HTST)
fermentation process
defatted soybean, 130, 131
soybean, 130 I
supplement materials, 131–134 Inclined scraped surface heat exchanger
microorganisms, 140, 141 (ISSHE), 166, 167, 174
Mucor type, 128 Indian dairy products
natural inoculation type, 128 chemical composition and organoleptic
nutritive value, 128–129 properties, 164
post-fermentation chhana, 166, 168
curing, 139 classification, 164, 165
filling, 140 ghee, 172, 174, 175
sealing, 140 khoa, 164, 166
pre-fermentation, 138 paneer, 168–170
incubation, 139 shrikhand, 170, 171
inoculation, 138 total milk production, 163
mycelium rubbering/polishing, 139 Industrialized process, tempe
production, 126 canning industry, 152–153
research and development (see Research commercial tempe inoculants, 151–152
and development, furu) modernization, 149–151
Rhizopus type, 128 snack industry, 152–153
soybeans, 134, 135 Irish Cream liqueurs
tofu production (see Tofu production) commercial, 32
composition, 33
cost of manufacture and novel products, 32
G cream-based liqueur category, 31, 35
Gaulin Micro-Gap homogenizing valve defects, 36
assembly, 39 distilled spirits, 32
German bread ethanol stability, 35
dough production, 65 food emulsions, stabilization, 36
Index 201

high-pressure homogenizer and caseinates, manufacture, 164, 166

32 (see also Homogenization PFA, 164
parameters) pilot plant, 167, 173
production of, 33, 34 semi-continuous, 167, 173
single-stage and two-stage methods, 33 SSHEs, 167, 174
small global brands and small regional/ sterilization of packaging, 166
local producers, 32 sweetmeats, 164
temperature controls, 36 vacuum packaging, 166
Kneading and production
baking process, 68
J bread, 72
Jędrzejowski Twarożek Śmietankowy (cheese fermentation gas, 67
product), 10 fermented dough, 72
ovens, 70
rye doughs, 66
K KOPTI, 152
Kaanga Wai
Cream Style Corn, 110
Lactococcus, 106 L
legal issues, 111 Lodeh tempe, 146, 150
microbiology and safety, 105 Łódzki Twaróg Tradycyjny (cheese product), 9
packaging, 106 Long-time coagulation method, 6
preparation, 109, 110 Low-temperature-long-time (LTLT), 5
production, 104 Lye dough products, 72
quantities, 107
retortable pouches, 107
sensory evaluation, 110 M
shelf life testing, 111 Mian qu, 129, 134
thermal processing, 107 Microflora, 59, 140, 141
traditional fermentation process, 104 Milk preparation
Karachay Ayran, domestic technology to coagulation agent, types, 5
industrial production curd treatment process, 7
Ayran home production, 56, 57 high quality and chemical composition, 5
characteristics, 57 LTLT pasteurization, 5
commercial Ayran technology, 57, 58 skim/fat standard milk, 5
disc diffusion method, 56 treatment and coagulation, 6
fermentation and ripening, 59, 60 Modern Quark processing
microflora, 59 membrane filtration steps, 28, 29
morphological types, microorganisms, 58 thermo-quark process, 27, 28
North Caucasus region, 55 Modern Túró Rudi technology
opportunistic and pathogenic composition, 18
microorganisms, 56 flow chart, 17
rural and nomadic communities, 61 giant, 18
sour milk flavor, thick consistency, 60 high quality extruders, 18
traditional fermented milk product, 55 modern cutters-mixers, 18
Kecap ikan (Indonesia), 116 perforated rotary drums, 18
Kernel method, 104, 105 recontamination and excessive
Khoa acidification, 17
buffalo milk, 166
characteristics, 164
conical process vat, 167, 173 N
developments in mechanization, 166, 167 Nam-pa (Laos), 116
ISSHE, 167, 174 Nam Pla. See Fish sauce
making machine, 167, 174 North Caucasus region, 55, 58
202 Index

Nuoc-nam (Vietnam), 116 Polish curd cheeses

Nutritional values, 121 classification system (see Polish
Nuts classification system)
adhesiveness on surface, 97 denaturation and coagulation, milk proteins, 4
antioxidant activity, 96 homemade, 4
application, 98 hygienic conditions, 4
edible films and coatings, 94, 95 lactic acid fermentation/acid–rennet
lipoxygenase, 93 combination, 5
microbial stability, 97 milk preparation (see Milk preparation)
optical properties, 97 nutritional attributes, 4
organoleptic compatibility, 96 packages and forms, 4
packaging, 94 properties, 8 (see also Traditional food
protein coatings, 99 products)
raw materials and process, 95 vacuum packed, 4
“white cheese”, 4
Polypack™, 166
O Polyphenols, 178, 180, 184–190, 196
Oncom, 157 Post-fermentation, furu
Optimum cooking time (OCT), 77, 78 curing, 139
Oriental cheese, 126 filling, 140
Oven, 63, 68–70 mechanisms, 141, 142
sealing, 140
Pressing machine (“Quarkpresse”), quark
P sacks, 25
Paneer, 168–170 Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA),
Panicgrass (Panicum antidotale), 126 164, 170
“Passiermaschine”, 25, 26 Proofing process, 66, 68
Pastas Proteinase T (commercial enzyme), 120
bread wheat flour, 76, 87 Protein efficiency ratios (PERs), 154
description, 76 Proteolytic enzyme, 24, 82, 154
durum wheat semolina, 76
instrumental firmness, 77
OCT, 77 Q
processing Quark (traditional German unripened cheese)
cutting, 84 acidic precipitated caseins, 23
drying, 84 chemical composition, 22, 23
mixing, 83 chymosin enzyme, 24
protein, 80 classical
raw material, 79 centrifugation, 26
sensory evaluation, 87 QUARK separator, 26
starch, 80 standard process, 26, 27
TOC, 86 Codex Group Standard for unripened
types, 85 cheese, 22
water, 81 combined acid/rennet coagulation process, 24
Pasteurization dairy-based and bakery products, 29
HTST, 15 definition, 21
long-time coagulation method, 6 European and Northern American
LTLT, 5 countries, 21
short-time coagulation method, 6 ingredients, 22 (see also Modern Quark
shrikhand, 171 processing)
Patis (Philippines), 116 products, 22
Penicillium, 192, 194 requirements, 22, 23
Polish classification system sweet and savoury dishes, 29
“gliwienie”, 7 traditional
unripened curd cheese, 7 by-product of cream separation, 24
Index 203

processing equipment, 25 Serek Twarogowy Ziarnisty (cheese product),

production around 1930, 25 9, 10
storage and coagulation, milk proteins, 24 Short-time coagulation method, 6
Quarkfertiger, vessel with perforated lid, 25 Shrikhand, 170–172
Queso-blanco type of cheese, 168 Silk Road, 177
Skyr processing
agriculture and dairy products, 46
R archaeological excavations, medieval
Raw materials, furu farms, 46
defatted soybean, 130, 131 domestic consumption, 46
soybean, 130 fresh acid-curd soft cheese, 45
Research and development, fish sauce lactic acid bacteria, 50
microbiology and chemistry microbiology and production, 52
amino acids in nonenzymatic browning modern production, 49, 50
reactions, 118 production factors, 51
fermentation, 118 regulations and composition, 52
gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria traditional product, 45, 47, 48
0406, 119 Viking era, 45
halophilic and halo-tolerant bacteria, yeast and rennet elimination, 52
118, 119 Small-scale Tempe industry, Jakarta, 151
microorganisms, 118 Solid state fermentation, Yunnan Pu-erh tea
proteolytic bacteria, 119 aromatic substances, 191
trypsin-like proteinase, 118 carbohydrates, 189–190
volatile acids, 118 nitrogen compounds, 190–191
processing and quality, 119–121 polyphenols
Research and development, furu catechins, 186, 188
high content of salt, 143 chemical components, 186, 188
industry of mass production, 142 hot and damp conditions, 187
limitations, 143 insoluble protein complexes, 188
microflora, 140, 141 (see Polyphenols)
old traditional ways of production, 143 SSF process, 187
production period, 143 theaflavins, 186
ripening stage, 143 theabrownins, 187
salt content, 143 soluble polysaccharides and
single organism inoculation and polysaccharides-linked protein, 190
fermentation and natural tea extracts, 191–192
fermentation, 143 Sourdough, 71
technology of furu production, 143 Soybean, 126, 128, 130, 131, 134, 135, 148
Rhizopus, 128, 133, 137, 140, 147–149, 192, 195 Spectrofluorometry technique, 116
Rice (Oryza sativa), 126 Steric (polymeric) repulsion, 36
Supplement materials, furu
coagulating agents, 131, 132
S salt, 132
Saccharomyces yeast, 195 seasonings, 133
“Sauermilchquark” (pure acid coagulation), 24 starter cultures, 133–134
Scanning electron microscopy, 86 water, 131
Scissors crude tea, 176 Sushi Tempe, 146, 158
Seasonings
alcoholic, 133
spices, 133 T
Semolina, 76, 77 Tea Horse Road, 177
Ser Biały Z Handzlówki (cheese product), 9 Tempe
Ser Zabłocki (cheese product), 8 banana leaves and in plastic film, 148
Serek Śmietankowy Wielkopolski in cottage industry, 147, 148
(cheese product), 11 functional properties, 155
204 Index

Tempe (cont.) U
historical and cultural development, 146 Ultrafiltration (UF), 17, 18, 28, 29, 49, 50,
home industry toward modern industry, 147 168, 169, 171, 172
ice cream, 156
industrialized process, 149–153
milk, 156 V
nutritional value, 153–155 Valve technology, 39, 40
powder and weaning food, 155–156 Vitamin B12, 116, 121, 154, 155
probiotic drink, 156
research and commercial development,
157–158 W
sausage, 157 Water-soluble nitrogen content, 154
starter culture Wheat (Triticum aestivum), 76, 126
Laru beras, 148, 149 Wheat flour. See Pastas
Usar, 149 White cheese, Polish curd cheeses, 4
traditional foods made, 149, 150 Wielkopolski Twaróg Tradycyjny
Tempe qoir, 152 (cheese product), 10–11
“Thermo-Quark” process, 27, 28 Wumeng tea, 176
Tofu production
cooking of bean milk, 136
cutting, 137 Y
dian jiang (addition of coagulants), 136, 137 Yellow liquor, 129, 133
milling Yunnan Pu-erh tea
choice of milling machines, 136 avoiding cancer, 180
grinding, 135 definition, 178, 179
pH, 136 Eastern Han Dynasty, 176
water quantity added, 136 microorganisms
water temperature, 136 Aspergillus niger, 194
soaking bacteria, 196
quality of water, 135 Penicillium, 197
water quantity added, 135 Rhizopus, 195
soybean milk sieving, 136 Saccharomyces yeast, 195
squeezing, 137 mild and fragrant, 180
Traditional food products modern processing techniques, 182
Gzik Wielkopolski, 9 climatic conditions, 182
Jędrzejowski Twarożek Śmietankowy, 10 economic changes, 181
Łódzki Twaróg Tradycyjny, 9 microbial involvement, 182
National List of Traditional Products, 8 pressing and shaping, 182
Ser Biały Z Handzlówki, 9 procedure, 182, 183
Serek Śmietankowy Wielkopolski, 11 raw materials, 182
Serek Twarogowy Ziarnisty, 10 SSF, 182
Ser Zabłocki, 8 storage and ageing, 182
Twaróg Hajnowski, 10 sun-dried green tea, 182
Wielkopolski Twaróg Tradycyjny, 10 Qing Dynasty, 176
“Túró Rudi”, Hungarian milk dessert raw materials
history of, 13, 15 Camellia sinensis var. assamica, 185
traditional technology chemical components, 185, 187
flow chart, 16 production and exporting
handmade product, 15 volume, 185
HTST pasteurization, 15 quality characteristics, 185
milk pre-treatment, 15, 16 sun-dried green tea, 185
texture, sensory properties and safety, 196
economy, 15 scissors crude tea, 176
Twaróg Hajnowski (cheese product), 10 Silk Road, 177
Index 205

solid state fermentation (see Solid state Tea Mountains, 176

fermentation, Yunnan Pu-erh tea) traditional processing techniques,
storage, chemical composition, 192, 193 180, 181
sun-dried green tea, 177, 184 transportation process, 177
Tea Horse Road, 177 types, 178, 179